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Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis
Jonathan A. Smith and Pnina Shinebourne
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.
Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) is a attended closely to human experience in its own
recently developed qualitative approach to psychol- terms, rather than according to a predetermined cate-
ogy. This chapter describes the core features of IPA gory system. For the psychologist, this means as far
and its theoretical underpinnings. It then provides a as possible bracketing ones preconceptions and
step-by-step outline to conduct a study using IPA allowing the phenomenon to speak for itself. This
from data collection through analysis to writing up. philosophical program was extended by the phenom-
Each stage is illustrated with examples from a enologists who followed Husserl. Heidegger (1962)
project exploring the experience of women in reha- was particularly concerned with the way in which
bilitation for addiction problems. our experience always occurs and is made sense of
within a situated context. For Merleau-Ponty (1962)
a key factor was the importance of our bodies in
Core Features
enabling experience, and for Sartre (1943) a primary
IPA is concerned with lived experience. Experience concern was our relations with others. One can see
covers quite a lot of territory. For example, just how each of these thinkers is making their own con-
walking down the road involves experience. There- tribution to a holistic account of human experience,
fore it is useful to consider Dilthey’s (1976) distinc- and IPA draws on this holistic phenomenology as the
tion between experience and “an experience.” underpinning for its approach.
Something becomes an experience when it is impor- Although IPA is concerned with experience and
tant to us, and IPA is almost always concerned with the meaning of experience to people, it recognizes
this type of experience. Examples of experiential that this experience cannot be transparently
research questions that would lend themselves to extracted from people’s heads—rather, it involves a
the IPA approach are as follows: What is the impact process of engagement and interpretation on the
on patients of receiving a positive genetic test result part of the researcher. Therefore IPA is also influ-
for Huntington’s disease? What sense of home do enced by hermeneutics, the theory of interpretation.
recent immigrants have? How do elite sports per- Hermeneutics began by offering guides to the inter-
formers conceptualize their activity? pretation of religious texts, clearly a major feature of
IPA has three primary theoretical touchstones: academic pursuit as first constituted. Over time,
phenomenology, hermeneutics, and idiography. Phe- however, hermeneutics has extended its remit and
nomenology is the philosophical movement primar- now engages with all interpretation.
ily concerned with human lived experience. The Heidegger (1962) was a student of Husserl’s
philosopher Edmund Husserl, founder of the school and took on the intellectual mantle of pheno
of phenomenology, argued for an approach that menology. One of the major ways in which
Thanks to two editors of this volume for helpful comments on a previous version of this chapter.
DOI: 10.1037/13620-005
APA Handbook of Research Methods in Psychology: Vol. 2. Research Designs, H. Cooper (Editor-in-Chief)
73
Copyright © 2012 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
Smith and Shinebourne
Heidegger distinguished himself from Husserl was IPA can be used in a wide range of areas. It can
in arguing that the phenomenological project be seen to be working at its best with research topics
required the type of interpretative process we are that are relatively new, however, for which we do
describing: not know much about or in areas that are inherently
complex or ambiguous. Although IPA can be used
Phenomenology is seeking after a mean-
to ask participants about topics which are not of
ing which is perhaps hidden by the enti-
current import and that therefore involve cool
ty’s mode of appearing. In that case the
reflection, it is much more effective when engaged
proper model for seeking meaning is the
in topics involving hot cognition—that is, the partici-
interpretation of a text and for this reason
pant is concerned with something of existential
Heidegger links phenomenology with
import in the here and now or recent past. In this
hermeneutics. (Moran, 2000, p. 229)
sort of project, one can often hear, during an inter-
Smith and Osborn (2003) have described the view, the participant wrestling in real time with
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.
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Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
Note. From Qualitative Research Methods in decision on the extent of homogeneity is guided
Psychology: Combining Core Approaches (p. 54), partly by interpretative concerns (degree of similar-
by N. Frost (Ed.), 2011, Maidenhead, England: ity or variation that can be contained in the analysis
Open University. Copyright 2011 by McGraw-Hill.
of the phenomenon) and partly by pragmatic consid-
Reprinted with permission.
erations (ease or difficulty of contacting potential
participants, relative rarity of the phenomenon).
The questions are broad and open, aiming to Sample size tends to vary according to the
explore in detail participants’ accounts of lived expe- research question and the quality of data obtained.
rience. In this example, the first two questions are For example, the rehabilitation project incorporated
descriptive. The third question opens up a space for two separate studies: a single case study of one par-
participants to reflect on how they make sense of ticipant whose account was particularly detailed and
their experience. The fourth question encourages nuanced, and a second study of six participants. In
the participants and the researcher to stay focused this way, it was possible to develop the analysis of
on the particular detail, texture, and nuance of each the single case in considerable depth. At the same
participant’s account. time, the study of six participants provided suffi-
cient cases for examining similarities and differences
between participants but not so many as to over-
Sampling
whelm the researchers by the amount of data gener-
In line with the theoretical underpinnings of IPA, ated. In the second study, homogeneity was
participants are selected purposively because they achieved by using the following inclusion criteria:
can offer access to a particular perspective on the participants needed to be women, between the ages
phenomena being studied. IPA makes a strong case of 31 and 52, based in the same rehabilitation pro-
for a single case study. A detailed analysis of a single gram, and within 1 to 2 years of starting their reha-
case would be justified when one has a particularly bilitation program. Potential participants can be
rich or compelling case. A detailed single case study reached by approaching relevant groups, agencies,
offers opportunities to learn a great deal about the or gatekeepers; through personal contacts; or
particular person and their response to a specific sit- through snowballing, that is, asking participants as
uation as well as to consider connection between dif- they are recruited whether they know other people
ferent aspects of the person’s account (Smith, 2004). who may be interested in participating.
More commonly, researchers conduct IPA studies
with a small sample of participants rather than just
Data Collection
one. IPA research is conducted on a small sample
size because the detailed examination of a case-by- IPA requires a data collection method that will
case analysis is elaborate and time-consuming. With invite participants to offer rich, detailed, first-person
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Smith and Shinebourne
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Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
Exhibit 5.3
Initial Comments
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Smith and Shinebourne
Exhibit 5.4
Developing Emergent Themes
knew how I was, and it’s, I would like change personality almost Changing self through drink
and become like I’m I don’t know, like a showgirl, I suppose, so
I would start performing you know, sorts of props, hats, sticks,
chairs, whatever I could find, ahm, and just be very entertaining, Projection of self into another person
I never upset anyone, ahm, you know, I never got aggressive or
anything like that at all, I just, it was just almost like my body was
taking over a character from vaudeville or something like that, you The process of becoming the other self
know, [laughing] which of course everyone loved, you know, so
the more I was like that it’s hard talking about it actually [crying]
[pause, recollects herself] so I was, I was that character everyone
loved, that person, so I suppose I got caught in a trap of being like
that, and having to drink so much in order to get to that person I Low self-esteem
did not know sober. Ambivalence
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Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
We illustrate this process in Exhibit 5.6, which thereby influencing the analysis of the subsequent
shows the first superordinate theme, self in relation transcripts. Following from IPA’s idiographic com-
to alcohol, and the three interrelated themes com- mitment, however, it is important to keep an open
prising it. Exhibit 5.6 represents the analysis of a mind to allow new themes to emerge from each
case study of one participant. And one could pro- transcript. The process is iterative as earlier tran-
ceed from here to write up this case. More usually a scripts are reviewed in the light of new themes.
project involves more than one case. This involves Finally a table of themes for the study as a whole is
repeating the whole process for each participant and constructed. In this process, the individual tables are
constructing a table of themes for each transcript. reviewed and checked again with the transcripts. At
Inevitably, the analysis of the first case will become this stage, it may be possible to combine some
part of the hermeneutic circle of understanding, themes or to reduce the data, making decisions
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.
Exhibit 5.6
Superordinate Theme 1: Self in Relation to
Alcohol (Including Illustrative Extract for Each Theme and Line Numbers)
A. The experience of the self as drunk I could feel myself changing 478
Metaphoric expressions of the experience of being drunk I look very different 1161
Big wave 449 Feeling the other self
At sea 457 It feels a part of me but it does not really feel the whole
Even if you were sitting on the beach . . . you’d get of me 1094–1095
caught back in 460 Feeling totally in my body 1052
Escalating drinking It feels amazing to kind of connect immediately 1055–1056
On the way to getting drunk I enjoyed it 28 The porous body
It would just spiral and spiral 25 When you are drunk you are open to spirits visiting your
Beyond that stage I never knew how I was 35 body 475
The harmful experience of being drunk I feel like I am a vessel 477
Completely out of control around alcohol 14 Things probably come through me 1106
Having blackouts, memory loss 15 The self as a process of becoming
I could have done myself in by accident 574 From one day to the next I really do change 1110
The high and the low of the drinking experience Evolving now 1113
Creative and energetic and interesting 498 There needs to be more like a centre to me 1108
Feelings of like fun and excitement 495 C. Perception of the self
Alcohol actually helps me with my general flow 846 Metaphors expressing perception of self
Unlocking some sort of artistic feeling 496 Mixture of water and fire 809
Washed up and deplete 502 A bit ground 818
Very tearful and self-remorseful 503 I don’t have metal at all 822
Ambivalence and dilemmas Positive appraisals of self
I feel too scared of the blackouts 75 I am caring towards hopefully everyone 169 Intuitive 170
I am not completely giving up alcohol 3 Quiet and contemplative 66
If only I could get to that without so much alcohol 488 Negative appraisals of self
B. I created such a character for myself I can’t really assert myself 1015
The self-changing through drinking No sense of self-worth 602
Having to drink so much in order to get to this person 44–45 Not valuing myself 224
I would change personality 35 Moral judgments of self
I was that character everyone loved 43 Guilt and anxiety you have done something wrong 504
The process of becoming the other self Feeling remorseful 149–150
My body was taking over a character 40 I am like a bad person or I am wasting my life 392–393
Note. This is an expanded version of a table that first appeared in “Alcohol and the Self: An Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis of the Experience of Addiction and Its Impact on the Sense of Self and Identity,” by
P. Shinebourne and J. A. Smith, 2009, Addiction Research and Theory, 17, p. 167. Copyright 2009 by Informa.
Adapted with permission.
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Smith and Shinebourne
based not only on the prevalence of data but also on eral levels of interpretation (see Larkin, Watts, &
the pertinence of the themes and their capacity to Clifton, 2006; Smith et al., 2009), which may gener-
illuminate the account as a whole. ate new insights. The narrative account contains rel-
evant extracts in the participants’ own words, which
not only enables the reader to assess the pertinence
Writing Up
of the interpretations but also retains the voice of the
Next one turns to writing a narrative account of the participants’ personal experience. Smith et al.
study. Typically this entails taking the themes estab- (2009) suggested that one way of looking at the nar-
lished in the final table and writing them up one by rative account is to consider the extracts from par-
one. Each theme needs to be introduced and then ticipants as representing the P in IPA, and the
illustrated with extracts from the participant, which accompanying analysis as representing the I. In a
are in turn followed by analytic comments from typical IPA project, the narrative account is followed
the authors. The narrative account may engage sev- by a discussion section that considers the themes
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.
Exhibit 5.7
Example of Write-Up: Dynamics of Relationships in the Family
The enduring impact of childhood families and relations on their predicament as adults constituted a prevailing theme in
all participants’ accounts. As discussed, Julia attributed her tendency to suppress emotions to a controlled father in a
family where it was not acceptable to express anger. Susie describes her parents as “very strict, quite Victorians” and she
suggests that her addictive and obsessive behaviors might have been learned in childhood:
It helps me to understand my family with, how we were brought up ‘cause I know today, both my parents are long long
dead, but they both were workaholics and perfectionist, both died of heart attacks very young, so and my brothers and
sisters were all very much the same even those who don’t drink and take drugs still got this you know, um there’s no
sense of balance, um so I know it’s something also that, I could have learnt or picked up on that, to be loved or to have
self-esteem I need to prove myself.
Susie recounts that she had to follow everything her parents prescribed for her and, as the oldest daughter, had to take on
responsibility at a young age for looking after her younger siblings. Leaving home and forming intimate relationships meant
freedom in defiance of her parents:
I did everything my parents wanted but that’s when I went, I left home you know I really started drinking and taking,
cannabis mainly, cocaine came later at work um, it was freedom, you know[ ] the way I gave myself permission to be
naughty was through my drinking and taking drugs [ ] Got in to a relationship, completely against my parents wishes,
and he is, he was a drug, a cannabis user.
Similarly, Claire describes how in retrospect she came to understand her upbringing as problematic, although she says she
used to believe that “nothing major has ever happened to me”:
My childhood wasn’t as functional as I thought, you know I had a very, yeah my dad was an alcoholic but I didn’t really
see him as one because he was a functional and sociable one you know, good job it was all of that kind of thing, he
wasn’t there a lot so my home life was kind of like that erm and then he left erm so it was just me and my mum and my
sister so it’s been very much like that ever since it’s always been the three of us so it’s always been this very intense
thing that no men can never penetrate us three, do you know what I mean, we’ve always been very close like that and I
suppose I find it quite hard to trust people.
This extract illustrates, as noted, the significance of the intense bond between Claire and her mother. Elsewhere in the interview
she describes her relations with her mother as “codependency,” like “a mirror thing when I see my mum doing stuff . . .
then I see myself doing it as well.” This extract from Claire also points toward possible problematic relations with men
(“no men can never penetrate us”), as confirmed when Claire says she had “disastrous relationship with men all my life,
you know there’s always been like my father” (see the next extract). Mother and sister were also the key figures providing
support and bearing the brunt of her addiction:
It would always be my mum would stay and look after me she, she would clear up my flat try and get me to the doctor’s
and those kind of things but in turn I would then ring them [mother or sister] at three o’clock in the morning drunk,
abusive not remembering always threatening to kill myself you know and then coming round.
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Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
identified in the analysis in relation to existing liter- acquired during a quantitative training, and by effort
ature. The write-up of the case Study of Alison can directed at honing those skills and making them
be seen in Shinebourne and Smith (2009). manifest in interviews. Transparency is addressed by
Exhibit 5.7 shows an extended example from the providing a clear presentation, within the con-
write-up of Study 2 of the addiction rehabilitation straints of word length set by publishing outlets, of
project. This involved interviews with six women as what was done in the study, step by step.
described earlier. The analysis generated a number Smith’s (2011) review offered a set of more spe-
of themes and this exhibit presents how part of the cific criteria for assessing IPA papers and offered
theme “dynamics of relationships in the family” is detailed summaries of those papers graded well in a
presented in the results section. critical evaluation of a clearly defined subset of the
This extended section from the write-up shows corpus. Hopefully, this will be helpful both to
how the table of themes opens up into a persuasive researchers wishing to improve their skills in IPA
account that explains to the reader the important and to those required to review IPA work.
Copyright American Psychological Association. Not for further distribution.
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Smith and Shinebourne
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