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4 Chapter 4
Design of crosssections at ULS,
for bending and axial force
4.1 Introduction: practical elaboration of the principal idea of the
partial factor method – overview of basic assumptions
1
in dimensions); adapted design methods are needed here (plastic methods, strut
and tie method).
2. The strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or in compression, is the
same as that in the surrounding concrete: c = s.
3. The tensile strength of concrete is ignored.
4. The stresses in the concrete in compression are derived from the (simplified)
design stress-strain relationships discussed in chapter 3: the parabola-rectangle
diagram, the bi-linear diagram or the rectangular stress distribution (see figures
3.4.3-3, 3.4.3-5 and 3.4.3-6 in chapter 3 in these course notes).
5. The stresses in the reinforcing steel are derived from the (simplified) design curve
discussed in chapter 3: the bi-linear stress-strain relationship (see figures 3.5.5-1
and 3.5.5-2 in chapter 3 in these course notes).
6. The compressive strain in the concrete shall be limited to cu2 or cu3 depending on
the stress-strain diagram used. With the parabola-rectangle diagram, the strain is
limited to cu2. This means that for sections that are not loaded in pure
compression, but in simple or combined bending, the limit value cu2 has to be
respected (- 0,0035 for the concrete classes up to C50/60).
7. For sections which are subjected to pure compression or to approximately
concentric loading (e/h < 0,1), the compressive strain should be limited to c2 or
c3 depending on the stress-strain diagram used. In practice, with the parabola-
rectangle diagram, the strain in compression is limited to c2 (- 0,002 for the
concrete classes up to C50/60).
8. For the intermediate cases between pure compression and combined bending
(compression + bending), the ULS strain diagram is defined starting from the
strain c2 at the distance (cu2 - c2) . h / cu2 from the extreme compression fibre of
the section (see figure 4.1.3-1). For concrete classes up to C50/60, the strain is -
0,002 at the distance equal to 3/7th of the depth, from the extreme compression
fibre of the section.
9. The ultimate strain of the steel reinforcement is ud (according to EN 1992-1-
1:2004, 3.3.6(7) only when the inclined branch of the diagram is used). The
Belgian ANB imposes ud also when the horizontal branch is used. Moreover, the
Belgian ANB specifies also that the strain in the steel reinforcement may be
limited to 1%.
2
εs1 strain in the tension reinforcement;
εs2 strain in the compression reinforcement;
d1 distance of the centre of gravity of the tension steel towards the nearestby
concrete surface;
d2 distance of the centre of gravity of the compression steel towards the nearest
by concrete surface;
εc compression strain in concrete.
Figure Possible strain distributions in ULS1
Strain distributions in ULS (Reference: figure 6.1 in EN 199211:2004)
Discussion of figure 4.1.31
The ultimate values of the strains to be respected for the different loading situations,
lead to the identification of three domains in figure 4.1.31; the limits between the
domains are defined by particular positions of the lines that materialize the strain
distributions:
Domain 1: is characterized by the tensile strain of the steel reinforcement equal to
εud ; these strain distributions may occur for the following load cases: pure tension,
tension with small eccentricity, simple bending and combined bending, without
full exploitation of the deformation capacity of the concrete.
Domain 2: is characterized by the ultimate compression strain of concrete equal
to εcu2; these strain distributions may occur for the following load cases: simple
bending or combined bending with full exploitation of the deformation capacity of
the concrete.
Domain 3: is characterized by the ultimate compression strain of concrete varying
between cu2 and c2; these strain distributions may occur for the following load
cases: compression with small eccentricity and axial compression.
3
In each of the three domains, one can consider several subdomains: see figure 4.1.32.
This figure is translated into figure 4.1.33 for the concrete classes up to C50/60, with
cu2 = - 0,0035; c2 = - 0,002 and εud = 0,010.
Figure Possible strain distributions in ULS2
ULS strain diagrams; detailed elaboration of figure 4.1.31
Figure Possible strain distributions in ULS3
ULS strain diagrams for the concrete classes up to C50/60, with εcu2 = - 0,0035;
εc2 = - 0,002 and εud = 0,010.
Discussion of figure 4.1.32
Domain 1: the ULS strain diagrams turn around point A which corresponds to the
ultimate tension strain in the steel reinforcement, equal to εud (1% in figure 4.1.33).
Two subdomains can be identified:
4
Domain 1a: tensile load with small eccentricity. The whole crosssection is
loaded in tension.
Domain 1b: simple bending or combined bending without full exploitation of the
deformation capacity of the concrete.
Domain 2: the ULS strain diagrams turn around point B which corresponds to the
ultimate compression strain in the concrete, equal to εcu2 (0,35% in figure 4.1.33). Two
subdomains can be identified:
Domain 2a: simple or combined bending; the tension strain in the steel
reinforcement is in between 0 and εud ; this domain is characterized by the
full exploitation of the deformation capacity of the concrete.
Domain 2b: combined bending; all reinforcements are in compression. Only a
small part of the crosssection is still in tension. This domain is characterized
by the full exploitation of the deformation capacity of the concrete.
Domain 3: the ULS strain diagrams turn around point C. In this domain, the whole
crosssection is in compression. Point C is identified by the intersection of the line BO
(which corresponds to the passage from a partially tended section towards a fully
compressed section) with the line DE (which corresponds to the strain diagram in axial
compression). The distance of C towards the extreme compression fibre is equal to
(1 – εc2 / εcu2 ) . h (that is 3/7th of the total depth of the section in figure 4.1.3-3).
4.1.4 Conclusions
All load cases will be discussed in the following paragraphs of chapter 4. For each load
case, all possible ULS strain distributions will be considered. It should be noted that for
each load case, studies will be necessary in different domains. Table 4.1.4-1 presents an
overview of the different load cases to be considered and the corresponding domains in
which these load case are to be examined.
As was already mentioned in paragraph 4.1.1, the aim is to develop in each domain the
equations that will permit to solve the design problem: the determination of the
reinforcement for a selected concrete cross-section and for imposed internal forces.
5
Load case Possible domains
Eccentrically 1a
applied tension 1b
(bending combinde 2a
with tension)
Simple bending 1b
2a
Simple bending 1b
2a
Eccentrically 1b
applied 2a
compression 2b
(bending combined
with compression) 3
Table 4.1.4-1
Overview of load cases and corresponding domains to be analyzed
6
4.2 Bending – rectangular crosssection
4.2.1 Introduction
For the case of simple bending, the depth of the neutral axis is at most equal to the
effective depth; the ULS strain diagrams are situated in the domains 1b and 2a.
It is common to start with the study of domain 2a, because this allows a better
understanding of the small difficulties encountered in the neighbouring domains.
Equations are first developed for the case of a “singly reinforced cross-section”, which
is characterized by the presence of reinforcement only near the tensile face.
4.2.3 Domain 2a
4.2.3.1 Basic figure
The equations that are needed to solve the design problem are developed on the basis of
figure 4.2.3-1, where one finds the schematic representation of:
• the singly reinforced section;
• one ULS strain diagram, situated in domain 2a. The position of the neutral axis
(NA) with respect to the extreme compression fibre, is indicated by the symbol x ;
• the stress diagram that is deduced from the strain diagram by means of the design
stress-strain relationships for steel and concrete;
7
• the cross-section with the resultant forces. Fc is the resultant force of the
compression stresses in the concrete (in fact, it is the resultant of the elementary
internal forces). The integral of the elementary compression forces can easily be
calculated by considering the surface under the parabola-rectangle diagram and by
multiplying this surface by the width b. The surface under the parabola-rectangle
diagram can be calculated because the equation of the parabolic part is known (see
chapter 3); it is expressed as ψ . (fcd . x), where the filling coefficient ψ expresses
the degree of filling-up of the rectangle (fcd . x) by the parabola-rectangle diagram.
Fc is thus expressed as:
Fc = ψ . (fcd . x) . b
The position of the resultant force Fc is also known; therefore, the position of the
centre of gravity of the parabola-rectangle diagram. The distance of the centre of
gravity towards the extreme compression fibre, is expressed as: δG . x, where δG is
called “the coefficient of the centre of gravity”.
Note: For the concrete classes up to C50/60, with εcu2 = - 0,0035 and
εc2 = - 0,002, one finds:
Fc = ψ . (fcd . x) . b = 0,81 . (fcd . x) . b with δG . x = 0,416 . x.
Fs is the resultant of the tensile stresses in the steel; in a simplified way (taking σs
constant over the whole area of reinforcement), Fs is expressed as:
Fs = As . σs
• the cross-section with the imposed internal force, which is the design bending
moment Md.
8
(b) stress diagram; (c) resultant forces;
(d) imposed load (internal bending moment)
s dx
(4.2.3-1)
cu 2 x
Introduction of the symbol ξ:
ξ=x/d
1
s cu 2 (4.2.3-2)
cu 2
(4.2.3-3)
cu 2 s
Notes:
- For the concrete classes up to C50/60, εcu2 = - 0,0035, and the formulas
(4.2.3-2) and (4.2.3-3) can be written as:
3,5 1
s (4.2.3-4)
1000
and
3,5
(4.2.3-5)
3,5 1000 s
- Limits of domain 2a
The limits of domain 2a are defined by:
- on the left side: εs = εud; for the concrete classes up to C50/60 and adopting
εs = εud = 1%, one finds ξ = 0,259;
- on the right side: εs = 0% and consequently ξ = 1.
- Several particular values of ξ may be highlighted within domain 2a,
especially those corresponding with the steel tensile strain εs = fyd; see figure
4.2.3-2. For the concrete classes up to C50/60 (with εcu2 = - 0,0035), one finds
via (4.2.3-5) the limit values ξlim which correspond with εs = fyd / Es for
different steel grades: see table 4.2.3.-1. The significance of ξlim will be
9
examined later on, but it can be said already that strain distributions with ξ >
ξlim, and thus εs < fyd / Es, are to be avoided.
Table 4.2.3-1
Limit values ξlim for different steel grades, calculated for the concrete classes up to
C50/60 (with εcu2 = - 0,0035)
S220 S400 S500 S600
fyk (MPa) 220 400 500 600
fyd (MPa) 191,3 347,8 434,8 521,7
ξlim 0,785 0,668 0,617 0,573
Fc = Fs
ψ . (fcd . x) . b = As . σs
With ξ = x / d, one finds:
ψ . ξ . fcd .b .d = As . σs (4.2.3-6)
10
2. Rotation equilibrium; see figure 4.2.3.-1:
Md = Fc . z ( = Fs . z )
Md = (ψ . fcd . x . b) . (d – δG . x)
Md
d (4.2.3-8)
b.d 2 . f cd
µd = ψ . ξ . (1 – δG . ξ) (4.2.3-9)
Note:
One can now also calculate the values of µd that correspond with the limits of
domain 2a, by introduction of the values of ξlim in equation (4.2.3-9).
Table 4.2.3-2 presents the limit values of µd for the concrete classes up to C50/60
and taking into account the choice to put εud = 1% .
Table 4.2.3-2
Limit values of µd for domain 2a for the concrete classes up to C50/60 (with
εcu2 = - 0,0035), putting εud = 1%
ξ µd
Limit on the left side (εs = εud) 0,259 0,187
Limit on the right side (εs = 0%) 1 0,473
S220 (εs = fyd / Es = 0,096 %) ξlim = 0,785 µd,lim = 0,428
S400 (εs = fyd / Es = 0,174 %) ξlim = 0,668 µd,lim = 0,391
S500 (εs = fyd / Es = 0,217 %) ξlim = 0,617 µd,lim = 0,371
S600 (εs = fyd / Es = 0,261 %) ξlim = 0,573 µd,lim = 0,353
11
Md f ck
d with f cd 0,85.
b.d 2 . f cd 1,5
The rotation equilibrium equation (4.2.3-9), written in inverse way as ξ = f(µd) leads to
the quadratic equation:
ψ . δG . ξ2 - ψ . ξ + µd = 0
4 G
1 1 d
(4.2.3-10)
2 G
This permits then to deduce the value of x and thus the position of the NA.
With ξ and εcu2 and the compatibility equations (4.2.3-2), one can calculate εs.
The steel stress-strain diagram then permits to determine σs.
The translation equilibrium (4.2.3-6) finally leads to As:
. . f cd .b.d
As (4.2.3-11)
s
ρ = As / b.d
. . f cd
(4.2.3-12)
s
12
As f yd
.
b.d f cd
. . f yd
(4.2.3-13)
s
Thanks to formulas (4.2.3-13) and (4.2.3-10), one observes the direct relationship
between ω and µd:
. f yd 4
1 1 G d (4.2.3-14)
s .2 G
Each table is composed as follows:
s (MPa)
d =x/d =z/d c (‰) s (‰) G S220 S400 S500 S600
with
Md
d defined by d
b.d 2 . f cd
As f yd
defined by .
b.d f cd
and
13
. f yd 4
1 1 G d for d > lim (s < fyd)
s .2 G
4
1 1 G d for d ≤ lim (s = fyd)
2 G
4 G
1 1 d
2 G
and G = f(concrete class)
z d G .x
1 G .
d d
1
s cu 2 .
s = f(s) via the design stress-strain diagram for the selected steel grade
Auxiliary figure for table A4.2.3.7
14
4.2.4 Domain 1b
4.2.4.1 Introduction: the particular problem in domain 1b
The maximum allowable strain (εcu2; 0,0035 for the concrete classes up to C50/60) is not
reached and the equilibrium is obtained with a maximum value of the concrete stress
which can be smaller than fcd.
On the other hand, the steel strain is always equal to εud (1% or 0,8.εuk); see figure 4.2.4-
1.
Figure 4.2.4-1
Strain diagram in domain 1b; 0 < εc ≤ εcu2 and εs = εud
4.2.4.2 Compatibility equation
c x
(4.2.41)
s ,ult d x
With the introduction of:
one finds:
x
c ud . ud .
dx 1
And thus:
c
(4.2.4-2)
c ud
15
Note: the limits of domain 1b
The limits are defined by:
on the left side: εc = 0% → ξ = 0 ;
on the right side: εc = εcu2; for the commonly used concrete classes up to
C50/60 and assuming εs = 0,01, the limit on the right is defined by εc =
0,0035 → ξ = 0,259.
Table 4.2.3-2 presents the limit values of µd for the concrete classes up to C50/60
and taking into account the choice to put εud = 1% .
A particular case is found for εc = εc2 ; for εc < εc2 the parabola-rectangle diagram is
reduced to a portion of the parabolic part. One thus has to make the distinction between
two cases in function of the extreme concrete strain εc with respect to εc2 (smaller or
larger than εc2): see figure 4.2.4-2. For the concrete classes up to C50/60 (with
εc2 = 0,002) and assuming εs = 0,01, one finds ξ = 0,167 which corresponds to the limit
between two sub-domains in domain 1b.
Figure 4.2.4-2
Domain 1b; schematic representation of the stress diagram in the concrete for extreme
strain εc smaller than εc2 (a) or larger than εc2 (b)
16
Figure 4.2.43
Auxiliary figure for domain 1b;
case in which extreme concrete strain is smaller than εc2
2. Equilibrium equations
On the basis of figure 4.2.4-3, one can write the following relationships:
• translation equilibrium
. fcd . x . b = As . σs
or (introducing ξ = x/d):
. fcd . d . b . ξ = As . σs (4.2.4-3)
As f yd f
. . . yd (4.2.4-4)
b.d f cd s
• rotation equilibrium
Md = . fcd . x . b . (d – δG . x)
or (introducing ξ = x/d):
Md = . fcd . b . d2 . ξ . (1 – δG . ξ)
Md
d
b.d 2 . f cd
one writes:
µd = . ξ . (1 – δG . ξ)
(4.2.4-5)
Note 1:
17
and δG are functions of εc on the one hand, and εc is related to ξ via the
compatibility equation (4.2.4-2) on the other hand, which thus leads to a direct
link between µd and ξ.
3. Solution scheme
The solution scheme is similar to the one in domain 2a.
Given: Md
→ µd; verification: is µd situated in domain 1b? If yes, then:
→ rotation equilibrium equation (4.2.4-5) → ξ
→ compatibility equation (4.2.4-2) → εc which allows verification and eventual
adjustment of and δG
→ translation equilibrium equation (4.2.4-3) → ω
Figure 4.2.44
Auxiliary figure for domain 1b;
case in which extreme concrete strain εc is situated between the limits: εc2 ≤ εc ≤ εcu2
2. Equilibrium equations
18
On the basis of figure 4.2.4-4, the equilibrium equations may be developed, which are
fully similar to the ones developed for the left sub-domain in 1b.
Solution :
ω is calculated by means of the formula:
As f yd f ck
. with f cd 0,85.
b.d f cd 1,5
19
- the material characteristics:
- resistance class of the concrete and thus fcd (with eventually the inclusion of the
long term effects), εc2 and εcu2 (if one selects the parabola-rectangle diagram);
- steel grade and thus fyd and εud ; here, the decision must be taken to work with
εud = 0,8. εuk or with εud = 0,01.
- the imposed load: Md
Question: As = ?
Solution:
µd is calculated by means of formula
Md f ck
d with f cd 0,85.
b.d 2 . f cd 1,5
and one looks for the calculated value of µd in the adequate table A4.2.3.7.
20
- the steel is not used in an efficient way: σs < fyd. The bending moment Md must be
equivalent to the couple of resultant forces Fc and Fs: see figure 4.2.5-1; a large
value of µd (µd > µlim) leads to a large value of Fc, and thus to a large value of Fs
(one cannot change much to the lever arm); with a small σs, this leads to an
excessive value for As (which, on top of that, is not used efficiently);
- the ULS of the cross-section is obtained by brittle failure of the compressive
concrete, without plastic deformation of the steel reinforcement. The plastic
deformation of the reinforcement is an essential condition regarding the safety of
buildings, because large plastic strains in the tensile steel go together with large
crack openings in the adjacent concrete, which gives observable warnings before
failure. This is also called “the ductility condition”.
Figure 4.2.5-1
Auxiliary figure for the reasoning about µd > µlim
In order to avoid µd > µlim, steel reinforcement must be put in the compression zone
of the cross-section; this permits to realize Fc with a smaller area of compressed
concrete (figure 4.2.5-1). Adding steel in the compressive zone permits to get a
higher position of the NA; this leads to a smaller value of x, to a larger value of σs
and to a strain diagram characterized by µd ≤ µlim.
21
It should be noted that the actual version of Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004)
does not include this condition anymore for linear elastic analysis. On the other
hand, the Belgian ANB (NBN EN1992-1-1-ANB:2008; 5.4) has now included
even more severe conditions:
x
0,45 for fck ≤ 50 MPa
d
x 0,37
for fck > 50 MPa
d 0,6 0,0014 / cu 2
One observes that the condition is more severe for high strength concrete
because of its more brittle character.
Table 4.2.5-1
Auxiliary table presenting the area of reinforcement As
in function of the nominal diameter and the number n of bars
Nominal diameter (mm)
6 8 10 12 14 16 20 25 28 32 40
2
n Section As (mm ) composed of n bars
1 28,3 50,3 78,5 113 154 201 314 491 616 804 1257
2 56,6 101 157 226 308 402 628 982 1232 1608 2513
3 85,0 151 236 339 462 603 942 1437 1847 2412 3770
4 113 201 314 452 616 804 1257 1963 2463 3216 5027
5 141 251 393 565 770 1005 1571 2454 3079 4020 6283
6 170 302 471 679 924 1206 1885 2945 3695 4824 7540
7 198 352 550 792 1078 1407 2199 3436 4310 5628 8796
8 226 402 628 905 1232 1608 2513 3927 4926 6432 10053
9 254 452 707 1018 1385 1810 2827 4418 5542 7236 11310
10 283 503 785 1131 1539 2011 3142 4909 6158 8040 12566
11 311 553 864 1244 1693 2212 3456 5400 6773 8844 13823
12 339 603 942 1357 1847 2413 3770 5890 7389 9648 15080
22
4.2.6 Dimensions of the cross-section of beams
4.2.6.1 Width (or breadth) b
As was already pointed out in paragraph 4.2.2, b is chosen in most of the cases in
function of:
• architectural considerations; for example, the width of a beam may be chosen
equal (or not) to the diameter of the supporting cylindrical column;
• the resistance to shear (see further in chapter 7 in these course notes);
• economical aspects of the design solution.
4.2.6.2 Depth h (and thus also the effective depth d)
As was already pointed out in paragraph 4.2.2, the depth h (or total depth of the cross-
section) is mostly chosen in function of:
• serviceability conditions: a certain minimum depth is necessary to avoid
excessive deformations of the beam (see further in chapter on SLS);
• architectural and esthetical considerations;
• functional conditions;
• economical aspects of the design solution.
The choice can also be made to adopt the « minimum depth » or the « optimum depth »;
these two notions are explained hereafter.
23
Figure 4.2.6-1
Schematic representation of two possibilities of reinforcements of a cross-
section, with indication of the difference between h and d
Starting with:
Md
d
b.d 2 . f cd
one finds:
Md 1 Md
d
d .b. f cd d b. f cd
Note:
For concrete classes up to C50/60, and assuming εud = 0,010, the limit between
the domains 1b and 2a corresponds to ξ = 0,259 and µd = 0,187. The optimum
depth is then:
Md
d 2,31 (4.2.6-1)
b. f cd
One also finds the reinforcement area associated with that depth:
24
f cd f
As .b.d . 0,209.b.d . cd
f yd f yd
or, by replacement of ζ = z/d = 0,892 in (4.2.4-6):
Md
As (4.2.6-2)
0,892.d . f yd
Md
d
b.d 2 . f cd
or:
Md
d
d .b. f cd
One obtains the minimum depth d for the maximum value of the reduced moment µd.
Yet, attention must be paid here to the fulfilment of the ductility condition, with respect
for the imposed limit values µlim or (µd)max prescribed by the Belgian ANB.
µd ≤ (µd)max leads to:
Md
d d min
( d ) max .b. f cd
In addition to this, one has also: ζ ≥ ζlim (see table A4.2.3.7), ; taking into account
expression (4.2.4-6), this leads to:
Md
As As ,max
min .d . f yd
4.2.6.5 Discussion
- Comparison of the formulas for the optimum and minimum depth, shows that the
reduction of the depth to 2/3 of the optimum depth leads to an increase of the
reinforcement area As with 100%. This is not an economic solution: reduction of
depth leads to a higher cost in steel reinforcement.
- Choosing minimum dimensions may lead to serious problems to respect the
serviceability conditions: limitations of stress levels, crack opening and
deformations. Simple rules will be presented in chapter 5 in these course notes,
which will allow making better choices of the depth, in order to avoid future
problems with the SLS conditions.
25
4.2.7 Doubly reinforced cross-section
4.2.7.1 When?
See arguments in paragraph 4.2.5.2; compression reinforcement is needed when µd >
µlim or µd > µmax,ANB; the aim is to reduce the area of compressed concrete and thus to lift
the position of the NA in order to get the tensile steel in the plastic behaviour domain
before the ULS is reached.
4.2.7.2 Compatibility equations
The strain diagram to be considered for the analysis of the doubly reinforced section,
after the lifting of the NA, is situated in domain 2a: see figure 4.2-11. The further lifting
of the NA into domain 1b (by putting in more compressed steel) is not necessary and is
not an economical solution.
Figure 4.2.7-1
The strain diagram to be considered for the analysis of the doubly reinforced section,
after the lifting of the NA, is situated in domain 2a
s1 d x 1
s1 cu 2 . (4.2.7-1)
cu 2 x
s2 x d2 2
s 2 cu 2 . (4.2.7-2)
cu 2 x
26
4.2.7.3 Study of σs2
The aim of this paragraph is to determine the smallest possible value of εs2, and thus also
of σs2. Figure 4.2.7-2 shows that the lifted strain diagrams are situated in domain 2a; the
extreme position is the limit between the domains 1b and 2a, which gives the minimum
value of εs2.
Figure 4.2.7-2
Extreme minimum value for εs2
For the concrete classes up to C50/60 and assuming that tensile steel strain is limited to
1%, εs2 is minimum for ξ = 0,259
Because:
2 3,5 2
s 2 cu 2 . .
1000
and with in general δ2 ≤ 0,10, one finds εs2 ≥ 0,215 %. Figure 4.2.7-3 shows that for this
strain, one may adopt σs2 = fyd for all steel grades up to S500 (and using concrete up to
C50/60). For larger values of δ2 and with steel S600, a more elaborated estimation of σs2
is necessary.
Figure 4.2.7-3
Value of σs2 corresponding with εs2 ≥ 0,215 %
27
4.2.7.4 Basic equations
Figure 4.2.7-4 shows the principle idea behind the development of the equations
necessary for the calculation of the doubly reinforced cross-section loaded by the
imposed design bending moment Md: the doubly reinforced cross-section is considered
as the superposition of two virtual cross-sections:
• a singly reinforced cross-section which resists to the design moment Mn; the
maximum value of Mn is Mlim = µlim.b.d2.fcd (otherwise this would not be a singly
reinforced cross-section!); and
• a cross-section composed of two reinforcements: the compressive reinforcement
As2 and the complementary reinforcement Asc which is in tension. This cross-
section has to resist the complementary design moment Mc, so that Md = Mn + Mc.
The three cross-sections are thus subjected to the same strain diagram.
Figure 4.2.7-4
Decomposition of the doubly reinforced cross-section in two virtual cross-sections
Md = M n + M c (4.2.7-3)
with
28
The minimum area As2 is necessary to equilibrate the complementary moment
equal to Mc = Md - Mlim , with: Mlim = µlim.b.d2.fcd or Mlim = µmax ABN.b.d2.fcd.
In that way, expression (4.2.7-4) gives:
M d lim .b.d 2 . f cd
As 2,min As 2 ,lim
s 2 .(d d 2 )
Temporarily, one may assume σs2 = fyd ; later on, it may be necessary to calculate a
better estimation of As2,min, once a better value of σs2 is known.
3. Calculation of Asn
Mn M As 2 . s 2 .(d d 2 )
n 2
d
b.d . f cd b.d 2 . f cd
with As2 given (= chosen) and σs2 = fyd (in first approximation).
With this first value of µn, one may use table A4.2.3.7 in order to determine ω →
Asn and also ξ.
The compatibility equations (4.2.7-2) permit to determine εs2 ; the design stress-
strain curve for the compressive steel is then used to determine σs2. If σs2 < fyd, it is
necessary to repeat the step mentioned above in order to find the final values for
As2, σs2, Mn and Asn. If σs2 = fyd, supplementary iteration is not necessary.
4. Conclusion
s2
Asc As 2 .
s1
If σs2 = fyd (and knowing that σs1 = fyd ), one finds: Asc = As2
29
4.3 Simple bending – Tsection
4.3.1 Introduction
Cast-in-place floor slabs are often composed of slabs supported by a series of beams.
Slab and beams may be considered as a series of T-beams. Each T-beam is characterized
by its wide flange in compressed concrete on the upper side; this means that in bending,
the ultimate capacity if the compressed concrete is in general not reached. The analysis
is thus normally situated in domain 1b.
Figure 4.3.2-1
The notion of effective width of the flanges of T-beams;
shear stresses in the contact areas between flanges and web explain the « shear lag »
phenomenon
30
- the isolation of an elementary slice AA' of the T-beam, close to the support
(figure 4.3.2-2), as well as
- a slice of one of the half-flanges.
It can be observed that the difference between the compressive stresses σc applied on the
areas A'FGD' and AIHD should be equilibrated by the shear stresses τ applied on the
area IFGH. The shear stresses which act in all similar parallel areas, are responsible for
the deformation in the horizontal plane of the beam AA'D'D – BB'C'C. The fibres which
are the most distant from the web, such as AA' and BB', lag somewhat behind the fibres
close to the web; they appear to be less efficient in cooperating to resist to the bending.
This phenomenon is designated by the term “shear lag”. One also observes that the
assumption of BERNOULLI is not applicable because A'B'C'D' does not remain
straight. In order to be able to accept the assumption anyway, one has to narrow the
cooperative width of the flange towards the so-called effective width beff, within which it
may be assumed that strains are uniformly distributed.
Figure 4.3.2-2
Effective width of a T-beam; figure explaining the shear lag effect;
bw = width of the web (w < web) and
hf = depth (or heigth) of the compression flange (f < flange)
The effective width is not the same in all cross-sections along the longitudinal axis of
the beam; indeed, the shear lag effect is proportional to the shear force and is thus
maximal at the supports (larger shear gradient). In sections further away from the
supports, the compression force is better distributed over the whole width of the
compressive flange; see figure 4.3.2-3.
31
Figure 4.3.2-3
The effective width of a T-beam is variable along the axis of the beam
Figure 4.3.2-4
Neighbouring T-beams
beff = ∑ beff,i + bw ≤ b
32
with beff,i = 0,2 . bi + 0,1 . l0 ≤ 0,2 . l0 and beff,i ≤ bi
Notes:
- w < web;
- in figure 4.3.2-6, l0 represents the distance between the points of zero
moment.
Figure 4.3.2-5
Parameters for the determination of the effective flange width
(figure 5.3 in EN 1992-1-1:2004)
Figure 4.3.2-6
Span length l0, to be used for the determination of the effective flange width
(figure 5.2 in EN 1992-1-1:2004).
Note:
Figure 4.3.2-6 is valid with the following assumptions:
- the length of the cantilever (l3) should be less than half the adjacent span;
- the ratio of adjacent spans should lie between 2/3 and 1,5.
33
4.3.3 Design of T cross-sections at ULS: 1st method
4.3.3.1 Basic idea of the 1st method
The real T cross-section can be considered as the result of the subtraction of the
rectangular section (beff – bw).(h – hf) from the rectangular section beff.h: see figure 4.3.3-
1. The properties for the section beff.h are indicated with (’); the properties for the
section (beff – bw).(h – hf) are indicated with (”). Both rectangular sections, as well as the
original T cross-section, are subjected to the same strain diagram. In this way, the basic
equations necessary to solve the design problem, are:
Figure 4.3.3-1
Basic figure for the elaboration of the equations necessary to solve the design problem
of T cross-sections in bending
and also;
'
h f
"c
'c
'
d
34
The compatibility equations can be elaborated more in detail for the domains 2a and 1b:
see figure 4.3.3-2 and table 4.3.3-1.
Figure 4.3.3-2
Strain diagram in domain 2a (a) and in domain 1b (b)
Table 4.3.3-1
Compatibility equations for the T-cross-section
domain 2a Domain 1b
'c cu 2 s ud (or 1%)
'
'
"c c ' ud . .
1 '
cu 2
1 '
s cu 2 .
' "c ud .
"
1 "
et
"c ud
2. Md = M'd – M"d
where M'd and M"d can be detailed by means of the rotation equilibrium:
Md = ψ' . b . x' . fcd . (d – δ'G . x') – ψ" . (b – bw) . x" . fcd . (d" – δ"G . x")
35
4.3.3.4 Calculation scheme
Given: the T cross-section, with:
- dimensions: b (= beff), bw, h, hf
- materials: fyd, fcd
- loads: Md
Question: As = ?
Solution :
The solution scheme comprises the following steps.
1. If the cross-section were rectangular (b . h), the theory of the simply reinforced
rectangular cross-section would apply:
Md f
d 2 with f cd 0,85. ck
b.d . f cd 1,5
Figure 4.3.3-3
The NA is situated in the flange
4. A value is now chosen for ξ' which is somewhat larger than the ξ obtained so far.
Indeed, ξ has been obtained by considering a rectangular section and thus by
considering an area of compressed concrete that does not exist in reality: see
figure 4.3.3-4; for that reason, the NA should be put on a lower level.
36
Figure 4.3.3-4
The NA falls in the web; one takes into account too much compressed concrete
when working with a rectangular section
x ' h f
" x"
d" d ' h f
Note:
the choice of εud = (either 1% or 0,8 εuk ) does not influence the values of ψ" and
δ"G for a rectangular section.
37
Table A4.3.3.4-a
Determination of ψ" and δ"G in function of ε"c for concrete classes up to C50/60 (this is
the first of the auxiliary tables in Annex A4.3.3.4)
38
One can now calculate A's, M'd and A"s, M"d, by means of the equilibrium
equations for each rectangular cross-section.
6. On the basis of the first choice of ξ', one thus obtains a first solution for As
(As = A's - A"s). Yet, it would be very surprising that on the basis of the first choice
of ξ', the condition Md = M'd - M"d would immediately be respected. Two
alternatives are possible:
• the first solution of As (As = A's - A"s). may be adapted as follows:
M d
As ( A' A" ).
M 'd M "d
• if the difference between M'd - M"d and Md is too big, calculations have to
be started again with a new chosen value of ξ':
- smaller than the first choice of ξ', when M'd – M"d > Md
- larger than the first choice of ξ', when M'd – M"d < Md
39
width of the real cross-section. This way of reasoning may be applied for the calculation
of all possible shapes of cross-sections. The method is explained in a schematic way in
the following text.
Figure Design of T crosssections at ULS: 2nd method6
Geometrical characteristics of the T crosssection
As before, the materials are characterized by fyd (steel) and fcd (concrete).
As = the area of the tension reinforcement.
The cross-section has to be calculated for the imposed design bending
moment Md.
hf
Case 1: x h f ( )
d
The NA is situated in the flange. This case has been discussed before (in
4.3.3.4); the T cross-section can be calculated as a rectangular section.
40
hf
Case 2: x h f ( )
d
The NA lies within the web of the T cross-section (figure 4.3.4-2).
Figure Design of T crosssections at ULS: 2nd method7
Strain diagram in the T cross-section: the NA lies within the web
The compressed zone has a variable width: the width of the flange is b (as a
matter of fact beff), the width of the web is bw (see figure 4.3.4-3).
Figure Design of T crosssections at ULS: 2nd method8
Compression zone in the T cross-section with x h f
Figure Design of T crosssections at ULS: 2nd method9
41
Strain and stress distribution diagram for the T cross-section: the NA lies
within the web (domain 2a)
The flange is composed of the same material (fcd) as in the real T-section. The
lower part of the compressive bloc, within the web, is replaced by a fictitious
material with adapted stresses: the ratio between the new stress and the stress
in the real section is given by the factor bw/b. The stress ' in the rectangular
section is thus:
1 x
x. f cd 0
' ( s ).ds
42
- the coefficient of the centre of gravity G is now:
x
1 s. ' ( s ).ds 1 x
G
x
0
x
x . f cd .
2 s. ' ( s ).ds
' ( s ).ds 0
0
Figure Design of T crosssections at ULS: 2nd method11
Definition of the distance s which is necessary for the calculation of and
G
In this way, the resultant compression force in the concrete is applied at the
distance G.x with respect to the extreme concrete fibre:
Fc .x. f cd .b
This formula is, from a formal point of view, identical to the formula
developed for a rectangular section. Consequently, all other formulas and
reasoning that are characteristic for the rectangular cross-section, are
applicable.
Note:
- The upper part of the table shows values of ω which are printed in grey; these
values of ω are the same as those obtained for the same value of d in
rectangular cross-sections (this is because the NA falls within the flange). The
values of ω obtained for a rectangular section are presented in the second
column of the table, in order to show the difference with the solution for a
real T-section.
- In the lower part of the table, results are limited to µlim.
43
Table 4.3.5-1
Design at ULS of simply reinforced T cross-sections, loaded in bending;
concrete classes up to C50/60 and εud = 1%.
(the table shows in function of and hf/d)
44
( in function of and hf/d )
45
( in function of and hf/d)
46
4.3.6 Doubly reinforced T cross-section
Both methods, presented before, can also be applied for the design calculation of doubly
reinforced T-sections: see figure 4.3.6-1.
Note:
As mentioned before, the need for reinforcement in the compressed side of T-
sections is exceptional!
Figure 4.3.6-1
Basic figure showing the philosophy to apply for the design calculation of doubly
reinforced T crosssections by means of the 1st method presented in paragraph 4.3.3
before (subtraction of rectangular sections)
47
Example 1:
A first cross-section is composed of parts with constant width: see figure 4.3.7-1. The
stresses ' to be applied on the equivalent rectangular section are obtained by reducing
the real stresses by application of a factor that takes into account the difference between
the real width and the width of the virtual rectangular section.
Figure Generalization of the 2nd method (developed for Tsections) towards cross
sections with variable shapes12
Equivalent rectangular section: example 1
48
Example 2:
The real cross-section presents a variable width.
Figure Generalization of the 2nd method (developed for Tsections) towards cross
sections with variable shapes13
Equivalent rectangular section: example 2
49
b(s) : the width of the real section, at the level s
'(s) : the virtual stress in the equivalent virtual rectangular section, at the
level s
and:
b( s )
' (s) ( s)
bmax
1 x b( s )
x. f cd 0 bmax
( s ).ds
1 x b( s )
G
x . f cd .
2 0
s.
bmax
( s).ds
Once these parameters are determined, the formulas for the rectangular sections may be
applied.
50
4.4 Bending combined with compression
Preliminary note: the developments in this paragraph are limited to rectangular cross-
sections, but extrapolation of the method towards sections with variable shapes is
straightforward.
Figure 4.4.2-1
Bending combined with axial compression: designation of the imposed internal forces
51
4.4.3.2 Basic equations
The formulas in this paragraph are developed for a strain diagram in domain 2a; the
developments in domain 1b are completely similar.
Basic figure: see figure 4.4.3-1.
Figure 4.4.3-1
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with compression in domain 2a
and thus
or
Nd
s1 .( As1 ) As 2 . s 2 .b.x. f cd (4.4.3-1)
s1
52
Nd
s1.( As1 ) .b.x. f cd (4.4.3-3)
s1
and
Nd . e1 = ψ . b . x . fcd . (d – δG . x) (4.4.3-4)
These equations are completely similar to those for simple bending: see the equations
(4.2.3-6) and (4.2.3-7). The solution scheme is thus also similar to the one for simple
bending:
N d .e1 f ck
• Calculation of: d with f cd 0,85.
b.d 2 . f cd 1,5
Attention: the reduced moment is not calculated with Md but with Nd . e1!
• Attention: the value of As1 should now be derived from As that was determined
above, because the comparison of expressions (4.4.3-3) and (4.2.3-6) shows that
Nd
As1 As (4.4.3-5)
s1
N .b.x. f cd As 2 . s 2
As1 d
s1 s1 s1
N .e .b.x. f .(d .x ) A . .(d d )
d 1 cd G s2 s2 2
The last system of equations has been exploited for the calculation of the doubly
reinforced section loaded in simple bending. The solution scheme is thus as follows:
53
• First, it is assumed that As2 = 0; calculation of:
N d .e1 f ck
d 2 with f cd 0,85.
b.d . f cd 1,5
If µd > µlim in table A4.2.3.7, a compression reinforcement is necessary in order to
reduce µd with a term which is function of As2, so that µd falls into the useful part
of table A4.2.3.7.
As2 minimum is then determined by:
M d lim .b.d 2 . f cd
As 2 min As 2 lim
s 2 .( d d 2 )
in which Nd . e1 is used instead of Md !
Choice of As2.
• Calculation of:
N d .e1 As 2 . s 2 .(d d 2 )
n
b.d 2 . f cd
This µn thus corresponds to the moment Mn which is resisted by the simply
reinforced section (see decomposition of the doubly reinforced section, presented
in figure 4.2.7-4). For this µn, one finds in table A4.2.3.7 a corresponding value of
ω, which then permits to determine Asn;
• Calculation of:
As 2 . s 2
Asc
s1
54
4.4.4.2 The limites of domaine 2b
See figure 4.1.3-2
Left limit: x = d; ξ = x/d = 1; ξt = x/h = (h – d1) / h = 1 – δt1
Right limit: x = h; ξ = x/d = h/d; ξt = x/h = h/h = 1
Note:
- Attention should be paid to designations and symbols used: for the analysis of
domains 2b and 3 (in which practically the whole cross-section is in
compression), it is preferred to use the total depth of the section as reference
depth instead of the effective depth; the parameter ξt = x/h is used instead of
ξ = x/d. In the same way, δt1 = d1/h is used instead of δ1 = d1/d.
- In practice, the assumption d1 = d2 is adopted (and thus δt1 = δt2).
Figure 4.4.4-1
Domain 2b; auxiliary figure for the elaboration of the compatibility equations
xd x h d1 t1 1
s1 cu 2 . cu 2 . cu 2 . t (4.4.4-1)
x x t
x d2 t2
s 2 cu 2 . cu 2 . t (4.4.4-2)
x t
55
Figure 4.4.4-2
Principle figure for the analysis of bending combined with compression in domain 2b
• Translation equilibrium:
Note:
The rotation centre to be used for the expression of the rotation equilibrium is
always the most loaded (= most important) reinforcement, which is:
- the tensile reinforcement, if there is one;
- the most compressive reinforcement if both reinforcements are compressed.
Assuming that:
N d .e2 As1. s1.(d d 2 )
d (4.4.4-5)
b.h 2 . f cd
with the following symbols:
x d1 d
t ; t1 ; t2 2
h h h
the rotation equilibrium equation can be written as:
ψ . δG . ξt2 - ψ . δt2 . ξt - µd = 0
56
which has the following solution:
4. G
t 2 t 22 . d
(4.4.4-7)
t
2. G
ξt = f (µd , δt2 , ψ et δG )
N d .e2
( d )1
b.h 2 . f cd
Consequently:
ξt = f ((µd )1 , δt2)
t t1 1
( s1 )1 cu 2 .
t
t t1
( s 2 )1 cu 2 .
t
57
the following “trick” is proposed, by introducing the ratio of the reinforcement
areas:
As1
As 2
or
N d .b.h. f cd . t
As 2 (4.4.4-8)
s 2 . s1
Taking into account the selected value of χ, one finds via (4.4.4-8): (As2)1 and
(As1)1 = χ . (As2)1
• In domain 2b, the first approximation is in general conclusive because, as already
pointed out before, the first choice (σs1)1 = 0 is close to reality. However, one can
improve the results by repeating the calculation sequence on the basis of the
results obtained after the first sequence:
Consequently
(ξt)2 = f((µd)2 , δt2)
N d .b.h. f cd .( t ) 2
( As 2 ) 2
( s 2 ) 2 .( s1 ) 2
(As1)2 = χ . (As2)2
58
4.4.4.6 Auxiliary table for shortening hand calculations
In order to shorten hand calculations, annex A4.4.4.6 presents practical tables which are
composed on the basis of the following scheme:
with δt2 chosen and δt1 = δt2, and the following formulas:
4. G
t 2 t 22 . d
t
2. G
t t1 1
s1 cu 2 .
t
t t1
s 2 cu 2 .
t
with
Es = 200 GPa = 200000 MPa
The table thus only allows making a faster transition from µd towards the stresses σs1
and σs2 for different values of δt2. Table A4.4.4.6 is elaborated for commonly
encountered values of δt2: 0,06 ; 0,08 ; 0,10 ; 0,12 ; 0,14 and 0,16. The table is function
of the selected concrete class (the value of εcu2 and the equation of the parabola-
rectangle diagram), but is independent of the choice of εud for steel.
59
N d .e2 As1. s1.( d d 2 )
d . t .( G . t t 2 )
b.h 2 . f cd
x=d
x d h d1
t 1 t1 → table 4.4.4-1
h h h
Table 4.4.4-1
Domain 2b: left limit for different values of δt1
δt1 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16
ξt 0,94 0,92 0,90 0,88 0,86 0,84
Concrete classes up to C50/60
ψ = 0,805 µd 0,252 0,226 0,200 0,176 0,152 0,129
δG = 0,418
Concrete class C55/67
ψ = 0,742 µd 0,216 0,193 0,170 0,148 0,127 0,106
δG = 0,394
Concrete class C60/75
ψ = 0,692 µd 0,192 0,170 0,149 0,129 0,110 0,091
δG = 0,378
Concrete class C70/85
ψ = 0,625 µd 0,164 0,145 0,126 0,109 0,092 0,075
δG = 0,361
Concrete class C80/95
ψ = 0,596 µd 0,154 0,136 0,118 0,101 0,085 0,070
δG = 0,356
Concrete class C90/105
ψ = 0,581 µd 0,149 0,131 0,114 0,098 0,082 0,067
δG = 0,354
x=h
x d
t 1
h h
60
µd = ψ . (δG – δt2) → table 4.4.4-2
Table 4.4.4-2
Domain 2b: right limit for different values of δt2
δt2 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16
ξt 1 1 1 1 1 1
Concrete classes up to C50/60
ψ = 0,805 µd 0,288 0,272 0,256 0,240 0,224 0,208
δG = 0,418
Concrete class C55/67
ψ = 0,742 µd 0,248 0,233 0,218 0,203 0,188 0,173
δG = 0,394
Concrete class C60/75
ψ = 0,692 µd 0,220 0,206 0,192 0,178 0,164 0,151
δG = 0,378
Concrete class C70/85
ψ = 0,625 µd 0,188 0,176 0,163 0,151 0,138 0,126
δG = 0,361
Concrete class C80/95
ψ = 0,596 µd 0,176 0,164 0,152 0,141 0,129 0,117
δG = 0,356
Concrete class C90/105
ψ = 0,581 µd 0,171 0,159 0,148 0,136 0,124 0,113
δG = 0,354
from the most compressed fibre at the upper side: see figure 4.4.5-1.
61
Figure 4.4.5-1
Domain 3; auxiliary figure for the elaboration of the compatibility equations
x t
c _ top c 2 . c2 .
(4.4.5-1)
x h1 c 2 t 1 c 2
cu 2 cu 2
x d2 t t 2
s2 c2 . c2 .
(4.4.5-2)
x h1 c 2 t 1 c 2
cu 2 cu 2
xh t 1
c _ bottom c 2 . c2 .
c2 (4.4.5-3)
x h1 t 1 c 2
cu 2 cu 2
xd x ( h d1 ) t1 1
s1 c 2 . c2 . c2 . t
(4.4.5-4)
x h1 c 2 x h1 c 2 t 1 c 2
cu 2 cu 2 cu 2
Used notations for the steel reinforcement: index 1 is associated with the lower side (the
least compressed side); index 2 is associated with the upper side (the most compressed
side). In order to distinguish from εc2 (see the design stress-strain diagram for concrete),
the designations εc_top and εc_bottom are used for the concrete strains instead of εc1 and εc2.
62
4.4.5.3 Use of the parabola-rectangle diagram
The determination of the area of the concrete stress diagram and the position of the
centre of gravity, is a particular problem, because a part of the parabola is not taken into
account: see figure 4.4.5-2. Attention: the filling coefficient ψ and the coefficient of the
centre of gravity δG are now defined with respect to the total depth h (instead of d).
Figure 4.4.5-2
Domain 3; auxiliary figure for the determination of the area of the stress diagram and its
centre of gravity
The results, obtained by numerical integration of the equation of the stress diagram for
the different classes of concrete, are shown in table 4.4.5-1.
63
Table 4.4.5-1
Domain 3; filling coefficient ψ and coefficient of the centre of gravity δG in function of
ξt = x/h, for different concrete classes
≤ C50/60 C55/67 C60/75
t G G G
1 0,8095 0,4160 0,7440 0,3927 0,6934 0,3769
1,2 0,8955 0,4583 0,8347 0,4384 0,7854 0,4240
1,4 0,9341 0,4748 0,8834 0,4591 0,8396 0,4470
1,6 0,9547 0,4831 0,9129 0,4705 0,8746 0,4603
1,8 0,9669 0,4878 0,9321 0,4776 0,8986 0,4689
2 0,9748 0,4908 0,9454 0,4823 0,9159 0,4748
2,5 0,9855 0,4948 0,9651 0,4892 0,9430 0,4836
3 0,9906 0,4967 0,9755 0,4927 0,9583 0,4884
4 0,9951 0,4983 0,9858 0,4963 0,9743 0,4934
5 0,9970 0,4990 0,9906 0,4980 0,9822 0,4959
∞ 1 0,5 1 0,5 1 0,5
64
Figure 4.4.5-3
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with compression in domain 3
• Translation equilibrium:
or
N d .e2 .b.h 2 . f cd .( G t 2 ) As1. s1 (d d 2 )
or
N d .e2 As1. s1.(d d 2 )
.( G t 2 ) (4.4.5-7)
b.h 2 . f cd
d .( G t 2 ) (4.4.5-9)
In summary:
65
d f ( , G , t 2 ) with et G f ( t )
N d .e2
( d )1
b.h 2 . f cd
With a chosen value of δt2 and on the basis of the equation of the parabola-
rectangle diagram of the selected concrete class, one finds (ψ)1, (δ)1 and (ξt)1.
As1
As 2
The translation equilibrium equation is then written as:
N d .b.h. f cd As 2 .( . s1 s 2 )
and thus:
N d .b.h. f cd
As 2 (4.4.5-10)
s 2 . s1
66
N d ( )1.b.h. f cd
( As 2 )1
( s 2 )1 .( s1 )1
and
( As1 )1 .( As 2 )1
with δt2 chosen and with δt1 = δt2, and the following formulas:
t t1 1
s1 c 2 .
t (1 c 2 )
cu 2
t t2
s2 c2 .
t (1 c 2 )
cu 2
67
191 MPa (S220) 191 MPa (S220)
348 MPa (S400) 348 MPa (S400)
s1 E s . s1 s 2 E s . s 2
435 MPa (S500) 435 MPa (S500)
522 MPa (S600)
522 MPa (S600)
with
Es = 200 GPa = 200000 MPa
The table thus only allows making a fast transition from µd towards the stresses σs1 and
σs2 via ψ, δt, ξt, εs1 and εs2 for different values of δt2 = δt1. The annex A4.4.5.6 contains
tables A4.4.5.61 to A4.4.5.66 which are elaborated for the different concrete classes;
the tables are also characterized by the designation "a" to "f" in function of 6 commonly
encountered values for δt2 : 0,06; 0,08; 0,10; 0,12; 0,14 and 0,16.
Notes concerning tables A4.4.5.6
• Left limit of domain 3
x = h
x h
t 1
h h
d .( G t 2 ) → table 4.4.52
Table 4.4.52
Domain 3: left limit for different values of t2
68
ψ = 0,581 µd 0,171 0,159 0,148 0,136 0,124 0,113
δG = 0,354
• Right limit of domain 3
x =
t =
=
t =
d 0,5 t 2 → table 4.4.53
Table 4.4.53
Domain 3: right limit for different values of t2
δt2 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16
ξt ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
Concrete classes up to C50/60
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C55/67
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C60/75
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C70/85
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C80/95
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
Concrete class C90/105
ψ=1 µd 0,44 0,42 0,40 0,38 0,36 0,34
δG = 0,5
69
4.4.6 Right limit of domain 3: pure compression
4.4.6.1 Principle of the calculation
Figure 4.4.6-1 presents a rectangular cross-section loaded in pure compression: the
strain for the whole section is εc2.
Figure 4.4.6-1
Basic figure for the analysis of pure compression; rectangular cross-section;
(a) strain diagram; (b) stress distribution diagram;
(c) resultant forces for the stress blocs; (d) imposed load
The design problem can be solved by means of the horizontal translation equilibrium
equation:
Nd = Nc + Ns1 + Ns2
70
Figure 4.4.6-2
Stress in the steel reinforcement for strain εs = εc2
Table 4.4.6-1
Stress in the steel reinforcement for strain εs = εc2
71
• in practice, it is almost impossible to assure the application of an axial force
exactly in the centre of gravity of the cross-section of the column. This is for
example due to:
- tolerances related to the casting of the column or of the construction element
that is supported by the column;
- the distorted stress distribution in the neoprene support pad due to a (small)
rotation angle of the supported element (see figure 4.4.6-3).
Figure 4.4.6-3
Eccentric application of the compression force onto the column, due to a small
rotation angle; (a) support pad in neoprene;
(b) stress distribution in neoprene pad
e a = θi . l 0 / 2 (4.4.6-2)
in which:
l0 = the effective length of the isolated element; indeed, the formula is elaborated for
an isolated column, fixed at one end, free at the other end, characterized by an
effective length = 2 (length of the column).
θi = the rotation angle with respect to the vertical line, which characterizes the
inclination of the element.
Note:
For walls and isolated columns in braced systems, ea = l0 /400 may be assumed
for the purpose of simplification.
72
4.5 Bending combined with tension
Preliminary note: the developments in this paragraph are limited to rectangular cross-
sections, but extrapolation of the method towards sections with variable shapes is
straightforward.
Figure 4.5.2-1
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with tension
73
4.5.3 Analysis of the domains 1b and 2a
4.5.3.1 When?
A strain diagram in these two domains can only be obtained if the bending is much
more important than the tension; Nd is applied with a large eccentricity e0.
4.5.3.2 Basic equations
The formulas in this paragraph are developed for a strain diagram in domain 2a; the
developments in domain 1b are completely similar.
Principle figure: see figure 4.5.3-1.
Figure 4.5.3-1
Principle figure for the analysis of bending combined with tension in domain 2a
Nd = Ns1 - Nc - Ns2
or
Nd = As1 . σs1 - ψ . b . x . fcd – As2 . σs2
or
ψ . b . x . fcd + As2 . σs2 = As1 . σs1 – Nd
and thus
Nd
.b.x. f cd As 2 . s 2 ( As1 ). s1 (4.5.3-1)
s1
74
with e1 = eccentricity of Nd with respect to As1.
These equations are the same as the ones for bending combined with compression in the
domains 1b and 2a: see equations (4.4.3-1) and (4.4.3-2); the only difference in equation
(4.5.3-1) with respect to equation (4.4.3-1) is the minus sign (instead of a plus sign)
before the term Nd/σs1. The solution scheme is thus quasi identical to the one for bending
combined with compression.
N d .e1
d
b.d 2 . f cd
As f yd
. and s1
b.d f cd
• subtraction of As1 from the value of As that has been obtained just before:
Nd
As1 As (4.5.3-3)
s1
Attention to the plus sign instead of the minus sign in expression (4.4.3-5)
N d .e1
d
b.d 2 . f cd
75
M d lim .b.d 2 . f cd
As 2 min As 2 lim
s 2 .( d d 2 )
• calculation of:
N d .e1 As 2 . s 2 .(d d 2 )
n
b.d 2 . f cd
• calculation of:
As 2 . s 2
Asc
s1
• and finally:
Nd
As1 Asn Asc (4.5.3-4)
s1
76
Figure 4.5.4-1
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with tension in domain 1a
The rotation equilibrium equation is written two times, one time around the lower
reinforcement, one time around the upper reinforcement:
Thus:
Nd . e1 = As2 . σs2 . (d – d2) (4.5.4-1)
and
Nd . e2 = As1 . σs1 . (d – d2) (4.5.4-2)
in which σs1 = σs1 (εs1 = εud) = fyd for all steel grades S220, S400, S500 and S600.
Expression (4.5.4-2) leads to:
N d .e2
As1 with s1 = fyd
s1 .(d d 2 )
The area As2 cannot be deduced from expression (4.5.4-1) because σs2 is not known. This
problem is overcome by the introduction of χ:
As1
As 2
And thus:
As1
As 2 (4.5.4-3)
An optimal solution can be realised by imposing that the stresses in both reinforcements
are equal to the yield value fyd.
77
Division of (4.5.4-1) by (4.5.4-2) leads to:
N d .e1 A . .(d d 2 )
s2 s2
N d .e2 As1 . s1 .(d d 2 )
and consequently:
e1 As1 e
s 2 s1 . . s1 . 1 . (4.5.4-4)
e2 As 2 e2
e1 e2
. 1 or optimal
e2 e1
or finally:
As1 e2
As 2 e1
The last expression means that the tensile load Nd should be applied in the centre of
gravity of both reinforcements, which is an obvious result (principle of the lever arms).
d d2
e1 e2
2
e2
optimal 1
e1
78
Nd / 2 Nd
As1 As 2 (4.5.5-1)
( s ) ud 2. f yd
4.6 Interaction diagrams
4.6.1 Introduction
The reasoning aiming at the introduction and definition of the « interaction diagrams »
starts with the discussion of the design equations associated with one particular ULS
strain diagram. The following developments are based on the choice of an ULS strain
diagram in domain 3: see figure 4.6.1-1.
Figure 4.6.1-1
Basic figure for the analysis of bending combined with compression in domain 3
Translation equilibrium:
which gives
N d .b.h. f cd
As 2 (4.6.1-1)
. s1 s 2
h h h
N d .e0 . f cd .b.h.( G .h) As 2 . s 2 .( d 2 ) As1 . s1 .( d1 )
2 2 2
or
79
N d .e0 . f cd .b.h 2 .( 1 G ) As 2 . s 2 .h.( 1 t 2 ) . As 2 . s1 .h.( 1 t1 )
2 2 2
or
N .b.h. f cd
N d .e0 . f cd .b.h 2 .( 1 G ) h.( 1 t ).( s 2 . s1 ). d
2 2 . s1 s 2
Figure 4.6.1-2
Md = f(Nd), associated with one particular ULS strain diagram in domain 3, and taking
into account a set of chosen values for χ, δt, b, h, fyd and fcd, appears to be a linear
function
80
Note :
By applying the procedure demonstrated above (exploitation of translation and
rotation equilibrium equations), one obtains a straight line Md = f(Nd) associated
with each ULS strain diagram (also for those strain diagrams situated in other
domains than domain 3).
Each point, represented by the coordinates (Md,Nd), of the straight line corresponds to a
certain amount of reinforcement; for the case of domain 3, it may be reminded that the
reinforcement areas are given by:
N d .b.h. f cd
As 2
s 2 . s1
As1 = χ . As2
and thus
As tot f yd
.
b.h f cd
81
Figure 4.6.2-1
Schematic overview of the different positions of the ULS strain diagram for a given
cross-section, to be considered for the elaboration of an interaction diagram. The values
mentioned for ξ are those corresponding to εc2 = 0,002; εcu = 0,0035 and εud = 0,01
The resisting internal forces Nd and Md are calculated for each position of the ULS strain
diagram, on the basis of the stress-strain diagrams for steel and concrete, for different
values of As1 and for the chosen parameter χ = As1 / As2.
The resulting diagram comprises all combinations of Nd and Md that are possible for the
given cross-section. Figure 4.6.2-2 shows such an interaction diagram in a schematic
way. The diagram is composed of:
- a tree of straight lines which correspond to the ULS strain diagrams, and
- a series of iso-reinforcement curves.
It is important to notice that there is only 1 interaction diagram for the following set of
chosen parameters:
• the shape and dimensions of the cross-section (b and h for a rectangular section);
• the materials properties: fyd et fcd;
• the ratio χ = As1 / As2;
• δt (= δt1 = δt2)
Figure 4.6.2-2
Schematic representation of an interaction diagram
82
The interaction diagrams are useful to solve the following problems:
• determination of the maximum axial force that can be resisted by a given cross-
section (geometry, As1 and As2) which is loaded by an imposed bending moment ;
• determination of the maximum bending moment that can be resisted by a given
cross-section (geometry, As1 and As2) which is loaded by an imposed axial force;
• determination of the reinforcement areas As1 and As2 of a given cross-section with
known geometry, subjected to bending combined with an axial force. The
comparison of different interaction diagrams, elaborated for different values of
As2/As1, allows the determination of the minimum value of the total reinforcement
area As1 + As2.
The interaction diagrams can also be used for the case of pure bending (Nd = 0) by
considering the values on the Md axis.
Figure 4.6.2-3
Schematic representation of a practical interaction diagram by using « reduced loads »
83
4.6.3 Examples of interaction diagrams
Examples of interaction diagrams can be found in typical vade-mecums related to
concrete design. Some of these examples are shown in annex A4.6.3.
Figures A4.6.3-1 to A4.6.3-5 (LAMBOTTE, 1988) are valid for the following
parameters:
• rectangular section;
• χ = 1 (As1 = As2);
• δt = 0,10;
• steel grades S220, S400 or S500:
figure A4.6.3-1: S220;
figure A4.6.3-2: S400;
figure A4.6.3-3: S400; enlargement of figure A4.6.3-2;
figure A4.6.3-4: S500;
figure A4.6.3-5: S500; enlargement of figure A4.6.3-4.
84