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Part II

BEAMS IN REINFORCED CONCRETE

4 Chapter 4
Design of cross­sections at ULS,
 for bending and axial force
4.1 Introduction: practical elaboration of the principal idea of the 
partial factor method – overview of basic assumptions

4.1.1 Practical working-out of the principal idea


The aim of this chapter is to design cross-sections that withstand the imposed internal
forces in the context of an ULS. It is thus necessary to develop relationships,
specifically for the chosen ULS, between geometrical parameters and internal forces,
taking into account the material properties. The following method is used to develop the
relationships (this is the scheme that will be applied in all following paragraphs in this
chapter):
• step 1: choice of an ULS for the selected cross-section; the ULS is defined by a
specific strain distribution in the cross-section for which the ultimate deformation
capacity of steel and/or concrete is reached;
• step 2: determination of the corresponding stress distribution in the cross-section
by application of the simplified design constitutive relationships;
• step 3: expression of static equilibrium (translation, rotation) permits to determine
the stabilizing (resisting) internal forces, which have to be compared with the
destabilizing (imposed) internal forces.
Chapter 4 is limited to the resistance to bending and axial forces, and is thus limited to
the problem of normal stresses in the cross-section (shear stress is considered in the
chapter on design for shear loads and torsion). The aim of the chapter is to design a
cross-section (that is to determine the necessary surface of concrete and percentage of
reinforcement) to resist to imposed bending moments and axial forces, and thus to a
distribution of normal stress.

4.1.2 Basic assumptions


Reference: EN 1992-1-1:2004; 6.1
When determining the ultimate moment resistance of reinforced concrete cross-sections,
the following assumptions are made:
1. Plane sections remain plane; the assumption of BERNOULLI is applied. This
assumption is not valid for short and compact construction elements and for
discontinuity regions (zones nearby concentrated loads or discontinuous changes

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in dimensions); adapted design methods are needed here (plastic methods, strut
and tie method).
2. The strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or in compression, is the
same as that in the surrounding concrete: c = s.
3. The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
4. The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived from the (simplified)
design stress-strain relationships discussed in chapter 3: the parabola-rectangle
diagram, the bi-linear diagram or the rectangular stress distribution (see figures
3.4.3-3, 3.4.3-5 and 3.4.3-6 in chapter 3 in these course notes).
5. The stresses in the reinforcing steel are derived from the (simplified) design curve
discussed in chapter 3: the bi-linear stress-strain relationship (see figures 3.5.5-1
and 3.5.5-2 in chapter 3 in these course notes).
6. The compressive strain in the concrete shall be limited to cu2 or cu3 depending on
the stress-strain diagram used. With the parabola-rectangle diagram, the strain is
limited to cu2. This means that for sections that are not loaded in pure
compression, but in simple or combined bending, the limit value cu2 has to be
respected (- 0,0035 for the concrete classes up to C50/60).
7. For sections which are subjected to pure compression or to approximately
concentric loading (e/h < 0,1), the compressive strain should be limited to c2 or
c3 depending on the stress-strain diagram used. In practice, with the parabola-
rectangle diagram, the strain in compression is limited to c2 (- 0,002 for the
concrete classes up to C50/60).
8. For the intermediate cases between pure compression and combined bending
(compression + bending), the ULS strain diagram is defined starting from the
strain c2 at the distance (cu2 - c2) . h / cu2 from the extreme compression fibre of
the section (see figure 4.1.3-1). For concrete classes up to C50/60, the strain is -
0,002 at the distance equal to 3/7th of the depth, from the extreme compression
fibre of the section.
9. The ultimate strain of the steel reinforcement is ud (according to EN 1992-1-
1:2004, 3.3.6(7) only when the inclined branch of the diagram is used). The
Belgian ANB imposes ud also when the horizontal branch is used. Moreover, the
Belgian ANB specifies also that the strain in the steel reinforcement may be
limited to 1%.

4.1.3 Possible strain distributions in ULS


Starting from the basic assumptions, a series of ULS strain distributions can be
identified: see figure 4.1.3-1.
Meaning of symbols used in figure 4.1.3­1
h  depth of the cross­section;
d  is   called   the   "effective"   depth   of   the   cross­section;   the   effective   depth   is
defined as the depth from the extreme compression fibre of the section to the
centre of gravity of the tension steel;
As1  cross sectional area of steel reinforcement in the tensile zone (which normally
occurs when bending is considered – tension reinforcement);
As2  cross   sectional   area   of  steel   reinforcement   in   the   compression   zone   (which
normally occurs when bending is considered – compression reinforcement);

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εs1  strain in the tension reinforcement;
εs2 strain in the compression reinforcement;
d1  distance of the centre of gravity of the tension steel towards the nearest­by
concrete surface;
d2 distance of the centre of gravity of the compression steel towards the nearest­
by concrete surface;
εc  compression strain in concrete.

Figure Possible strain distributions in ULS­1
Strain distributions in ULS (Reference: figure 6.1 in EN 1992­1­1:2004)

Discussion of figure 4.1.3­1
The ultimate values of the strains to be respected for the different loading situations,
lead  to the  identification  of three  domains  in figure  4.1.3­1; the  limits  between  the
domains   are   defined   by   particular   positions   of   the   lines   that   materialize   the   strain
distributions:
­ Domain 1: is characterized by the tensile strain of the steel reinforcement equal to
εud ; these strain distributions may occur for the following load cases: pure tension,
tension with small eccentricity, simple bending and combined bending, without
full exploitation of the deformation capacity of the concrete.
­ Domain 2: is characterized by the ultimate compression strain of concrete equal
to  εcu2; these strain distributions may occur for the following load cases: simple
bending or combined bending with full exploitation of the deformation capacity of
the concrete.
­ Domain 3: is characterized by the ultimate compression strain of concrete varying
between  cu2  and  c2; these strain distributions may occur for the following load
cases: compression with small eccentricity and axial compression.

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In each of the three domains, one can consider several sub­domains: see figure 4.1.3­2.
This figure is translated into figure 4.1.3­3 for the concrete classes up to C50/60, with
cu2 = - 0,0035; c2 = - 0,002 and εud = 0,010.

Figure Possible strain distributions in ULS­2
ULS strain diagrams; detailed elaboration of figure 4.1.3­1

Figure Possible strain distributions in ULS­3
ULS strain diagrams for the concrete classes up to C50/60, with εcu2 = - 0,0035;
εc2 = - 0,002 and εud = 0,010.

Discussion of figure 4.1.3­2
Domain  1:  the  ULS  strain   diagrams   turn  around point  A  which   corresponds   to  the
ultimate tension strain in the steel reinforcement, equal to  εud  (1% in figure 4.1.3­3).
Two sub­domains can be identified:

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­ Domain   1a:   tensile   load   with   small   eccentricity.   The   whole   cross­section   is
loaded in tension.
­ Domain 1b: simple bending or combined bending without full exploitation of the
deformation capacity of the concrete.
Domain  2:  the  ULS  strain   diagrams   turn  around point  B  which   corresponds   to  the
ultimate compression strain in the concrete, equal to εcu2 (0,35% in figure 4.1.3­3). Two
sub­domains can be identified:
­ Domain   2a:   simple   or   combined   bending;   the   tension   strain   in   the   steel
reinforcement is in between 0 and  εud ; this domain is characterized by the
full exploitation of the deformation capacity of the concrete.
­ Domain 2b: combined bending; all reinforcements are in compression. Only a
small part of the cross­section is still in tension. This domain is characterized
by the full exploitation of the deformation capacity of the concrete.
Domain 3: the ULS strain diagrams turn around point  C. In this domain, the whole
cross­section is in compression. Point C is identified by the intersection of the line BO
(which corresponds to the passage from a partially tended section towards a fully
compressed section) with the line DE (which corresponds to the strain diagram in axial
compression). The distance of C towards the extreme compression fibre is equal to
(1 – εc2 / εcu2 ) . h (that is 3/7th of the total depth of the section in figure 4.1.3-3).

4.1.4 Conclusions
All load cases will be discussed in the following paragraphs of chapter 4. For each load
case, all possible ULS strain distributions will be considered. It should be noted that for
each load case, studies will be necessary in different domains. Table 4.1.4-1 presents an
overview of the different load cases to be considered and the corresponding domains in
which these load case are to be examined.
As was already mentioned in paragraph 4.1.1, the aim is to develop in each domain the
equations that will permit to solve the design problem: the determination of the
reinforcement for a selected concrete cross-section and for imposed internal forces.

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Load case Possible domains

Axial tension 1a (left limit)

Eccentrically 1a
applied tension 1b
(bending combinde 2a
with tension)

Simple bending 1b
2a

Simple bending 1b
2a

Eccentrically 1b
applied 2a
compression 2b
(bending combined
with compression) 3

Axial compression 3 (right limit)

Table 4.1.4-1
Overview of load cases and corresponding domains to be analyzed

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4.2 Bending – rectangular cross­section

4.2.1 Introduction
For the case of simple bending, the depth of the neutral axis is at most equal to the
effective depth; the ULS strain diagrams are situated in the domains 1b and 2a.
It is common to start with the study of domain 2a, because this allows a better
understanding of the small difficulties encountered in the neighbouring domains.
Equations are first developed for the case of a “singly reinforced cross-section”, which
is characterized by the presence of reinforcement only near the tensile face.

4.2.2 Description of the design problem


Given
• the quality of the selected materials; the design stress-strain curves are thus
known, as well as fyd and fcd ;
• the dimensions of the concrete cross-section: width b and depth h:
­ in general, the width b is not unknown; several criteria are available for the
choice of a good starting value:
­ architectural and esthetical considerations (the width of a beam may
be determined by the diameter of the cylindrical columns supporting
the beam, for example!);
­ the resistance against shear load (see further in the chapter on shear);
­ economical aspects of the design solution, etc.
­ in general, first approximate values are chosen for the total depth h or the
effective depth d, again on the basis of several possible criteria:
­ serviceability conditions: a certain minimum depth is necessary to
avoid excessive deformations of the beam (see further in chapter on
SLS);
­ architectural and esthetical considerations;
­ functional conditions;
­ economical aspects of the design solution, etc.
• the design bending moment Md (imposed or destabilizing internal force).
Question
Determine the area of the tensile reinforcement As1 (or designated by As in this case of
singly reinforced cross-section).

4.2.3 Domain 2a
4.2.3.1 Basic figure
The equations that are needed to solve the design problem are developed on the basis of
figure 4.2.3-1, where one finds the schematic representation of:
• the singly reinforced section;
• one ULS strain diagram, situated in domain 2a. The position of the neutral axis
(NA) with respect to the extreme compression fibre, is indicated by the symbol x ;
• the stress diagram that is deduced from the strain diagram by means of the design
stress-strain relationships for steel and concrete;

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• the cross-section with the resultant forces. Fc is the resultant force of the
compression stresses in the concrete (in fact, it is the resultant of the elementary
internal forces). The integral of the elementary compression forces can easily be
calculated by considering the surface under the parabola-rectangle diagram and by
multiplying this surface by the width b. The surface under the parabola-rectangle
diagram can be calculated because the equation of the parabolic part is known (see
chapter 3); it is expressed as ψ . (fcd . x), where the filling coefficient ψ expresses
the degree of filling-up of the rectangle (fcd . x) by the parabola-rectangle diagram.
Fc is thus expressed as:
Fc = ψ . (fcd . x) . b
The position of the resultant force Fc is also known; therefore, the position of the
centre of gravity of the parabola-rectangle diagram. The distance of the centre of
gravity towards the extreme compression fibre, is expressed as: δG . x, where δG is
called “the coefficient of the centre of gravity”.
 Note: For the concrete classes up to C50/60, with εcu2 = - 0,0035 and
εc2 = - 0,002, one finds:
Fc = ψ . (fcd . x) . b = 0,81 . (fcd . x) . b with δG . x = 0,416 . x.
Fs is the resultant of the tensile stresses in the steel; in a simplified way (taking σs
constant over the whole area of reinforcement), Fs is expressed as:
Fs = As . σs
• the cross-section with the imposed internal force, which is the design bending
moment Md.

Two types of equations may be developed on the basis of figure 4.2.3-1:


• the « compatibility equations », which describe relationships between strains at
different levels in the cross-section, and which translate in fact the linearity of the
strain diagram (BERNOULLI);
• the equilibrium equations (translation and rotation), which describe the
equivalence between the imposed (destabilizing) internal forces on one hand, and
the resisting (stabilizing) internal forces on the other hand.

Figure Domain 2a-4


Principle figure for the study of bending in domain 2a; (a) strain diagram;

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(b) stress diagram; (c) resultant forces;
(d) imposed load (internal bending moment)

4.2.3.2 Compatibility equations


These equations express that the cross-section remains plane after deformation:

s dx
 (4.2.3-1)
 cu 2 x
Introduction of the symbol ξ:

ξ=x/d

permits to rewrite (4.2.3-1) as:

1
 s   cu 2 (4.2.3-2)

Inversely, ξ can be expressed in function of εs:

 cu 2
 (4.2.3-3)
 cu 2   s

 Notes:
- For the concrete classes up to C50/60, εcu2 = - 0,0035, and the formulas
(4.2.3-2) and (4.2.3-3) can be written as:

3,5 1  
s  (4.2.3-4)
1000 
and
3,5
 (4.2.3-5)
3,5  1000 s

- Limits of domain 2a
The limits of domain 2a are defined by:
- on the left side: εs = εud; for the concrete classes up to C50/60 and adopting
εs = εud = 1%, one finds ξ = 0,259;
- on the right side: εs = 0% and consequently ξ = 1.
- Several particular values of ξ may be highlighted within domain 2a,
especially those corresponding with the steel tensile strain εs = fyd; see figure
4.2.3-2. For the concrete classes up to C50/60 (with εcu2 = - 0,0035), one finds
via (4.2.3-5) the limit values ξlim which correspond with εs = fyd / Es for
different steel grades: see table 4.2.3.-1. The significance of ξlim will be

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examined later on, but it can be said already that strain distributions with ξ >
ξlim, and thus εs < fyd / Es, are to be avoided.

Table 4.2.3-1
Limit values ξlim for different steel grades, calculated for the concrete classes up to
C50/60 (with εcu2 = - 0,0035)
S220 S400 S500 S600
fyk (MPa) 220 400 500 600
fyd (MPa) 191,3 347,8 434,8 521,7
ξlim 0,785 0,668 0,617 0,573

Figure Domain 2a-5


Domain 2a; strain diagram corresponding with the entering of the steel reinforcement
into the domain of plastic materials behaviour: ξ = ξlim

4.2.3.3 Equilibrium equations


1. Translations equilibrium; see figure 4.2.3-1:

Fc = Fs

ψ . (fcd . x) . b = As . σs
With ξ = x / d, one finds:

ψ . ξ . fcd .b .d = As . σs (4.2.3-6)

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2. Rotation equilibrium; see figure 4.2.3.-1:

Md = Fc . z ( = Fs . z )

Md = (ψ . fcd . x . b) . (d – δG . x)

With ξ = x / d, one finds:

Md = ψ . ξ . fcd .b .d2 . (1 – δG . ξ) (4.2.3-7)

4.2.3.4 The concept of « reduced moment µd »


The concept of « reduced moment µd » is introduced by means of the following
expression:

Md
d  (4.2.3-8)
b.d 2 . f cd

Introduction of µd in (4.2.3-7) leads to:

µd = ψ . ξ . (1 – δG . ξ) (4.2.3-9)

 Note:
One can now also calculate the values of µd that correspond with the limits of
domain 2a, by introduction of the values of ξlim in equation (4.2.3-9).
Table 4.2.3-2 presents the limit values of µd for the concrete classes up to C50/60
and taking into account the choice to put εud = 1% .

Table 4.2.3-2
Limit values of µd for domain 2a for the concrete classes up to C50/60 (with
εcu2 = - 0,0035), putting εud = 1%
ξ µd
Limit on the left side (εs = εud) 0,259 0,187
Limit on the right side (εs = 0%) 1 0,473
S220 (εs = fyd / Es = 0,096 %) ξlim = 0,785 µd,lim = 0,428
S400 (εs = fyd / Es = 0,174 %) ξlim = 0,668 µd,lim = 0,391
S500 (εs = fyd / Es = 0,217 %) ξlim = 0,617 µd,lim = 0,371
S600 (εs = fyd / Es = 0,261 %) ξlim = 0,573 µd,lim = 0,353

4.2.3.5 Calculation of the area of reinforcement


Given: the design bending moment Md permits to determine the reduced moment:

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Md f ck
d  with f cd  0,85.
b.d 2 . f cd 1,5

Control: µleft-limit ≤ µd ≤ µright-limit → domain 2a!

The rotation equilibrium equation (4.2.3-9), written in inverse way as ξ = f(µd) leads to
the quadratic equation:

ψ . δG . ξ2 - ψ . ξ + µd = 0

which gives as useful solution:

4 G
1 1 d
 (4.2.3-10)

2 G

This permits then to deduce the value of x and thus the position of the NA.
With ξ and εcu2 and the compatibility equations (4.2.3-2), one can calculate εs.
The steel stress-strain diagram then permits to determine σs.
The translation equilibrium (4.2.3-6) finally leads to As:

 . . f cd .b.d
As  (4.2.3-11)
s

4.2.3.6 Geometrical and mechanical reinforcement ratios


The quantity of reinforcement in a cross-section is often expressed by means of the
« geometrical reinforcement ratio » and the « mechanical reinforcement ratio ».
The geometrical reinforcement ration is defined by:

ρ = As / b.d

Equation (4.2.3-11) may be rewritten:

 . . f cd
 (4.2.3-12)
s

The mechanical reinforcement ratio is defined by:

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As f yd
 .
b.d f cd

Equation (4.2.3-11) may be rewritten as:

 . . f yd
 (4.2.3-13)
s

 Note concerning expression (4.2.3-13) :


For µd ≤ µdlim , one has σs = fyd , which leads to ω =  . ξ

Thanks to formulas (4.2.3-13) and (4.2.3-10), one observes the direct relationship
between ω and µd:

 . f yd  4 
 1  1  G  d  (4.2.3-14)
 s .2 G   
 

4.2.3.7 Practical design table


In order to assist fast calculations by hand, annex A4.2.3.7 presents the tables A4.2.3.7­
a to –x, which are elaborated on the basis of the equations mentioned above; the tables
present the values of ω in function of µd, as well as other properties such as ξ (and thus
the position of the NA), ζ defined by z/d with z = the lever arm between Fc and Fs, and
σs (which depends on the steel grade). The filling coefficient   and the coefficient of the
centre of gravity δG are also presented.
Tables A4.2.3.7­a ­b, ­c and ­d are elaborated for the concrete classes up to C50/60
(thus with  εcu2 = - 0,0035 and εc2 = - 0,002); table –a is realized with εud = 0,010 and
table –b, -c and –d are realized with εud = 0,8 . εuk (εuk = 2,5 % for steel of class A,
εuk = 5,0 % for steel of class B and εuk = 7,5 % for steel of class C).
Tables  -e to -x are elaborated for the high strength concrete classes.

Each table is composed as follows:

s (MPa)
d  =x/d =z/d c (‰) s (‰)  G S220 S400 S500 S600

with
Md
d defined by  d 
b.d 2 . f cd
As f yd
 defined by   .
b.d f cd
and

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 . f yd  4 
 1  1  G  d  for d > lim (s < fyd)
 s .2 G   
 
  4 
 1  1  G  d  for d ≤ lim (s = fyd)
2 G   
 
4 G
1 1 d


2 G
 and G = f(concrete class)

 Note concerning formula (4.2.3-13).


In domain 2a, the complete parabola-rectangle diagram is used; the following
values are determined by numerical integration:
Concrete class  G
Up to C50/60 0,810 0,416
C55/67 0,744 0,393
C60/75 0,694 0,377
C70/85 0,627 0,360
C80/95 0,598 0,355
C90/105 0,583 0,353

z d   G .x
    1   G .
d d

c = c,ultimate = cu2 (in domain 2a !)

1
 s   cu 2 .

s = f(s) via the design stress-strain diagram for the selected steel grade

Auxiliary figure for table A4.2.3.7

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4.2.4 Domain 1b
4.2.4.1 Introduction: the particular problem in domain 1b
The maximum allowable strain (εcu2; 0,0035 for the concrete classes up to C50/60) is not
reached and the equilibrium is obtained with a maximum value of the concrete stress
which can be smaller than fcd.
On the other hand, the steel strain is always equal to εud (1% or 0,8.εuk); see figure 4.2.4-
1.

Figure 4.2.4-1
Strain diagram in domain 1b; 0 < εc ≤ εcu2 and εs = εud 
4.2.4.2 Compatibility equation

c x
 (4.2.4­1)
 s ,ult d  x
With the introduction of:

εs,ult = εud and ξ = x / d

one finds:

x 
 c   ud .   ud .
dx 1 

And thus:

c
 (4.2.4-2)
 c   ud

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 Note: the limits of domain 1b
The limits are defined by:
­ on the left side: εc = 0% → ξ = 0 ;
­ on the right side: εc = εcu2; for the commonly used concrete classes up to
C50/60 and assuming εs = 0,01, the limit on the right is defined by εc =
0,0035 → ξ = 0,259.
Table 4.2.3-2 presents the limit values of µd for the concrete classes up to C50/60
and taking into account the choice to put εud = 1% .

A particular case is found for εc = εc2 ; for εc < εc2 the parabola-rectangle diagram is
reduced to a portion of the parabolic part. One thus has to make the distinction between
two cases in function of the extreme concrete strain εc with respect to εc2 (smaller or
larger than εc2): see figure 4.2.4-2. For the concrete classes up to C50/60 (with
εc2 = 0,002) and assuming εs = 0,01, one finds ξ = 0,167 which corresponds to the limit
between two sub-domains in domain 1b.

Figure 4.2.4-2
Domain 1b; schematic representation of the stress diagram in the concrete for extreme
strain εc smaller than εc2 (a) or larger than εc2 (b)

4.2.4.3 First case: 0 ≤ εc ≤ εc2 (left sub-domain in domain 1b)


1. Auxiliary figure
The auxiliary figure, on the basis of which the equations can be elaborated, is presented
in figure 4.2.4-3.

16
Figure 4.2.4­3
Auxiliary figure for domain 1b; 
case in which extreme concrete strain is smaller than εc2 

2. Equilibrium equations
On the basis of figure 4.2.4-3, one can write the following relationships:
• translation equilibrium

 . fcd . x . b = As . σs

or (introducing ξ = x/d):

 . fcd . d . b . ξ = As . σs (4.2.4-3)

or (introducing the definition of ω):

As f yd f
 .   . . yd (4.2.4-4)
b.d f cd s

Moreover, σs = σs (for εs = εud) = fyd (steel is certainly yielding for εud!)

• rotation equilibrium

Md =  . fcd . x . b . (d – δG . x)

or (introducing ξ = x/d):

Md =  . fcd . b . d2 . ξ . (1 – δG . ξ)

Taking into account that:

Md
d 
b.d 2 . f cd

one writes:

µd =  . ξ . (1 – δG . ξ)
(4.2.4-5)

 Note 1:

17
 and δG are functions of εc on the one hand, and εc is related to ξ via the
compatibility equation (4.2.4-2) on the other hand, which thus leads to a direct
link between µd and ξ.

 Note 2: limits of the sub-domain in 1b, to the left of εc2


- on the left side: εc = 0% → ξ = 0 → (4.2.4-5) → µd = 0.
- on the right side: εc = εc2 ; the limit values of µd are mentioned in the design
tables A4.2.3.7; for the commonly used concrete classes up to C50/60 and
assuming εs=0,01, one finds ξ = 0,167;  = 2/3; δG = 3/8 → (4.2.4-5) → µd =
0,105

3. Solution scheme
The solution scheme is similar to the one in domain 2a.
Given: Md
→ µd; verification: is µd situated in domain 1b? If yes, then:
→ rotation equilibrium equation (4.2.4-5) → ξ
→ compatibility equation (4.2.4-2) → εc which allows verification and eventual
adjustment of  and δG
→ translation equilibrium equation (4.2.4-3) → ω

4. Practical design table


On the basis of the equations and methodology presented above, the design tables
A4.2.3.7 can now be completed for the left sub-domain in 1b.

4.2.4.4 Second case: εc2 ≤ εc ≤ εcu2 (right sub-domain in domain 1b)


1. Auxiliary figure
The auxiliary figure, on the basis of which the equations can be elaborated, is presented
in figure 4.2.4-4.

Figure 4.2.4­4
Auxiliary figure for domain 1b; 
case in which extreme concrete strain εc is situated between the limits: εc2 ≤ εc ≤ εcu2

2. Equilibrium equations

18
On the basis of figure 4.2.4-4, the equilibrium equations may be developed, which are
fully similar to the ones developed for the left sub-domain in 1b.

 Note: limits of the sub-domain in domain 1b, to the right of εc2


- on the left side: εc = εc2 ; the limit values of µd are mentioned in the design
tables A4.2.3.7; for the concrete classes up to C50/60 and assuming εs = 0,01,
one finds ξ = 0,167;  = 2/3; δG = 3/8 → (4.2.4-5) → µd = 0,105.
- on the right side: εc = εcu2 ; the limit values of µd are mentioned in the design
tables A4.2.3.7; for the concrete classes up to C50/60 and assuming εs = 0,01,
one finds ξ = 0,259 ;  = 0,81; δG = 0,416 → (4.2.4-5) → µd = 0,187.

3. Solution scheme and practical design tables


The solution scheme is identical to the one for the left sub-domain in 1b. On the basis of
the equations and methodology presented above, the design tables A4.2.3.7 can now be
completed for the right sub-domain in 1b.

4.2.5 Practical design calculation in ULS of a singly reinforced rectangular


cross-section by means of design tables A4.2.3.7
4.2.5.1 Calculation of the resisting moment Md
= verification of ULS performance of a given section.
Given:
- the dimensions b, d, As;
- the materials characteristics:
- resistance class of the concrete and thus fcd (with eventually the inclusion of the
long term effects), εc2 and εcu2 (if one selects the parabola-rectangle diagram);
- steel grade and thus fyd and εud ; here, the decision must be taken to work with
εud = 0,8. εuk or with εud = 0,01.
Question: Md = ?

Solution :
ω is calculated by means of the formula:

As f yd f ck
 . with f cd  0,85.
b.d f cd 1,5

ω → Table A4.2.3.7 → µd → Md = µd . b . d2 . fcd

4.2.5.2 Calculation of the area of reinforcement As


= design problem
Given:
- certain dimensions: b, h (of d);

19
- the material characteristics:
- resistance class of the concrete and thus fcd (with eventually the inclusion of the
long term effects), εc2 and εcu2 (if one selects the parabola-rectangle diagram);
- steel grade and thus fyd and εud ; here, the decision must be taken to work with
εud = 0,8. εuk or with εud = 0,01.
- the imposed load: Md

Question: As = ?

Solution:
µd is calculated by means of formula

Md f ck
d  with f cd  0,85.
b.d 2 . f cd 1,5

and one looks for the calculated value of µd in the adequate table A4.2.3.7.

1st case: µd ≤ µlim (see values of µlim in table A4.2.3.7)


- the tensile steel works at the yield value and is thus used efficiently
(σs = fyd);
- only one reinforcement (on the tensile side) is necessary to resist to the
imposed moment, for the given dimensions of the cross-section; this is called a
“singly reinforced section”;
- calculation scheme: µd → table A4.2.3.7 → ω → As = ω . b . d . fcd / fyd

 Note: alternative formula for the determination of the area of reinforcement As


The rotation equilibrium (see auxiliary figure in support of table A4.2.3.7) may
also be expressed as follows (with rotation centre in the centre of gravity of the
compression stress bloc):
Md = Fs . z = As . σs . z
with σs = fyd for µd ≤ µlim
Introducing ζ = z/d, this equation is rewritten as follows:
Md = ζ . d . As . fyd
which gives
Md
As  (4.2.4-6)
 .d . f yd
As can be observed in table A4.2.3.7, for the commonly used concrete classes up
to C50/60 and for µd ≤ µlim , the value of ζ is about 0,9. One may thus determine
the area of reinforcement with expression (4.2.4-6) with the assumption that ζ =
0,9. The parameter ζ, which is representative for the lever arm between the
resultant forces, is thus useful for quick preliminary design calculations.

2nd case: µd > µlim (see values of µlim in table A4.2.3.7)


This case should be avoided for two reasons:

20
- the steel is not used in an efficient way: σs < fyd. The bending moment Md must be
equivalent to the couple of resultant forces Fc and Fs: see figure 4.2.5-1; a large
value of µd (µd > µlim) leads to a large value of Fc, and thus to a large value of Fs
(one cannot change much to the lever arm); with a small σs, this leads to an
excessive value for As (which, on top of that, is not used efficiently);
- the ULS of the cross-section is obtained by brittle failure of the compressive
concrete, without plastic deformation of the steel reinforcement. The plastic
deformation of the reinforcement is an essential condition regarding the safety of
buildings, because large plastic strains in the tensile steel go together with large
crack openings in the adjacent concrete, which gives observable warnings before
failure. This is also called “the ductility condition”.

Figure 4.2.5-1
Auxiliary figure for the reasoning about µd > µlim

In order to avoid µd > µlim, steel reinforcement must be put in the compression zone
of the cross-section; this permits to realize Fc with a smaller area of compressed
concrete (figure 4.2.5-1). Adding steel in the compressive zone permits to get a
higher position of the NA; this leads to a smaller value of x, to a larger value of σs
and to a strain diagram characterized by µd ≤ µlim.

 Important note concerning the ductility condition


In the previous version of Eurocode 2 (NBN B15-002:1998; 2.5.3.4.2.(5)), an
additional condition was formulated in order to assure sufficient ductility in
design: for linear elastic analysis, the ration ξ = x/d was not accepted to be larger
than the following values:
0,45 for concrete classes C12/15 up to C35/45;
0,35 for concrete classes C40/45 up to C50/60.
The additional condition was introduced in order to avoid a too low position of
the NA in the cross-section, and thus to be sure to have sufficient ductility.

21
It should be noted that the actual version of Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004)
does not include this condition anymore for linear elastic analysis. On the other
hand, the Belgian ANB (NBN EN1992-1-1-ANB:2008; 5.4) has now included
even more severe conditions:
x
 0,45 for fck ≤ 50 MPa
d
x 0,37
 for fck > 50 MPa
d 0,6  0,0014 /  cu 2
One observes that the condition is more severe for high strength concrete
because of its more brittle character.

4.2.5.3 Detailing of the reinforcement


Chapter 6 in these course notes will discuss the detailing of the reinforcement, focusing
on the translation of the calculated area of reinforcement As (a number of cm2) into a
real reinforcement with respect for rules concerning the choice of the diameter of the
bars, the spacing between bars, the cover of the reinforcement, etc.
Yet, at this early stage of the course, it is sufficient to take notice of the auxiliary table
4.2.5-1, that presents the area of reinforcement As in function of a chosen diameter and
the number n of bars.

 Note: nominal diameter


The nominal diameter of a bar (which is ribbed!) is the diameter of an equivalent
circular area.

Table 4.2.5-1
Auxiliary table presenting the area of reinforcement As
in function of the nominal diameter  and the number n of bars
Nominal diameter  (mm)
6 8 10 12 14 16 20 25 28 32 40
2
n Section As (mm ) composed of n bars
1 28,3 50,3 78,5 113 154 201 314 491 616 804 1257
2 56,6 101 157 226 308 402 628 982 1232 1608 2513
3 85,0 151 236 339 462 603 942 1437 1847 2412 3770
4 113 201 314 452 616 804 1257 1963 2463 3216 5027
5 141 251 393 565 770 1005 1571 2454 3079 4020 6283
6 170 302 471 679 924 1206 1885 2945 3695 4824 7540
7 198 352 550 792 1078 1407 2199 3436 4310 5628 8796
8 226 402 628 905 1232 1608 2513 3927 4926 6432 10053
9 254 452 707 1018 1385 1810 2827 4418 5542 7236 11310
10 283 503 785 1131 1539 2011 3142 4909 6158 8040 12566
11 311 553 864 1244 1693 2212 3456 5400 6773 8844 13823
12 339 603 942 1357 1847 2413 3770 5890 7389 9648 15080

22
4.2.6 Dimensions of the cross-section of beams
4.2.6.1 Width (or breadth) b
As was already pointed out in paragraph 4.2.2, b is chosen in most of the cases in
function of:
• architectural considerations; for example, the width of a beam may be chosen
equal (or not) to the diameter of the supporting cylindrical column;
• the resistance to shear (see further in chapter 7 in these course notes);
• economical aspects of the design solution.
4.2.6.2 Depth h (and thus also the effective depth d)
As was already pointed out in paragraph 4.2.2, the depth h (or total depth of the cross-
section) is mostly chosen in function of:
• serviceability conditions: a certain minimum depth is necessary to avoid
excessive deformations of the beam (see further in chapter on SLS);
• architectural and esthetical considerations;
• functional conditions;
• economical aspects of the design solution.

The choice can also be made to adopt the « minimum depth » or the « optimum depth »;
these two notions are explained hereafter.

 Note : if h is known, then d is also known


If one knows the depth h of the cross-section, then the effective depth d is also
known, and vice-versa. Indeed, figure 4.2.6-1 shows that the difference between
h and d is determined by
- the thickness of the cover,
- the diameter of the link or stirrup (which may be necessary in the beam
to reinforce its shear load capacity, and which is useful anyway from a
constructive point of view to realize the reinforcement cage),
- the diameter of the main bars,
- the vertical distance between the different layers of reinforcement.
Without entering in the discussion of the detailing of reinforcement at this point,
it can be observed that in general, the difference between h and d is about 10%
of h.

23
Figure 4.2.6-1
Schematic representation of two possibilities of reinforcements of a cross-
section, with indication of the difference between h and d

4.2.6.3 Optimum depth h


"Optimum" = full exploitation of the ultimate resistance of steel and concrete at the
same time; this means that the ULS of the section to be designed, corresponds to the
strain diagram just in between the domains 1b and 2a.

Starting with:

Md
d 
b.d 2 . f cd

one finds:
Md 1 Md
d 
 d .b. f cd d b. f cd

 Note:
For concrete classes up to C50/60, and assuming εud = 0,010, the limit between
the domains 1b and 2a corresponds to ξ = 0,259 and µd = 0,187. The optimum
depth is then:
Md
d  2,31 (4.2.6-1)
b. f cd
One also finds the reinforcement area associated with that depth:

24
f cd f
As  .b.d .  0,209.b.d . cd
f yd f yd
or, by replacement of ζ = z/d = 0,892 in (4.2.4-6):
Md
As  (4.2.6-2)
0,892.d . f yd

4.2.6.4 Minimum depth h


One finds the minimum depth of a simply reinforced section starting from:

Md
d 
b.d 2 . f cd

or:
Md
d
 d .b. f cd

One obtains the minimum depth d for the maximum value of the reduced moment µd.
Yet, attention must be paid here to the fulfilment of the ductility condition, with respect
for the imposed limit values µlim or (µd)max prescribed by the Belgian ANB.
µd ≤ (µd)max leads to:

Md
d  d min 
(  d ) max .b. f cd

In addition to this, one has also: ζ ≥ ζlim (see table A4.2.3.7), ; taking into account
expression (4.2.4-6), this leads to:

Md
As  As ,max 
 min .d . f yd

4.2.6.5 Discussion
- Comparison of the formulas for the optimum and minimum depth, shows that the
reduction of the depth to 2/3 of the optimum depth leads to an increase of the
reinforcement area As with 100%. This is not an economic solution: reduction of
depth leads to a higher cost in steel reinforcement.
- Choosing minimum dimensions may lead to serious problems to respect the
serviceability conditions: limitations of stress levels, crack opening and
deformations. Simple rules will be presented in chapter 5 in these course notes,
which will allow making better choices of the depth, in order to avoid future
problems with the SLS conditions.

25
4.2.7 Doubly reinforced cross-section
4.2.7.1 When?
See arguments in paragraph 4.2.5.2; compression reinforcement is needed when  µd >
µlim or µd > µmax,ANB; the aim is to reduce the area of compressed concrete and thus to lift
the position of the NA in order to get the tensile steel in the plastic behaviour domain
before the ULS is reached.
4.2.7.2 Compatibility equations
The strain diagram to be considered for the analysis of the doubly reinforced section,
after the lifting of the NA, is situated in domain 2a: see figure 4.2-11. The further lifting
of the NA into domain 1b (by putting in more compressed steel) is not necessary and is
not an economical solution.

Figure 4.2.7-1
The strain diagram to be considered for the analysis of the doubly reinforced section,
after the lifting of the NA, is situated in domain 2a

As before (for the singly reinforced cross-section), one may write:

 s1 d  x 1
   s1   cu 2 . (4.2.7-1)
 cu 2 x 

Now can be added to that:

 s2 x  d2   2
   s 2   cu 2 . (4.2.7-2)
 cu 2 x 

introducing ξ = x/d and δ2 = d2/d

26
4.2.7.3 Study of σs2
The aim of this paragraph is to determine the smallest possible value of εs2, and thus also
of σs2. Figure 4.2.7-2 shows that the lifted strain diagrams are situated in domain 2a; the
extreme position is the limit between the domains 1b and 2a, which gives the minimum
value of εs2.

Figure 4.2.7-2
Extreme minimum value for εs2

For the concrete classes up to C50/60 and assuming that tensile steel strain is limited to
1%, εs2 is minimum for ξ = 0,259
Because:

  2 3,5    2
 s 2   cu 2 .  .
 1000 

and with in general δ2 ≤ 0,10, one finds εs2 ≥ 0,215 %. Figure 4.2.7-3 shows that for this
strain, one may adopt σs2 = fyd for all steel grades up to S500 (and using concrete up to
C50/60). For larger values of δ2 and with steel S600, a more elaborated estimation of σs2
is necessary.

Figure 4.2.7-3
Value of σs2 corresponding with εs2 ≥ 0,215 %

27
4.2.7.4 Basic equations
Figure 4.2.7-4 shows the principle idea behind the development of the equations
necessary for the calculation of the doubly reinforced cross-section loaded by the
imposed design bending moment Md: the doubly reinforced cross-section is considered
as the superposition of two virtual cross-sections:
• a singly reinforced cross-section which resists to the design moment Mn; the
maximum value of Mn is Mlim = µlim.b.d2.fcd (otherwise this would not be a singly
reinforced cross-section!); and
• a cross-section composed of two reinforcements: the compressive reinforcement
As2 and the complementary reinforcement Asc which is in tension. This cross-
section has to resist the complementary design moment Mc, so that Md = Mn + Mc.
The three cross-sections are thus subjected to the same strain diagram.

Figure 4.2.7-4
Decomposition of the doubly reinforced cross-section in two virtual cross-sections

The basic equations are thus:

Md = M n + M c (4.2.7-3)
with

Mc = As2 . σs2 . (d – d2) (4.2.7-4)


(rotation equilibrium, simple bending)
and

As1 = Asn + Asc (4.2.7-5)


with

As2 . σs2 = Asc . σs1 (4.2.7-6)


(translation equilibrium, simple bending)

4.2.7.5 Scheme of the design calculation


1. Identification of the minimum necessary area of compressive steel As2,min

28
The minimum area As2 is necessary to equilibrate the complementary moment
equal to Mc = Md - Mlim , with: Mlim = µlim.b.d2.fcd or Mlim = µmax ABN.b.d2.fcd.
In that way, expression (4.2.7-4) gives:

M d  lim .b.d 2 . f cd
As 2,min  As 2 ,lim 
 s 2 .(d  d 2 )

Temporarily, one may assume σs2 = fyd ; later on, it may be necessary to calculate a
better estimation of As2,min, once a better value of σs2 is known.

2. Choice of As2 > As2,min


The real area of compressed reinforcement As2 has now to be chosen, slightly
bigger than As2,min, in such a way that:

Mn = Md – Mc = Md – As2.σs2.(d - d2) < Mlim

and thus in such a way that:

µn < µlim ou µmax,ANB

3. Calculation of Asn

Mn M  As 2 . s 2 .(d  d 2 )
n  2
 d
b.d . f cd b.d 2 . f cd

with As2 given (= chosen) and σs2 = fyd (in first approximation).
With this first value of µn, one may use table A4.2.3.7 in order to determine ω →
Asn and also ξ.
The compatibility equations (4.2.7-2) permit to determine εs2 ; the design stress-
strain curve for the compressive steel is then used to determine σs2. If σs2 < fyd, it is
necessary to repeat the step mentioned above in order to find the final values for
As2, σs2, Mn and Asn. If σs2 = fyd, supplementary iteration is not necessary.
4. Conclusion

As1 = Asn + Asc

Expression (4.2.7-6) leads to:

 s2
Asc  As 2 .
 s1

If σs2 = fyd (and knowing that σs1 = fyd ), one finds: Asc = As2

29
4.3 Simple bending – T­section

4.3.1 Introduction
Cast-in-place floor slabs are often composed of slabs supported by a series of beams.
Slab and beams may be considered as a series of T-beams. Each T-beam is characterized
by its wide flange in compressed concrete on the upper side; this means that in bending,
the ultimate capacity if the compressed concrete is in general not reached. The analysis
is thus normally situated in domain 1b.

4.3.2 The notion of “effective width” of the compressed flange of a T-beam


4.3.2.1 Terminology and designation
The effective width is sometimes called the « cooperating » width; notation: beff
4.3.2.2 Significance
Figure 4.3.2-1 presents a T-beam loaded in bending. The active part of the T-beam is the
web; indeed, load is transmitted by the stiff parts of a structure! The reasoning starts by
considering only the rectangular part or web of the T-beam without the flanges on both
sides. The compression on the upper side causes the shortening of the upper fibres;
point A in figure 4.3.2-1 shifts to the right. Suppose that two slabs are now attached to
(both sides of) the web before bending. Due to the bending, both slabs are dragged
along by the web through the shear stresses that appear in the connection areas.

Figure 4.3.2-1
The notion of effective width of the flanges of T-beams;
shear stresses in the contact areas between flanges and web explain the « shear lag »
phenomenon

The next step in the reasoning consists of

30
- the isolation of an elementary slice AA' of the T-beam, close to the support
(figure 4.3.2-2), as well as
- a slice of one of the half-flanges.
It can be observed that the difference between the compressive stresses σc applied on the
areas A'FGD' and AIHD should be equilibrated by the shear stresses τ applied on the
area IFGH. The shear stresses which act in all similar parallel areas, are responsible for
the deformation in the horizontal plane of the beam AA'D'D – BB'C'C. The fibres which
are the most distant from the web, such as AA' and BB', lag somewhat behind the fibres
close to the web; they appear to be less efficient in cooperating to resist to the bending.
This phenomenon is designated by the term “shear lag”. One also observes that the
assumption of BERNOULLI is not applicable because A'B'C'D' does not remain
straight. In order to be able to accept the assumption anyway, one has to narrow the
cooperative width of the flange towards the so-called effective width beff, within which it
may be assumed that strains are uniformly distributed.

Figure 4.3.2-2
Effective width of a T-beam; figure explaining the shear lag effect;
bw = width of the web (w < web) and
hf = depth (or heigth) of the compression flange (f < flange)

The effective width is not the same in all cross-sections along the longitudinal axis of
the beam; indeed, the shear lag effect is proportional to the shear force and is thus
maximal at the supports (larger shear gradient). In sections further away from the
supports, the compression force is better distributed over the whole width of the
compressive flange; see figure 4.3.2-3.

31
Figure 4.3.2-3
The effective width of a T-beam is variable along the axis of the beam

4.3.2.3 Effective width: rules and prescriptions


The effective width of the compressive flange, which is taken into account in the design
calculation of a T-beam, should not be larger than the following limits:
- the real width of the flange;
- the same concrete cannot be used for two neighbouring beams; that means: beff ≤ e
(see figure 4.3.2-4);

Figure 4.3.2-4
Neighbouring T-beams

EN 1992-1-1:2004; 5.3.2.1 (part of paragraph 5.3, which presents acceptable


simplifications for identifying models for structural analysis) gives the following
prescriptions regarding the effective width of flanges:
- article (1) : in T-beams, the effective flange width, over which uniform
conditions of stress can be assumed, depends on the web and flange dimensions,
the type of loading, the span, the support conditions and the transverse
reinforcement;
- article (4) : for structural analysis, where a great accuracy is not required, a
constant width may be assumed over the whole span;
- article (3) : the effective flange width beff for a T-beam or L-beam may be
derived as (notations: see figures 4.3.2-5 and 4.3.2-6):

beff = ∑ beff,i + bw ≤ b

32
with beff,i = 0,2 . bi + 0,1 . l0 ≤ 0,2 . l0 and beff,i ≤ bi

 Notes:
- w < web;
- in figure 4.3.2-6, l0 represents the distance between the points of zero
moment.

Figure 4.3.2-5
Parameters for the determination of the effective flange width
(figure 5.3 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)

Figure 4.3.2-6
Span length l0, to be used for the determination of the effective flange width
(figure 5.2 in EN 1992-1-1:2004).

 Note:
Figure 4.3.2-6 is valid with the following assumptions:
- the length of the cantilever (l3) should be less than half the adjacent span;
- the ratio of adjacent spans should lie between 2/3 and 1,5.

33
4.3.3 Design of T cross-sections at ULS: 1st method
4.3.3.1 Basic idea of the 1st method
The real T cross-section can be considered as the result of the subtraction of the
rectangular section (beff – bw).(h – hf) from the rectangular section beff.h: see figure 4.3.3-
1. The properties for the section beff.h are indicated with (’); the properties for the
section (beff – bw).(h – hf) are indicated with (”). Both rectangular sections, as well as the
original T cross-section, are subjected to the same strain diagram. In this way, the basic
equations necessary to solve the design problem, are:

Md = M'd – M"d (4.3.3-1)


As = A's – A"s (4.3.3-2)

Figure 4.3.3-1
Basic figure for the elaboration of the equations necessary to solve the design problem
of T cross-sections in bending

4.3.3.2 Compatibility equations


Starting from figure 4.3.3-1, one may write:

 'c '  "c "


 
s 1 "
and
 s 1  '

and also;

  '
h f

 "c
'c

 '
d

with x" = x' – hf and d" = d' - hf

34
The compatibility equations can be elaborated more in detail for the domains 2a and 1b:
see figure 4.3.3-2 and table 4.3.3-1.

Figure 4.3.3-2
Strain diagram in domain 2a (a) and in domain 1b (b)

Table 4.3.3-1
Compatibility equations for the T-cross-section
domain 2a Domain 1b
 'c   cu 2  s   ud (or 1%)

  
'

'
"c c  '   ud . .
1  '
cu 2

1  '
 s   cu 2 .
'  "c   ud .
"
1 "
et
 "c   ud

4.3.3.3 Equilibrium equations


1. As = A's – A"s
where A's and A"s can be detailed by means of the translation equilibrium:
As . σs = ψ' . b . x' . fcd – ψ" . (b – bw) . x" . fcd

2. Md = M'd – M"d
where M'd and M"d can be detailed by means of the rotation equilibrium:
Md = ψ' . b . x' . fcd . (d – δ'G . x') – ψ" . (b – bw) . x" . fcd . (d" – δ"G . x")

35
4.3.3.4 Calculation scheme
Given: the T cross-section, with:
- dimensions: b (= beff), bw, h, hf
- materials: fyd, fcd
- loads: Md

Question: As = ?

Solution :
The solution scheme comprises the following steps.

1. If the cross-section were rectangular (b . h), the theory of the simply reinforced
rectangular cross-section would apply:
Md f
d  2 with f cd  0,85. ck
b.d . f cd 1,5

2. µd → table A4.2.3.7 → identification of domain 2a or 1b → ξ = x/d

3. There are 2 possibilities:


• if ξ ≤ hf / d, the NA is situated in the flange and the T cross-section can be
calculated in the same way as a rectangular section (concrete in tension is
not considered); see figure 4.3.3-3.

Figure 4.3.3-3
The NA is situated in the flange

• if ξ > hf / d, the NA is situated in the web; the model presented in figure


4.3.3-1 has now to be used.

4. A value is now chosen for ξ' which is somewhat larger than the ξ obtained so far.
Indeed, ξ has been obtained by considering a rectangular section and thus by
considering an area of compressed concrete that does not exist in reality: see
figure 4.3.3-4; for that reason, the NA should be put on a lower level.

36
Figure 4.3.3-4
The NA falls in the web; one takes into account too much compressed concrete
when working with a rectangular section

5. ξ' chosen → x' is known (because d' = d) as well as ξ":

x ' h f
 " x"

d" d ' h f

The compatibility equations in table 4.3.3-1 allow to determine ε'c et ε"c.


On the basis of ε'c, one can determine ψ' and δ'G by numerical integration or by
using table A4.2.3.7. On the basis of ε"c, one can determine ψ" and δ"G by
numerical integration. In order to perform the calculation of the T-section by
hand, one can determine ψ" and δ"G by means of the auxiliary tables in Annex
A4.3.3.4, which are elaborated for the different concrete classes; table A4.3.3.4-a
is elaborated for the commonly used concrete classes up to C50/60, and is
represented below.

 Note:
the choice of εud = (either 1% or 0,8 εuk ) does not influence the values of ψ" and
δ"G for a rectangular section.

37
Table A4.3.3.4-a
Determination of ψ" and δ"G in function of ε"c for concrete classes up to C50/60 (this is
the first of the auxiliary tables in Annex A4.3.3.4)

ε"c ψ" δ"G


0,000% 0,000 0,334
0,010% 0,049 0,336
0,020% 0,096 0,337 C12/15 → C50/60
0,030% 0,142 0,339
0,040% 0,186 0,340
0,050% 0,228 0,342
0,060% 0,269 0,344
0,070% 0,308 0,345
0,080% 0,346 0,347
0,090% 0,381 0,349
0,100% 0,415 0,351
0,110% 0,448 0,353
0,120% 0,479 0,355
0,130% 0,508 0,357
0,140% 0,535 0,360
0,150% 0,561 0,362
0,160% 0,585 0,365
0,170% 0,608 0,367
0,180% 0,628 0,370
0,190% 0,648 0,373
0,200% 0,665 0,376
0,200% 0,665 0,376
0,208% 0,677 0,378
0,215% 0,688 0,381
0,223% 0,699 0,383
0,230% 0,709 0,386
0,238% 0,718 0,388
0,245% 0,726 0,390
0,253% 0,734 0,393
0,260% 0,742 0,395
0,268% 0,749 0,397
0,275% 0,756 0,399
0,283% 0,762 0,401
0,290% 0,768 0,403
0,298% 0,774 0,405
0,305% 0,780 0,407
0,313% 0,785 0,409
0,320% 0,790 0,410
0,328% 0,795 0,412
0,335% 0,799 0,414
0,343% 0,804 0,415
0,350% 0,808 0,417

38
One can now calculate A's, M'd and A"s, M"d, by means of the equilibrium
equations for each rectangular cross-section.

A's . σs = ψ' . b . x' . fcd

with σs = fyd (because µ ≤ µlim !). Consequently:

A's = ψ' . ξ' . b . d . fcd / fyd

M'd = ψ' . b . x' . fcd . (d' – δ'G . x')

of M'd = ψ' . ξ' . b . d2 . fcd . (1 – δ'G . ξ')

A"s . σs = ψ" . (b – bw) . x" . fcd

A"s = ψ" . ξ" . (b - bw) . (d – hf) . fcd / fyd

M"d = ψ" . (b – bw) . x" . fcd . (d" – δ"G . x")

or M"d = ψ" . ξ" . (b – bw) . fcd . d"2 . (1 – δ"G . ξ")

6. On the basis of the first choice of ξ', one thus obtains a first solution for As
(As = A's - A"s). Yet, it would be very surprising that on the basis of the first choice
of ξ', the condition Md = M'd - M"d would immediately be respected. Two
alternatives are possible:
• the first solution of As (As = A's - A"s). may be adapted as follows:

M d
As  ( A' A" ).
M 'd  M "d

• if the difference between M'd - M"d and Md is too big, calculations have to
be started again with a new chosen value of ξ':
- smaller than the first choice of ξ', when M'd – M"d > Md
- larger than the first choice of ξ', when M'd – M"d < Md

4.3.4 Design of T cross-sections at ULS: 2nd method


4.3.4.1 Principle of the 2nd method
The equilibrium equations are applied to an equivalent virtual rectangular cross-section,
taking into account a stress diagram for the compressed concrete which is adapted to the

39
width of the real cross-section. This way of reasoning may be applied for the calculation
of all possible shapes of cross-sections. The method is explained in a schematic way in
the following text.

4.3.4.2 Systematic elaboration of the 2nd method

(1) Characteristics of the cross-section


The T cross-section to be considered is represented in figure 4.3.4-1.

Figure Design of T cross­sections at ULS: 2nd method­6
Geometrical characteristics of the T cross­section

As before, the materials are characterized by fyd (steel) and fcd (concrete).
As = the area of the tension reinforcement.
The cross-section has to be calculated for the imposed design bending
moment Md.

(2) Strain diagrams


The following symbols are used:
- c = maximum compressive strain in the extreme concrete fibre
(with c ≤ cu2 );
- s = tensile strain in the steel reinforcement (with s ≤ ud );
- x = the depth of the compression stress bloc, defined by the
position of the NA;
x
-
d
Two different cases are possible, depending on the position of the NA.

hf
Case 1: x  h f (  )
d
The NA is situated in the flange. This case has been discussed before (in
4.3.3.4); the T cross-section can be calculated as a rectangular section.

40
hf
Case 2: x  h f (  )
d
The NA lies within the web of the T cross-section (figure 4.3.4-2).

Figure Design of T cross­sections at ULS: 2nd method­7
Strain diagram in the T cross-section: the NA lies within the web

The compressed zone has a variable width: the width of the flange is b (as a
matter of fact beff), the width of the web is bw (see figure 4.3.4-3).

Figure Design of T cross­sections at ULS: 2nd method­8
Compression zone in the T cross-section with  x  h f

The corresponding stress distribution diagram is presented in figure 4.3.4-4,


which is valid for domain 2a (c = cu2 and 0 ≤ s ≤ ud ).

Figure Design of T cross­sections at ULS: 2nd method­9

41
Strain and stress distribution diagram for the T cross-section: the NA lies
within the web (domain 2a)

(3) The equivalent virtual rectangular section

The T cross-section is replaced by a virtual rectangular cross-section with


width b and depth h, equivalent with the T-section from the statics point of
view (see figure 4.3.4-5).

Figure Design of T cross-sections at ULS: 2nd method-10


Strain and stress diagram for the equivalent virtual rectangular cross-section

The flange is composed of the same material (fcd) as in the real T-section. The
lower part of the compressive bloc, within the web, is replaced by a fictitious
material with adapted stresses: the ratio between the new stress and the stress
in the real section is given by the factor bw/b. The stress ' in the rectangular
section is thus:

 '  within the flange


b
 ' w  within the web
b

The virtual rectangular cross-section is statically equivalent to the real


section: the stress  acting on the width bw is statically equivalent to the
b
stress  '  w  acting on the width b.
b
The earlier presented developments for rectangular sections can now be
applied to the virtual section, taking into account the following
modifications:
- - the filling coefficient  is now:

1 x
 
x. f cd  0
 ' ( s ).ds

42
- the coefficient of the centre of gravity G is now:

x
1  s. ' ( s ).ds 1 x
G 
x
0
x

x . f cd .
2  s. ' ( s ).ds
  ' ( s ).ds 0
0

In which the distance s is defined in figure 4.3.4-6.

Figure Design of T cross­sections at ULS: 2nd method­11
Definition of the distance s which is necessary for the calculation of  and
G

In this way, the resultant compression force in the concrete is applied at the
distance G.x with respect to the extreme concrete fibre:

Fc   .x. f cd .b

This formula is, from a formal point of view, identical to the formula
developed for a rectangular section. Consequently, all other formulas and
reasoning that are characteristic for the rectangular cross-section, are
applicable.

4.3.5 Practical design table for T cross-sections in bending


Table 4.3.5-1 allows quick design at ULS of simply reinforced T cross-sections, loaded
in bending. The table is valid for concrete classes up to C50/60 and assuming εud = 1%.
The table shows ω in function of (hf/d, b/bw and µd). It can be seen as the extension of
table A4.2.3.7 for rectangular sections.

 Note:
- The upper part of the table shows values of ω which are printed in grey; these
values of ω are the same as those obtained for the same value of d in
rectangular cross-sections (this is because the NA falls within the flange). The
values of ω obtained for a rectangular section are presented in the second
column of the table, in order to show the difference with the solution for a
real T-section.
- In the lower part of the table, results are limited to µlim.

43
Table 4.3.5-1
Design at ULS of simply reinforced T cross-sections, loaded in bending;
concrete classes up to C50/60 and εud = 1%.
(the table shows  in function of  and hf/d)

 Important note concerning the values of ω and µd in table 4.3.5-1:


A f yd
- definition of ω:  .
b.d f cd
- µd is calculated with Md and taking into account a rectangular section (b.d)

Table: see next pages

44
(    in function of  and hf/d )

ω for hf/d = 0,05 hf/d = 0,10


 rectangle b/bw=10 b/bw=5 b/bw=3 b/bw=2 b/bw=10 b/bw=5 b/bw=3 b/bw=2
0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010
0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020
0,030 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031
0,040 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041
0,050 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052
0,060 0,063 0,063 0,062 0,063 0,063 0,063 0,063 0,063 0,063
0,070 0,073 0,076 0,074 0,074 0,073 0,073 0,073 0,073 0,073
0,080 0,084 0,094 0,087 0,085 0,085 0,084 0,084 0,084 0,084
0,090 0,095 0,101 0,097 0,096 0,095 0,095 0,095 0,095
0,100 0,106 0,116 0,110 0,108 0,106 0,106 0,106 0,106
0,110 0,118 0,134 0,124 0,120 0,119 0,118 0,118 0,118
0,120 0,129 0,156 0,138 0,133 0,135 0,131 0,130 0,129
0,130 0,141 0,156 0,138 0,146 0,159 0,145 0,142 0,141
0,140 0,152 0,187 0,153 0,159 0,161 0,156 0,154
0,150 0,164 0,170 0,173 0,180 0,170 0,167
0,160 0,176 0,188 0,188 0,204 0,185 0,180
0,170 0,188 0,208 0,203 0,240 0,202 0,194
0,180 0,201 0,232 0,220 0,220 0,208
0,190 0,213 0,261 0,237 0,239 0,224
0,200 0,226 0,256 0,264 0,239
0,210 0,240 0,275 0,292 0,257
0,220 0,253 0,297 0,275
0,230 0,267 0,321 0,294
0,240 0,281 0,349 0,315
0,250 0,295 0,381 0,339
0,260 0,309 0,365
0,270 0,324 0,396
0,280 0,339 0,441
0,290 0,355
0,300 0,371
0,310 0,387
0,320 0,404
0,330 0,422
0,340 0,439
0,350 0,458
0,360 0,477
0,370 0,498
0,380 0,518
0,390 0,541
0,400 0,563
0,410 0,589
0,420 0,615
0,430 0,644
0,440 0,676
0,450 0,708
0,460 0,754
0,470 0,799
0,472 0,809
lim = 0,087 0,125 0,175 0,238 0,128 0,162 0,206 0,261
S220
lim = 0,109 0,167 0,245 0,343 0,154 0,207 0,279 0,368
lim = 0,083 0,117 0,162 0,219 0,123 0,153 0,193 0,242
S400
lim = 0,099 0,148 0,213 0,295 0,143 0,187 0,246 0,320
lim = 0,081 0,113 0,156 0,210 0,122 0,150 0,186 0,233
S500
lim = 0,095 0,140 0,200 0,274 0,139 0,179 0,233 0,299
lim = 0,079 0,110 0,150 0,201 0,121 0,146 0,181 0,224
S600
lim = 0,092 0,133 0,188 0,257 0,136 0,173 0,221 0,282

45
(    in function of  and hf/d)

ω for hf/d = 0,15 hf/d = 0,2 hf/d = 0,3


 rectangle b/bw=5 b/bw=3 b/bw=2 b/bw=5 b/bw=3 b/bw=2 b/bw=3 b/bw=2
0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000 0,000
0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010 0,010
0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020 0,020
0,030 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031 0,031
0,040 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041 0,041
0,050 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052 0,052
0,060 0,063 0,063 0,063 0,063 0,063 0,063 0,063 0,063 0,063
0,070 0,073 0,073 0,073 0,073 0,073 0,073 0,073 0,073 0,073
0,080 0,084 0,084 0,084 0,084 0,084 0,084 0,084 0,084 0,084
0,090 0,095 0,095 0,095 0,095 0,095 0,095 0,095 0,095 0,095
0,100 0,106 0,106 0,106 0,106 0,106 0,106 0,106 0,106 0,106
0,110 0,118 0,118 0,118 0,118 0,118 0,118 0,118 0,118 0,118
0,120 0,129 0,129 0,129 0,129 0,129 0,129 0,129 0,129 0,129
0,130 0,141 0,140 0,140 0,140 0,141 0,141 0,141 0,141 0,141
0,140 0,152 0,152 0,152 0,152 0,152 0,152 0,152 0,152 0,152
0,150 0,164 0,164 0,164 0,164 0,164 0,164 0,164 0,164 0,164
0,160 0,176 0,178 0,177 0,176 0,176 0,176 0,176 0,176 0,176
0,170 0,188 0,193 0,190 0,189 0,188 0,188 0,188 0,188 0,188
0,180 0,201 0,210 0,204 0,202 0,200 0,201 0,201 0,201 0,201
0,190 0,213 0,231 0,220 0,216 0,214 0,213 0,213 0,213 0,213
0,200 0,226 0,259 0,237 0,231 0,228 0,227 0,227 0,226 0,226
0,210 0,240 0,254 0,246 0,245 0,241 0,240 0,240 0,240
0,220 0,253 0,275 0,262 0,264 0,257 0,255 0,253 0,253
0,230 0,267 0,299 0,278 0,289 0,274 0,270 0,266 0,266
0,240 0,281 0,329 0,296 0,293 0,286 0,280 0,280
0,250 0,295 0,315 0,314 0,302 0,294 0,294
0,260 0,309 0,336 0,338 0,320 0,309 0,309
0,270 0,324 0,358 0,371 0,339 0,324 0,324
0,280 0,339 0,385 0,359 0,341 0,340
0,290 0,355 0,416 0,382 0,359 0,357
0,300 0,371 0,457 0,408 0,381 0,375
0,310 0,387 0,438 0,406 0,394
0,320 0,404 0,479 0,439 0,415
0,330 0,422 0,439
0,340 0,439 0,465
0,350 0,458 0,497
0,360 0,477 0,541
0,370 0,498
0,380 0,518
0,390 0,541
0,400 0,563
0,410 0,589
0,420 0,615
0,430 0,644
0,440 0,676
0,450 0,708
0,460 0,754
0,470 0,799
0,472 0,809
lim = 0,196 0,235 0,283 0,229 0,262 0,304 0,312 0,341
S220
lim = 0,247 0,312 0,393 0,287 0,345 0,417 0,411 0,467
lim = 0,189 0,222 0,264 0,221 0,249 0,285 0,299 0,322
S400
lim = 0,228 0,280 0,345 0,267 0,313 0,370 0,379 0,420
lim = 0,184 0,215 0,254 0,218 0,244 0,275 0,293 0,312
S500
lim = 0,219 0,265 0,324 0,260 0,300 0,350 0,365 0,399
lim = 0,181 0,210 0,246 0,214 0,237 0,266 0,288 0,304
S600
lim = 0,212 0,254 0,306 0,252 0,287 0,331 0,354 0,382

46
4.3.6 Doubly reinforced T cross-section
Both methods, presented before, can also be applied for the design calculation of doubly
reinforced T-sections: see figure 4.3.6-1.

 Note:
As mentioned before, the need for reinforcement in the compressed side of T-
sections is exceptional!

Figure 4.3.6-1
Basic figure showing the philosophy to apply for the design calculation of doubly
reinforced T cross­sections by means of the 1st method presented in paragraph 4.3.3
before (subtraction of rectangular sections)

4.3.7 Generalization of the 2nd method (developed for T-sections) towards


cross-sections with variable shapes
4.3.7.1 Principle
The theory of the 2nd method developed for T cross-sections in paragraph 4.3.4 before,
can easily be generalized towards sections with variable shapes. The real section, with
variable width, has to be replaced by an equivalent virtual section in which the stresses
are reduced by application of a factor that takes into account the difference between the
real width and the width of the virtual rectangular section. This principle is illustrated
by means of two examples, presented in figures 4.3.7-1 and 4.3.7-2.

47
Example 1:
A first cross-section is composed of parts with constant width: see figure 4.3.7-1. The
stresses ' to be applied on the equivalent rectangular section are obtained by reducing
the real stresses by application of a factor that takes into account the difference between
the real width and the width of the virtual rectangular section.

Figure Generalization of the 2nd method (developed for T­sections) towards cross­
sections with variable shapes­12
Equivalent rectangular section: example 1

48
Example 2:
The real cross-section presents a variable width.

Figure Generalization of the 2nd method (developed for T­sections) towards cross­
sections with variable shapes­13
Equivalent rectangular section: example 2

4.3.7.2 Determination of  and G for an arbitrary section


As explained before, the real section is replaced by an equivalent virtual rectangular
section the width of which is bmax, which is the maximum width of the real section.
With:
s: defines the depth in the section (see figure 4.3.4-6),
(s) : the stress in the real section, at the level s

49
b(s) : the width of the real section, at the level s
'(s) : the virtual stress in the equivalent virtual rectangular section, at the
level s

and:
b( s )
 ' (s)   ( s)
bmax

the integrals for the calculation of  and δG are thus:

1 x b( s )
 
x. f cd  0 bmax
 ( s ).ds

1 x b( s )
G 
x . f cd .
2  0
s.
bmax
 ( s).ds

Once these parameters are determined, the formulas for the rectangular sections may be
applied.

50
4.4 Bending combined with compression
Preliminary note: the developments in this paragraph are limited to rectangular cross-
sections, but extrapolation of the method towards sections with variable shapes is
straightforward.

4.4.1 Domains to be analyzed


Table 4.1.4-1 shows that ULS strain diagrams corresponding to bending in combination
with axial compression, are situated in the domains 1b, 2a, 2b and 3.

4.4.2 Definition of the design problem


Given:
• the quality of the selected materials: fyd et fcd;
• the dimensions of the concrete cross-section: b, h (d), d1 and d2; see figure 4.4.2-
1;
• the design values of the imposed internal forces Md and Nd; the imposed loads
may also be defined as a axial compression force Nd that is applied with an
eccentricity e0 to the geometric centre (or centroid) of the cross-section. The fact
that the geometric centre is used instead of the centre of gravity is justified
because the last one is not known yet; in this stage of the project, only
architectural plans are available.

Question: the areas of reinforcement As1 and As2 = ?

Figure 4.4.2-1
Bending combined with axial compression: designation of the imposed internal forces

4.4.3 Analysis of domains 1b and 2a


4.4.3.1 When?
A strain diagram in these two domains can only be obtained if the bending is much
more important than the compression; Nd is applied with a large eccentricity eo.

51
4.4.3.2 Basic equations
The formulas in this paragraph are developed for a strain diagram in domain 2a; the
developments in domain 1b are completely similar.
Basic figure: see figure 4.4.3-1.

Figure 4.4.3-1
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with compression in domain 2a

• Horizontal translation equilibrium:

Nd = As2 . σs2 + ψ . b . x . fcd – As1 . σs1

and thus

Nd + As1 . σs1 = As2 . σs2 + ψ . b . x . fcd

or

Nd
 s1 .( As1  )  As 2 . s 2   .b.x. f cd (4.4.3-1)
 s1

• Rotation equilibrium around the tensile reinforcement As1:

Nd . e1 = ψ . b . x . fcd . (d – δG . x) + As2 . σs2 . (d - d2) (4.4.3-2)

with e1 = eccentricity of Nd with respect to As1.

4.4.3.3 First case: As2 = 0


The equations (4.4.3-1) and (4.4.3-2) are now written as:

52
Nd
 s1.( As1  )   .b.x. f cd (4.4.3-3)
 s1
and
Nd . e1 = ψ . b . x . fcd . (d – δG . x) (4.4.3-4)

These equations are completely similar to those for simple bending: see the equations
(4.2.3-6) and (4.2.3-7). The solution scheme is thus also similar to the one for simple
bending:

• Given: Nd and e0 → deduction of e1 ;

N d .e1 f ck
• Calculation of: d  with f cd  0,85.
b.d 2 . f cd 1,5
Attention: the reduced moment is not calculated with Md but with Nd . e1!

• By means of table A4.2.3.7, one finds:


As f yd
 . and s1
b.d f cd

• Attention: the value of As1 should now be derived from As that was determined
above, because the comparison of expressions (4.4.3-3) and (4.2.3-6) shows that

Nd
As1  As  (4.4.3-5)
 s1

4.4.3.4 Second case: As2 ≠ 0


The equations (4.4.3-1) and (4.4.3-2) are completely similar to the ones for the doubly
reinforced concrete section loaded in simple bending, because the system of equations:

 N  .b.x. f cd As 2 . s 2
 As1  d  
  s1  s1  s1
 N .e   .b.x. f .(d   .x )  A . .(d  d )
 d 1 cd G s2 s2 2

is equivalent to the following system:

 As1  Asn  Asc





M d  M n  M c

The last system of equations has been exploited for the calculation of the doubly
reinforced section loaded in simple bending. The solution scheme is thus as follows:

53
• First, it is assumed that As2 = 0; calculation of:
N d .e1 f ck
d  2 with f cd  0,85.
b.d . f cd 1,5
If µd > µlim in table A4.2.3.7, a compression reinforcement is necessary in order to
reduce µd with a term which is function of As2, so that µd falls into the useful part
of table A4.2.3.7.
As2 minimum is then determined by:
M d   lim .b.d 2 . f cd
As 2 min  As 2 lim 
 s 2 .( d  d 2 )
in which Nd . e1 is used instead of Md !
Choice of As2.

• Calculation of:
N d .e1  As 2 . s 2 .(d  d 2 )
n 
b.d 2 . f cd
This µn thus corresponds to the moment Mn which is resisted by the simply
reinforced section (see decomposition of the doubly reinforced section, presented
in figure 4.2.7-4). For this µn, one finds in table A4.2.3.7 a corresponding value of
ω, which then permits to determine Asn;

• Calculation of:
As 2 . s 2
Asc 
 s1

• Finally, one finds:


Nd
As1   Asn  Asc
 s1
Asn + Asc corresponds indeed to:
Nd
As1 
 s1
Consequently:
Nd
As1  Asn  Asc  (4.4.3-6)
 s1

4.4.4 Analysis of domain 2b


4.4.4.1 When?
A strain diagram in this domain can only be obtained if the compression is more
important than the bending; Nd is applied with a small eccentricity eo.

54
4.4.4.2 The limites of domaine 2b
See figure 4.1.3-2
Left limit: x = d; ξ = x/d = 1; ξt = x/h = (h – d1) / h = 1 – δt1
Right limit: x = h; ξ = x/d = h/d; ξt = x/h = h/h = 1

 Note:
- Attention should be paid to designations and symbols used: for the analysis of
domains 2b and 3 (in which practically the whole cross-section is in
compression), it is preferred to use the total depth of the section as reference
depth instead of the effective depth; the parameter ξt = x/h is used instead of
ξ = x/d. In the same way, δt1 = d1/h is used instead of δ1 = d1/d.
- In practice, the assumption d1 = d2 is adopted (and thus δt1 = δt2).

4.4.4.3 Compatibility equations


See figure 4.4.4-1

Figure 4.4.4-1
Domain 2b; auxiliary figure for the elaboration of the compatibility equations

The equations are:

xd x  h  d1    t1  1
 s1   cu 2 .   cu 2 .   cu 2 . t (4.4.4-1)
x x t

x  d2   t2
 s 2   cu 2 .   cu 2 . t (4.4.4-2)
x t

4.4.4.4 Equilibrium equations


See figure 4.4.4-2.

55
Figure 4.4.4-2
Principle figure for the analysis of bending combined with compression in domain 2b

• Translation equilibrium:

Nd = ψ . b . x . fcd + As2 . σs2 + As1 . σs1 (4.4.4-3)

• Rotation equilibrium around the most compressed reinforcement As2 :

Nd . e2 = ψ . b . x . fcd . ( δG . x – d2) + As1 . σs1 . (d - d2) (4.4.4-4)

with e2 = the eccentricity of Nd with respect to As2.

 Note:
The rotation centre to be used for the expression of the rotation equilibrium is
always the most loaded (= most important) reinforcement, which is:
- the tensile reinforcement, if there is one;
- the most compressive reinforcement if both reinforcements are compressed.

Assuming that:
N d .e2  As1. s1.(d  d 2 )
d  (4.4.4-5)
b.h 2 . f cd
with the following symbols:
x d1 d
t  ;  t1  ; t2  2
h h h
the rotation equilibrium equation can be written as:

µd = ψ .ξt . (δG . ξt – δt2) (4.4.4-6)

Inversely, ξt can also be expressed in function of µd, by means of the following


quadratic equation:

ψ . δG . ξt2 - ψ . δt2 . ξt - µd = 0

56
which has the following solution:

4. G
 t 2  t 22  . d
 (4.4.4-7)
t 
2. G

ξt = f (µd , δt2 , ψ et δG )

in which ψ and δG correspond to the entire parabola-rectangle diagram, with


εc = εcu2. One thus finds ψ and δG in table A4.2.3.7, for domain 2a.

4.4.4.5 Solution scheme


• Exploitation of the rotation equilibrium via equation (4.4.4-5).
A first choice can be made: σs1 = 0; notation: (σs1)1 = 0, in which the index 1
indicates that this is the first choice. Anyway, it is clear that in domain 2b, this
choice is not far removed from reality. Equation (4.4.4-5) is now written as:

N d .e2
(  d )1 
b.h 2 . f cd
Consequently:
ξt = f ((µd )1 , δt2)

via expression (4.4.4-7), in which ψ and δG correspond to the complete parabola-


rectangle diagram, with εc = εcu2 (values in table A4.2.3.7 for domain 2a).

• Exploitation of the compatibility equations.


As δt1 = δt2, expressions (4.4.4-1) and (4.4.4-2) lead to:

 t   t1  1
( s1 )1   cu 2 .
t
 t   t1
( s 2 )1   cu 2 .
t

• Exploitation of the design stress-strain diagram of the steel.


(εs1)1 and (εs2)1 lead to (σs1)1 and (σs2)1
• Exploitation of the translation equilibrium
There are still two unknown parameters in equation (4.4.4-3): As1 and As2, while
all available equations have been exploited. In order to overcome this difficulty,

57
the following “trick” is proposed, by introducing the ratio of the reinforcement
areas:

As1

As 2

with χ = 0, ¼, ½, 1, 2, 4 etc. χ = 1 corresponds to the case of "symmetric"


reinforcement (As1 = As2), which is often the case in columns for example.
With As1 = χ . As2, the translation equilibrium equation is rewritten:

Nd = ψ . b . h . fcd . ξt + As2 . (σs2 + χ . σs1)

or
N d   .b.h. f cd . t
As 2  (4.4.4-8)
 s 2   . s1

Taking into account the selected value of χ, one finds via (4.4.4-8): (As2)1 and
(As1)1 = χ . (As2)1
• In domain 2b, the first approximation is in general conclusive because, as already
pointed out before, the first choice (σs1)1 = 0 is close to reality. However, one can
improve the results by repeating the calculation sequence on the basis of the
results obtained after the first sequence:

N d .e2  ( As1 )1 .( s1 )1 .( d  d 2 )


d 
b.h 2 . f cd

Consequently
(ξt)2 = f((µd)2 , δt2)

where ψ and δG correspond to the complete parabola-rectangle diagram, with εc =


εcu2 (values in table A4.2.3.7 for domain 2a).
This allows to determine (εs1)2 and (εs2)2, and via the stress-strain diagram of steel:
(σs1)2 and (σs2)2.
Finally:

N d   .b.h. f cd .( t ) 2
( As 2 ) 2 
( s 2 ) 2   .( s1 ) 2

(As1)2 = χ . (As2)2

58
4.4.4.6 Auxiliary table for shortening hand calculations
In order to shorten hand calculations, annex A4.4.4.6 presents practical tables which are
composed on the basis of the following scheme:

S220 S400 S500 S600


s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2
d t  G s1 s2 MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
t1 = t2 = . . . .

with δt2 chosen and δt1 = δt2, and the following formulas:

N d .e2  As1. s1.(d  d 2 )


d 
b.h 2 . f cd

4. G
 t 2  t 22  . d

t 
2. G

 t   t1  1
 s1   cu 2 .
t

 t   t1
 s 2   cu 2 .
t

191 MPa (S220) 191 MPa (S220)


 
 
348 MPa (S400) 348 MPa (S400)
 
 s1  E s . s1    s 2  E s . s 2  
435 MPa (S500) 435 MPa (S500)
 
 
522 MPa
 (S600) 522 MPa
 (S600)

with
Es = 200 GPa = 200000 MPa

The table thus only allows making a faster transition from µd towards the stresses σs1
and σs2 for different values of δt2. Table A4.4.4.6 is elaborated for commonly
encountered values of δt2: 0,06 ; 0,08 ; 0,10 ; 0,12 ; 0,14 and 0,16. The table is function
of the selected concrete class (the value of εcu2 and the equation of the parabola-
rectangle diagram), but is independent of the choice of εud for steel.

Notes concerning table A4.4.4.6


• The link between µd and ξt is given by (4.4.4-5) and (4.4.4-6):

59
N d .e2  As1. s1.( d  d 2 )
d    . t .( G . t   t 2 )
b.h 2 . f cd

• Limit on the left side of domain 2b: values of  t

x=d

x d h  d1
t     1   t1 → table 4.4.4-1
h h h

Table 4.4.4-1
Domain 2b: left limit for different values of δt1
δt1 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16
ξt 0,94 0,92 0,90 0,88 0,86 0,84
Concrete classes up to C50/60
ψ = 0,805 µd 0,252 0,226 0,200 0,176 0,152 0,129
δG = 0,418
Concrete class C55/67
ψ = 0,742 µd 0,216 0,193 0,170 0,148 0,127 0,106
δG = 0,394
Concrete class C60/75
ψ = 0,692 µd 0,192 0,170 0,149 0,129 0,110 0,091
δG = 0,378
Concrete class C70/85
ψ = 0,625 µd 0,164 0,145 0,126 0,109 0,092 0,075
δG = 0,361
Concrete class C80/95
ψ = 0,596 µd 0,154 0,136 0,118 0,101 0,085 0,070
δG = 0,356
Concrete class C90/105
ψ = 0,581 µd 0,149 0,131 0,114 0,098 0,082 0,067
δG = 0,354

• Limit on the right side of domain 2b

x=h

x d
t   1
h h

60
µd = ψ . (δG – δt2) → table 4.4.4-2

Table 4.4.4-2
Domain 2b: right limit for different values of δt2
δt2 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16
ξt 1 1 1 1 1 1
Concrete classes up to C50/60
ψ = 0,805 µd 0,288 0,272 0,256 0,240 0,224 0,208
δG = 0,418
Concrete class C55/67
ψ = 0,742 µd 0,248 0,233 0,218 0,203 0,188 0,173
δG = 0,394
Concrete class C60/75
ψ = 0,692 µd 0,220 0,206 0,192 0,178 0,164 0,151
δG = 0,378
Concrete class C70/85
ψ = 0,625 µd 0,188 0,176 0,163 0,151 0,138 0,126
δG = 0,361
Concrete class C80/95
ψ = 0,596 µd 0,176 0,164 0,152 0,141 0,129 0,117
δG = 0,356
Concrete class C90/105
ψ = 0,581 µd 0,171 0,159 0,148 0,136 0,124 0,113
δG = 0,354

4.4.5 Analysis of domain 3


4.4.5.1 When?
A strain diagram in this domain can only be obtained if the compression becomes far
more important than the bending; Nd is applied with a very small eccentricity eo.

4.4.5.2 Compatibility equations


The whole concrete cross-section is in compression. The NA is situated between the
lower side of the section and the infinity. The strain diagram turns around the third
hinge: point C situated at a distance
  
h1  c 2 
  cu 2 

from the most compressed fibre at the upper side: see figure 4.4.5-1.

61
Figure 4.4.5-1
Domain 3; auxiliary figure for the elaboration of the compatibility equations

The equations are the following:

x t
 c _ top   c 2 .   c2 .
      (4.4.5-1)
x  h1  c 2   t  1  c 2 
  cu 2    cu 2 

x  d2 t   t 2
 s2   c2 .   c2 .
      (4.4.5-2)
x  h1  c 2   t  1  c 2 
  cu 2    cu 2 

xh t 1
 c _ bottom   c 2 .   c2 .
  c2     (4.4.5-3)
x  h1   t  1  c 2 
  cu 2    cu 2 

xd x  ( h  d1 )    t1  1
 s1   c 2 .   c2 .   c2 . t
         (4.4.5-4)
x  h1  c 2  x  h1  c 2   t  1  c 2 
  cu 2    cu 2    cu 2 

Used notations for the steel reinforcement: index 1 is associated with the lower side (the
least compressed side); index 2 is associated with the upper side (the most compressed
side). In order to distinguish from εc2 (see the design stress-strain diagram for concrete),
the designations εc_top and εc_bottom are used for the concrete strains instead of εc1 and εc2.

62
4.4.5.3 Use of the parabola-rectangle diagram
The determination of the area of the concrete stress diagram and the position of the
centre of gravity, is a particular problem, because a part of the parabola is not taken into
account: see figure 4.4.5-2. Attention: the filling coefficient ψ and the coefficient of the
centre of gravity δG are now defined with respect to the total depth h (instead of d).

Figure 4.4.5-2
Domain 3; auxiliary figure for the determination of the area of the stress diagram and its
centre of gravity

The results, obtained by numerical integration of the equation of the stress diagram for
the different classes of concrete, are shown in table 4.4.5-1.

63
Table 4.4.5-1
Domain 3; filling coefficient ψ and coefficient of the centre of gravity δG in function of
ξt = x/h, for different concrete classes
≤ C50/60 C55/67 C60/75
t  G  G  G
1 0,8095 0,4160 0,7440 0,3927 0,6934 0,3769
1,2 0,8955 0,4583 0,8347 0,4384 0,7854 0,4240
1,4 0,9341 0,4748 0,8834 0,4591 0,8396 0,4470
1,6 0,9547 0,4831 0,9129 0,4705 0,8746 0,4603
1,8 0,9669 0,4878 0,9321 0,4776 0,8986 0,4689
2 0,9748 0,4908 0,9454 0,4823 0,9159 0,4748
2,5 0,9855 0,4948 0,9651 0,4892 0,9430 0,4836
3 0,9906 0,4967 0,9755 0,4927 0,9583 0,4884
4 0,9951 0,4983 0,9858 0,4963 0,9743 0,4934
5 0,9970 0,4990 0,9906 0,4980 0,9822 0,4959
∞ 1 0,5 1 0,5 1 0,5

C70/85 C80/95 C90/105


t  G  G  G
1 0,6266 0,3600 0,5976 0,3548 0,5831 0,3531
1,2 0,7193 0,4084 0,6908 0,4036 0,6769 0,4020
1,4 0,7788 0,4334 0,7523 0,4292 0,7395 0,4278
1,6 0,8196 0,4485 0,7954 0,4448 0,7839 0,4436
1,8 0,8491 0,4585 0,8271 0,4552 0,8167 0,4541
2 0,8712 0,4656 0,8512 0,4626 0,8418 0,4617
2,5 0,9077 0,4765 0,8916 0,4742 0,8842 0,4735
3 0,9296 0,4827 0,9163 0,4808 0,9102 0,4803
4 0,9538 0,4894 0,9442 0,4880 0,9399 0,4876
5 0,9667 0,4928 0,9592 0,4918 0,9559 0,4915
∞ 1 0,5 1 0,5 1 0,5

Note regarding table 4.4.5-1:


it is observed that ψ tends rapidly to 1 and that δG tends rapidly to 0,5; for these values,
the parabola-rectangle diagram is transformed into a rectangular diagram with depth h
and width fcd.

4.4.5.4 Equilibrium equations


See figure 4.4.5-3.

64
Figure 4.4.5-3
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with compression in domain 3

• Translation equilibrium:

N d   .b.h. f cd  As1. s1  As 2 . s 2 (4.4.5-5)

• Rotation equilibrium around the most compressed reinforcement As2:

N d .e2   .b.h. f cd .( G .h  d 2 )  As1. s1  (d  d 2 ) (4.4.5-6)

or
N d .e2   .b.h 2 . f cd .( G   t 2 )  As1. s1  (d  d 2 )

or
N d .e2  As1. s1.(d  d 2 )
  .( G   t 2 ) (4.4.5-7)
b.h 2 . f cd

with e2 = eccentricity of Nd with respect to As2.

First, the reduced moment is defined as:

N d .e2  As1. s1.(d  d 2 )


d  (4.4.5-8)
b.h 2 . f cd

Expression (4.4.5-7) then gives:

 d   .( G   t 2 ) (4.4.5-9)

In summary:

65
 d  f ( ,  G ,  t 2 ) with  et  G  f ( t )

Inversely, one may also express ξt in function of µd.

4.4.5.5 Solution scheme


• Exploitation of the rotation equilibrium
The first choice is to put σs1= 0; the equation (4.4.5-8) then gives:

N d .e2
(  d )1 
b.h 2 . f cd

With a chosen value of δt2 and on the basis of the equation of the parabola-
rectangle diagram of the selected concrete class, one finds (ψ)1, (δ)1 and (ξt)1.

• Exploitation of the compatibility equations


The equations (4.4.5-1 to 4.4.5-4) allow the determination of (εc1)1, (εc2)1, (εs1)1
and (εs2)1.

• Exploitation of the design stress-strain diagram of steel


(εs1)1 and (εs2)1 give (σs1)1 and (σs2)1

• Exploitation of the translation equilibrium


Again (such as in domain 2b), there are still two unknown parameters: As1 and As2,
while all available equations have been exploited. In order to overcome this
difficulty, the ratio of the reinforcement areas χ is used again:

As1

As 2
The translation equilibrium equation is then written as:

N d  .b.h. f cd  As 2 .(  . s1   s 2 )

and thus:

N d  .b.h. f cd
As 2  (4.4.5-10)
 s 2   . s1

The choice of a value for χ, leads via (4.4.5-10) to:

66
N d  ( )1.b.h. f cd
( As 2 )1 
( s 2 )1   .( s1 )1
and

( As1 )1   .( As 2 )1

• This first approximation is in general not conclusive in domain 3, because the


first choice (σs1)1 = 0 is less close to reality (than in domain 2b). The calculation
sequence has to be started up again with a new approximate value of µd:

N d .e2  ( As1 )1.( s1 )1.(d  d 2 )


d 
b.h 2 . f cd

The iterative calculation has to be continued until the approximate solution is


sufficiently acceptable. In practice, it is observed that two iteration steps are in
general sufficient.

4.4.5.6 Auxiliary table for shortening hand calculations


In order to shorten hand calculations, annex A4.4.5.6 presents practical tables which are
composed on the basis of the following scheme:

S220 S400 S500 S600


s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2 s1 s2
d t  G s1 s2 MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa
t1 = t2 = . . . .

with δt2 chosen and with δt1 = δt2, and the following formulas:

N d .e2  As1. s1.(d  d 2 )


d 
b.h 2 . f cd

 t   t1  1
 s1   c 2 .

 t  (1  c 2 )
 cu 2

t   t2
 s2   c2 .

 t  (1  c 2 )
 cu 2

67
191 MPa (S220) 191 MPa (S220)
 
 
348 MPa (S400) 348 MPa (S400)
 
 s1  E s . s1    s 2  E s . s 2  
435 MPa (S500) 435 MPa (S500)
 
 

522 MPa (S600) 
522 MPa (S600)

with
Es = 200 GPa = 200000 MPa

The table thus only allows making a fast transition from µd towards the stresses σs1 and
σs2 via ψ, δt, ξt, εs1 and εs2 for different values of δt2 = δt1. The annex A4.4.5.6 contains
tables A4.4.5.6­1 to A4.4.5.6­6 which are elaborated for the different concrete classes;
the tables are also characterized by the designation "a" to "f" in function of 6 commonly
encountered values for δt2 : 0,06; 0,08; 0,10; 0,12; 0,14 and 0,16.

Notes concerning tables A4.4.5.6
• Left limit of domain 3

x = h

x h
t   1
h h

 d   .( G   t 2 ) → table 4.4.5­2

Table 4.4.5­2
Domain 3: left limit for different values of t2

δt2 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16


ξt 1 1 1 1 1 1
Concrete classes up to C50/60
ψ = 0,805 µd 0,288 0,272 0,256 0,240 0,224 0,208
δG = 0,418
Concrete class C55/67
ψ = 0,742 µd 0,248 0,233 0,218 0,203 0,188 0,173
δG = 0,394
Concrete class C60/75
ψ = 0,692 µd 0,220 0,206 0,192 0,178 0,164 0,151
δG = 0,378
Concrete class C70/85
ψ = 0,625 µd 0,188 0,176 0,163 0,151 0,138 0,126
δG = 0,361
Concrete class C80/95
ψ = 0,596 µd 0,176 0,164 0,152 0,141 0,129 0,117
δG = 0,356
Concrete class C90/105

68
ψ = 0,581 µd 0,171 0,159 0,148 0,136 0,124 0,113
δG = 0,354

• Right limit of domain 3

x = 

t = 

 = 

t = 

 d  0,5   t 2 → table 4.4.5­3

Table 4.4.5­3
Domain 3: right limit for different values of t2
δt2 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16
ξt ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
Concrete classes up to C50/60
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C55/67
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C60/75
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C70/85
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C80/95
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C90/105
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5

69
4.4.6 Right limit of domain 3: pure compression
4.4.6.1 Principle of the calculation
Figure 4.4.6-1 presents a rectangular cross-section loaded in pure compression: the
strain for the whole section is εc2.

Figure 4.4.6-1
Basic figure for the analysis of pure compression; rectangular cross-section;
(a) strain diagram; (b) stress distribution diagram;
(c) resultant forces for the stress blocs; (d) imposed load

The design problem can be solved by means of the horizontal translation equilibrium
equation:

Nd = Nc + Ns1 + Ns2

Nd = Ac . fcd + (As1 + As2) . σsd (4.4.6-1)

with σsd specified in figure 4.4.6-2 and in table 4.4.6-1.

70
Figure 4.4.6-2
Stress in the steel reinforcement for strain εs = εc2

Table 4.4.6-1
Stress in the steel reinforcement for strain εs = εc2

Concrete S220 S400 S500 S600


class c2 (fyd= 191 MPa) (fyd= 348 MPa) (fyd= 434 MPa) (fyd= 522 MPa)
≤ C50/60 2,00 ‰ fyd fyd 400 MPa 400 MPa
C55/67 2,20 ‰ fyd fyd fyd 440 MPa
C60/75 2,29 ‰ fyd fyd fyd 458 MPa
C70/85 2,42 ‰ fyd fyd fyd 484 MPa
C80/95 2,52 ‰ fyd fyd fyd 504 MPa
C90/105 2,60 ‰ fyd fyd fyd 520 MPa

4.4.6.2 Second order effects


In principle, pure compression is a loading case which is encountered typically for the
calculation of columns. In the design of columns, one has to take care of the eventual
second order effects (buckling) in function of the slenderness λ of the column. Second
order effects are discussed in the chapter on columns, further in these course notes,
where particular attention will be paid to the conditions indicating whether or not
buckling analysis of a column is necessary.
However, at this stage of the course, it is important to note that even if it is not
necessary to perform a buckling analysis (because of small slenderness), several
uncertainties have to be taken into account:
• cases of pure compression are very sensitive to possible second order effects due
to imperfections in materials and cross-sections;

71
• in practice, it is almost impossible to assure the application of an axial force
exactly in the centre of gravity of the cross-section of the column. This is for
example due to:
- tolerances related to the casting of the column or of the construction element
that is supported by the column;
- the distorted stress distribution in the neoprene support pad due to a (small)
rotation angle of the supported element (see figure 4.4.6-3).

Figure 4.4.6-3
Eccentric application of the compression force onto the column, due to a small
rotation angle; (a) support pad in neoprene;
(b) stress distribution in neoprene pad

EN 1992-1-1:2004; 5.8.2(5) proposes to cover this problem by the introduction of an


additional 1st order eccentricity defined on the basis of the geometrical imperfections
(which have already been discussed in paragraph 2.5.2.3 in these course notes). A
structural member subjected to pure compression, which is not sensitive to second order
effects because of its reduced slenderness, has thus to be calculated for an eccentrically
applied axial compression force, applied with the additional eccentricity ea. In that way,
the design problem of columns is translated into a problem of bending combined with
compression (with small eccentricity, and thus in domain 3).
As a reminder (on the basis of paragraph 2.5.2.3 in these course notes):

e a = θi . l 0 / 2 (4.4.6-2)
in which:

l0 = the effective length of the isolated element; indeed, the formula is elaborated for
an isolated column, fixed at one end, free at the other end, characterized by an
effective length = 2  (length of the column).
θi = the rotation angle with respect to the vertical line, which characterizes the
inclination of the element.

 Note:
For walls and isolated columns in braced systems, ea = l0 /400 may be assumed
for the purpose of simplification.

72
4.5 Bending combined with tension
Preliminary note: the developments in this paragraph are limited to rectangular cross-
sections, but extrapolation of the method towards sections with variable shapes is
straightforward.

4.5.1 Domains to be analysed


Table 4.1.4-1 shows that ULS strain diagrams corresponding to bending in combination
with axial tension, are situated in the domains 1a, 1b and 2a.

4.5.2 Definition of the design problem


Given:
• the quality of the selected materials: fyd and fcd;
• the dimensions of the concrete cross-section: b, h (d), d1 and d2; see figure 4.5.2-
1;
• the design values of the imposed internal forces Md and Nd; the imposed loads
may also be defined as a axial tensile force Nd that is applied with an eccentricity
e0 to the geometric centre of the cross-section. To be remembered: the geometric
centre (or centroid) is used instead of the centre of gravity because the latter is as
yet unknown; in this stage of the project, only architectural plans are available.

Question: the reinforcement areas As1 and As2 = ?

Figure 4.5.2-1
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with tension

73
4.5.3 Analysis of the domains 1b and 2a
4.5.3.1 When?
A strain diagram in these two domains can only be obtained if the bending is much
more important than the tension; Nd is applied with a large eccentricity e0.
4.5.3.2 Basic equations
The formulas in this paragraph are developed for a strain diagram in domain 2a; the
developments in domain 1b are completely similar.
Principle figure: see figure 4.5.3-1.

Figure 4.5.3-1
Principle figure for the analysis of bending combined with tension in domain 2a

• Horizontal translation equilibrium:

Nd = Ns1 - Nc - Ns2

or
Nd = As1 . σs1 - ψ . b . x . fcd – As2 . σs2

or
ψ . b . x . fcd + As2 . σs2 = As1 . σs1 – Nd

and thus

Nd
 .b.x. f cd  As 2 . s 2  ( As1  ). s1 (4.5.3-1)
 s1

• Rotation equilibrium around the tensile reinforcement As1:

Nd . e1 = ψ . b . x . fcd . (d – δG . x) + As2 . σs2 . (d – d2) (4.5.3-2)

74
with e1 = eccentricity of Nd with respect to As1.

These equations are the same as the ones for bending combined with compression in the
domains 1b and 2a: see equations (4.4.3-1) and (4.4.3-2); the only difference in equation
(4.5.3-1) with respect to equation (4.4.3-1) is the minus sign (instead of a plus sign)
before the term Nd/σs1. The solution scheme is thus quasi identical to the one for bending
combined with compression.

4.5.3.3 First case: As2 = 0


The solution scheme comprises the following steps:
• Nd and e0 are given → deduction of e1;
• calculation of:

N d .e1
d 
b.d 2 . f cd

• by means of table A4.2.3.7, one finds:

As f yd
 . and s1
b.d f cd

• subtraction of As1 from the value of As that has been obtained just before:

Nd
As1  As  (4.5.3-3)
 s1

Attention to the plus sign instead of the minus sign in expression (4.4.3-5)

4.5.3.4 Second case: As2 ≠ 0


The solution scheme comprises the following steps:
• assumption that As2 = 0 and calculation of:

N d .e1
d 
b.d 2 . f cd

If µd > µlim in table A4.2.3.7, a compression reinforcement is necessary in order to


reduce µd by a term which is function of As2, causing µd to fall into the useful part
of table A4.2.3.7
Calculation of As2 minimum via:

75
M d   lim .b.d 2 . f cd
As 2 min  As 2 lim 
 s 2 .( d  d 2 )

Attention: Md is replaced by Nd . e1!


Choice of As2;

• calculation of:
N d .e1  As 2 . s 2 .(d  d 2 )
n 
b.d 2 . f cd

This µn thus corresponds to the moment Mn which is resisted by the simply


reinforced section (see decomposition of the doubly reinforced section, presented
in figure 4.2.7-4). For this µn, one finds a corresponding value of ω in table
A4.2.3.7, which then permits to determine Asn;

• calculation of:
As 2 . s 2
Asc 
 s1
• and finally:
Nd
As1  Asn  Asc  (4.5.3-4)
 s1

4.5.4 Analysis of domain 1a


4.5.4.1 When?
A strain diagram in this domain can only be obtained if the tension is far more important
than the bending; Nd is applied with a small eccentricity eo.

4.5.4.2 Equilibrium equations


See figure 4.5.4-1; the whole cross-section is in tension; concrete does not appear in the
design equations.

76
Figure 4.5.4-1
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with tension in domain 1a

The rotation equilibrium equation is written two times, one time around the lower
reinforcement, one time around the upper reinforcement:

external moment = internal moment

Thus:
Nd . e1 = As2 . σs2 . (d – d2) (4.5.4-1)

and
Nd . e2 = As1 . σs1 . (d – d2) (4.5.4-2)

in which σs1 = σs1 (εs1 = εud) = fyd for all steel grades S220, S400, S500 and S600.
Expression (4.5.4-2) leads to:

N d .e2
As1  with s1 = fyd
 s1 .(d  d 2 )

The area As2 cannot be deduced from expression (4.5.4-1) because σs2 is not known. This
problem is overcome by the introduction of χ:

As1

As 2

And thus:
As1
As 2  (4.5.4-3)

An optimal solution can be realised by imposing that the stresses in both reinforcements
are equal to the yield value fyd.

77
Division of (4.5.4-1) by (4.5.4-2) leads to:

N d .e1 A . .(d  d 2 )
 s2 s2
N d .e2 As1 . s1 .(d  d 2 )

and consequently:

e1 As1 e
 s 2   s1 . .   s1 . 1 . (4.5.4-4)
e2 As 2 e2

The most economical solution is found for:

σs2 = σs1 = fyd

and thus for

e1 e2
.  1 or  optimal 
e2 e1

or finally:

As1 e2

As 2 e1

The last expression means that the tensile load Nd should be applied in the centre of
gravity of both reinforcements, which is an obvious result (principle of the lever arms).

4.5.5 Left limit of domain 1a: pure tension


The tensile force Nd is applied in the geometric centre 0 of the cross-section (see figure
4.5.4-1):

d  d2
e1  e2 
2

e2
 optimal  1
e1

The design formula is thus:

78
Nd / 2 Nd
As1  As 2   (4.5.5-1)
( s )   ud 2. f yd

4.6 Interaction diagrams

4.6.1 Introduction
The reasoning aiming at the introduction and definition of the « interaction diagrams »
starts with the discussion of the design equations associated with one particular ULS
strain diagram. The following developments are based on the choice of an ULS strain
diagram in domain 3: see figure 4.6.1-1.

Figure 4.6.1-1
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with compression in domain 3

Translation equilibrium:

Nd = ψ . b . h . fcd + As1 . σs1 + As2 . σs2


or

Nd = ψ . b . h . fcd + As2 . (σs2 + χ . σs1) with χ = As1 / As2

which gives

N d   .b.h. f cd
As 2  (4.6.1-1)
 . s1   s 2

Rotation equilibrium, written around the geometric centre 0:

h h h
N d .e0   . f cd .b.h.(   G .h)  As 2 . s 2 .(  d 2 )  As1 . s1 .(  d1 )
2 2 2
or

79
N d .e0   . f cd .b.h 2 .( 1   G )  As 2 . s 2 .h.( 1   t 2 )   . As 2 . s1 .h.( 1   t1 )
2 2 2

or

N d .e0   . f cd .b.h 2 .( 1   G )  As 2 .h.( 1   t ).( s 2   . s1 ) (4.6.1-2)


2 2

As2 in (4.6.1-2) is replaced by (4.6.1-1):

N   .b.h. f cd
N d .e0   . f cd .b.h 2 .( 1   G )  h.( 1   t ).( s 2   . s1 ). d
2 2  . s1   s 2

or, by rearranging terms:

 ( 1   t ).( s 2   . s1 )   h.( 1   t ).( s 2   . s1 ) 


N d .e0   . f cd .b.h . (   G )  2
2
 1  2 .N d
 2  s 2   . s1    s 2   . s1 
   
(4.6.1-3)

Equation (4.6.1-3) presents the relationship between the bending moment Md = Nd . e0


and the axial compression force Nd. One observes that:
• for a given set of values for χ, δt, b, h, fyd, fcd, and
• for a chosen ULS strain diagram (for which δG, σs1 and σs2 are thus known),
the relationship (4.6.1-3) is a linear function Md = f(Nd), represented by a straight line in
figure 4.6.1-2.

Figure 4.6.1-2
Md = f(Nd), associated with one particular ULS strain diagram in domain 3, and taking
into account a set of chosen values for χ, δt, b, h, fyd and fcd, appears to be a linear
function

80
 Note :
By applying the procedure demonstrated above (exploitation of translation and
rotation equilibrium equations), one obtains a straight line Md = f(Nd) associated
with each ULS strain diagram (also for those strain diagrams situated in other
domains than domain 3).

Each point, represented by the coordinates (Md,Nd), of the straight line corresponds to a
certain amount of reinforcement; for the case of domain 3, it may be reminded that the
reinforcement areas are given by:

N d   .b.h. f cd
As 2 
 s 2   . s1

As1 = χ . As2
and thus

As tot = As1 + As2

which leads to a mechanical reinforcement ratio:

As tot f yd
 .
b.h f cd

Each point of the line in figure 4.6.1-2 corresponds to a specific value of ω.

4.6.2 The interaction diagram


4.6.2.1 Elaboration and significance
An interaction diagram is elaborated for the given cross-section, by considering all
possible ULS strain diagrams in all domains 1a to 3, and thus the whole range of values
of ξ = x/d varying between -∞ and +∞: see figure 4.6.2-1.

81
Figure 4.6.2-1
Schematic overview of the different positions of the ULS strain diagram for a given
cross-section, to be considered for the elaboration of an interaction diagram. The values
mentioned for ξ are those corresponding to εc2 = 0,002; εcu = 0,0035 and εud = 0,01

The resisting internal forces Nd and Md are calculated for each position of the ULS strain
diagram, on the basis of the stress-strain diagrams for steel and concrete, for different
values of As1 and for the chosen parameter χ = As1 / As2.

The resulting diagram comprises all combinations of Nd and Md that are possible for the
given cross-section. Figure 4.6.2-2 shows such an interaction diagram in a schematic
way. The diagram is composed of:
- a tree of straight lines which correspond to the ULS strain diagrams, and
- a series of iso-reinforcement curves.
It is important to notice that there is only 1 interaction diagram for the following set of
chosen parameters:
• the shape and dimensions of the cross-section (b and h for a rectangular section);
• the materials properties: fyd et fcd;
• the ratio χ = As1 / As2;
• δt (= δt1 = δt2)

Figure 4.6.2-2
Schematic representation of an interaction diagram

82
The interaction diagrams are useful to solve the following problems:
• determination of the maximum axial force that can be resisted by a given cross-
section (geometry, As1 and As2) which is loaded by an imposed bending moment ;
• determination of the maximum bending moment that can be resisted by a given
cross-section (geometry, As1 and As2) which is loaded by an imposed axial force;
• determination of the reinforcement areas As1 and As2 of a given cross-section with
known geometry, subjected to bending combined with an axial force. The
comparison of different interaction diagrams, elaborated for different values of
As2/As1, allows the determination of the minimum value of the total reinforcement
area As1 + As2.

The interaction diagrams can also be used for the case of pure bending (Nd = 0) by
considering the values on the Md axis.

4.6.2.2 Further generalisation


In order to reduce the number of parameters associated with each interaction diagram,
the last ones are represented in a system of axis corresponding to « reduced moments »
and to « reduced axial forces »; moreover, the iso-reinforcement curves correspond to
the mechanical reinforcement ratio ω: see figure 4.6.2-3. This permits a more rational
representation of interaction diagrams, which are now independent from the concrete
class and the dimensions b and h. With this way of representation, there is only one
interaction diagram for each chosen set of the following parameters:
• the shape of the cross-section (rectangular, circular, etc.);
• the steel grade fyd;
• the reinforcement ratio χ = As1 / As2;
• δt (= δt1 = δt2).

Figure 4.6.2-3
Schematic representation of a practical interaction diagram by using « reduced loads »

83
4.6.3 Examples of interaction diagrams
Examples of interaction diagrams can be found in typical vade-mecums related to
concrete design. Some of these examples are shown in annex A4.6.3.

Figures A4.6.3-1 to A4.6.3-5 (LAMBOTTE, 1988) are valid for the following
parameters:
• rectangular section;
• χ = 1 (As1 = As2);
• δt = 0,10;
• steel grades S220, S400 or S500:
figure A4.6.3-1: S220;
figure A4.6.3-2: S400;
figure A4.6.3-3: S400; enlargement of figure A4.6.3-2;
figure A4.6.3-4: S500;
figure A4.6.3-5: S500; enlargement of figure A4.6.3-4.

Figures A4.6.3-6 to A4.6.3-9 (BETONVERENIGING, 1997) show an alternative


representation and are valid for the following parameters:
figure A4.6.3-6: rectangular section, χ = 1, δt = 0,10 ;
figure A4.6.3-7: rectangular section, χ = 1, δt = 0,15 ;
figure A4.6.3-8: rectangular section, χ = 1, δt = 0,10 ;
figure A4.6.3-9: rectangular section, χ = 1, δt = 0,15 ;

84

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