Parent material and infiltration rates in the Lake Whatcom Watershed

Nicole Masurat for ENVS 427 – Soil Landscapes

June 2, 2017

Abstract: Parent material plays a substantial role in the soil formation process by influencing the
texture, structure, and mineral content of soil. Chemical reactions, weathering and translocation
of secondary minerals, and water availability for organisms in the soil are all related to how
water moves through soil. Parent material likely strongly impacts the infiltrations rate of young
soils like those around Lake Whatcom. There are three main types of geological material in the
Lake Whatcom watershed and the soil above them may be impacted by differences in infiltration
rates associated with the parent material. To test the influence of parent material on infiltrations
rates near the lake three sites were selected to represent the different types of rock. These sites
share other soil formation factors like exposer time, climatic conditions, relief, and organismal
influences. All the sites have regions of pasture and regions of second growth forest. Infiltrations
rates were measured in both types of vegetation covers so a comparison could be made between
the influence of parent material and vegetation. The results indicate that infiltration rates may be
impacted by both vegetation/land use and parent material. Each site had significantly different
infiltration rates between pasture cover and forest cover. Two of the sites had similar infiltration
rates while the third differed significantly.

Introduction

Parent Material

Soil development is conditional to several regional circumstances. The local climate,

organismal interactions, the angle of relief, geologic parent material, and time of exposer

contribute to the path and speed of soil formation. These factors work in concert to form a

particular soil. Attempting to holding all but one factor constant may be difficult but should give

insight to how a particular factor contributes to soil development. Geologic parent material is the

mineral stratum and the initial state of a soil. Pedologists make a distinction between local

geology and parent material because soils often form on mineral materials not derived from the

local bedrock. Such is the case with soils formed on loess, volcanic ash, glacial outwash, alluvial

materials, and others. That being said, knowledge on local geology and landscape morphology is

important for understanding characteristics of parent materials and the influence they partake on

soil development. Parent material contributes to the mineral composition of soil by several
mechanisms. It provides the initial chemistry that plants and other organisms use to establish

themselves in the early stages of the soil formation. Weathering of parent material by reactions

with water can produce secondary minerals that contribute to the composition of a developing

soil. How water moves through soil has a significant impact on the chemical reactions taking

place and the translocation of byproducts. The structure of the parent material is often translated

into the structure of the soil, especially in young soils. This structure impacts how water moves

through the soil and parent material facilitating how the soil develops (Jenny, 1941).

Local Landscape Morphology and Geology

In Northwestern Washington soil development began after the retreat of the Cordillerian

ice sheet 14,000 to 10,000 years ago. This massive glacier scraped over the western slope of the

Cascade Mountains and weighed down the continent’s coastal edge. The hills around Bellingham

Bay were resurfaces and the glacier filled the landscape with till. As temperatures rose

precipitation fell as rain rather than snow and the glacier retreated. Freshwater rivers carved

through glacial deposits and collected in basins like that of Lake Whatcom. As vegetation

advanced on glacial till organic material accumulated and soil development began. Eventually

coniferous forests dominated the landscape. Around one hundred and fifty years ago

homesteaders along the shores of Lake Whatcom began to impact the soil by altering the

vegetation, hydrology and morphology of the landscapes. Today people continue to influence the

rate and direction of soil formation by altering the landscape (Goldin, 1992).

There are three main types of rock in the Lake Whatcom Watershed (see Figure 1). The

Chuckanut Formation makes up a large proportion of the region. This formation is made of

sedimentary rocks and is found in the foothills west of the town of Glacier to the shores of

Bellingham Bay. It is made of sandstone, conglomerate, shale, and bituminous. It formed from
alluvial flood plains deposited possibly from the Late Cretaceous and Paleocene age. The

sandstone withstood the erosive forces of the glaciers more than the softer shale and bituminous.

Their erosion created the folds commonly seen in the Chuckanut Formation. The southern end of

the watershed features the metamorphic rock phyllite. This rock is older than the overlaying

Chuckanut Formation. It formed from slight recrystallization of shale. It has a thin layered

structure that separates easily. Its dark to light gray appearance is due to other minerals in the

former shale. Light gray phyllite has fine grains of mica, quarts, and feldspar. Dark phyllite

comes from shale rich in organic material. Between the Chuckanut Formation hills of Sqalicum

mountain and Steward mountain is a valley that served as an outwash channel that drained

melting glaciers. The region was incised by glacial action and filled with sand and gravel as it

retreated. The material is well sorted and may be as deep as fifty feet. The area contained peat

bogs that date to about 10,000 years old. Lake Squalicum to the north is a remnant of these bogs.

It contains glacially derived sand and gravel and is underlay by boulders (Department of Interior,

1990).

Although parent material is not necessarily the bedrock material of an area, an understand

of the rock in the watershed can give insight to how the landscape was transformed by the

glacier. Some of the materials deposited as glacial till is derived from rock types from other

regions but in some cases the underlying geology is a major contributor (Whatcom County).
 Figure 1. Three main rock types of the Lake Whatcom watershed

Soil and the Lake Whatcom Watershed

The Lake Whatcom Watershed has been a popular topic of concern and research in recent

years. The lake provides over 90,000 people with drinking water. In 1998 the lake was deemed

polluted by standards set by the Clean Water Act relating to low dissolved oxygen levels. Excess

phosphorus and fecal coliform from storm water runoff cause dissolved oxygen levels to drop

below acceptable standards. Urbanization along parts of the shoreline increases the amount of

impermeable surfaces. Rather that slowly filtering through vegetation, soil, and parent material

rainwater quickly flows off roofs and pavement, picking up phosphorus, bacteria, and other

pollutants, carrying these into the lake (State of Washington, 2017). City of Bellingham and

Whatcom County officials are trying to reduce this form of pollution by creating incentive

programs for encouraging native plant landscaping and installing raingardens (City of

Bellingham). The City of Bellingham is also acquiring properties near the shore and establishing
conservation easements that restrict the type of land-use allowed. The easements are designed to

restore ecological function by preventing development.

The Study

Several of the properties that the City of Bellingham has acquiring for conservation have

plans of restoration actions (Carabba, 2013). This largely involves planting native trees in open

fields that were once used for pasturing cattle and growing hay (Carabba, 2013). The three sites

examined in this study were planted with thousands of trees and shrubs within the last five years.

The goal is to reestablish a more natural vegetation community to restore natural ecological

function like filtering storm water (Carabba, 2013: Carabba, 2009; Sailing, 2013). If better

filtration is the goal it is important to know the current and desired infiltration rates on each of

the properties so possible improvements can be noted. Additionally, infiltration and a soil’s

ability to hold water effects the type of vegetation community that can establish in an area. Better

understand of infiltration rates on different parent material and present vegetation cover can help

guide the efforts of restoration so plant survival is maximized. This study looks at the infiltration

rates of three restoration sites in the Lake Whatcom watershed, each on different parent material.

Attention will be given to both the influence of parent material and vegetation cover on

infiltration rates.

Methods

Sample Site Selection

To observe the effects of parent material on infiltration rates measurements needed to be

taken on sites with similarities in all other soil formation factors. Sites were selected based on

observations of geological maps of the lake Whatcom watershed and soil survey information
describing parent material. Three sites with similar conditions were identified on each of the

three dominate rock types. Two of the sites are owned by the City of Bellingham and the third by

Whatcom Land Trust. Each have similar land use histories. Prior to the City and Whatcom Land

Trust ownership the sites were privately owned and used as homesteads. The sites share soil

forming conditions like climate, relief, organismal interactions, and time since exposer. For each

site soil formation began after the retreat of the Cordillerian Ice Sheet 14,000 to 10,000 years

ago. Each are within 400 meters of Lake Whatcom, are on land with slopes between 0 and 10

degrees, and have been subjected to the same coastal, temperate climate conditions. All were

once used for homesteading and cattle grazing. Portions of the properties were cleared of trees

and sowed with grass for grazing. Trees were likely cut throughout the properties and allowed to

regrow in some regions. Each site features pasture sections and second-growth sections. Since

the City and Whatcom Land Trust have acquired the properties native tree plantings have been

installed in the pasture regions.

Site 1 – Ladies of the Lake is located at the southern end of Lake Whatcom. Fir creek

runs through the property and Anderson creek runs to the north. It was acquired by Whatcom

Land Trust 2012. The underlying geology of these property is the metamorphic phyllite rock.

The parent material of the sampled area given by USDA soil survey is alluvium derived from

phyllite (Sailing, 2013). Site 2 – Olsen Creek reserve in near the Y road junction with Northshore

drive between Squalicum Mountain and Steward Mountain. Olsen creek run just to the south of

the property. It is situated over the outwash sand and gravel rock material and the sample area’s

parent material is described as alluvium in the USDA soil survey (Carabba, 2009). Site 3 – Agate

Bay Preserve is west of Site 2 on the north shore of Lake Whatcom. The underlying geology is
Chuckanut Formation and the parent material is loess and volcanic ash over glacial outwash

(Carabba, 2013). (See figure 2)

Figure 2. Properties selected for the study

Site 2 – Olsen Creek Preserve

Site 3 – Agate Bay Preserve Site 1 – Ladies of the Lake

Infiltration Measurements

Each site had six infiltration rate measurements taken. Three were located on the pasture

grass vegetation cover and three in the forest cover. Infiltration rates were measure using an

improvised infiltrometer. A metal pipe with a ten-inch diameter was pounded into the ground

using a hammer and a piece of wood. The pipe was set to a specified depth of seven centimeters

each time. A timer was set for five minutes and the pipe was filled to the brim with water. If the

water fully drained before the time was up the pipe was refilled and the number of refills was
counted. At the end of five minutes the remaining water depth was read. The volume of water

used was calculated and divided by five. In this way the cm³/minute infiltration rate was found

for each sample. All measurements were taken on the same day so the effects of rain were

uniform. Averages were taken from a given vegetation cover in a given site for a total of six total

averages.

Moisture Content

Soil samples were collected for moisture content analysis so infiltration rates could be

compared to the water holding characteristics of the soil. The samples were collected from the

surface near the place of infiltration but not where it would alter the results. Vegetation and

detritus was lightly removed from where the sample was taken. A small sample was excavated

using a hand trowel. The samples were placed in sealed plastic to minimize moisture lose by

evaporation. All samples were taken on the same day. The samples were processed the following

day. Each was weighed then placed in a drying oven set to seventy degrees Fahrenheit for

twenty-six hours. Once dried the samples were weighed again. The ratio of wet to dry was found

by divided the weights of before and after the oven time. The ratio speaks to the amount of water

held in the soil at the time of the sampling.

Results

Infiltration Rates

The infiltration rates were not the same on all the sites. Site 2 – Olsen Creek and Site 3 –

Agate Bay Preserve had similar rates to one another, but Site 1 – Ladies of the Lake was

significantly different (see Table 1 and Figure 3). The average rate of Site 1 is 636. 17 cm³/min

for the open forest and 40.32 cm³/min for the forest. Site 2 has a rate of 209.44 cm³/min in the
open field and 761.84 cm³/min in the forest. Site 3 has a rate of 164.93 cm³/min in the open filed

and 764.45 cm³/min in the forest. The trend of infiltrations rates between vegetation cover is

again similar between Site 2 and 3 but is reversed with Site 1.

Table 1. Infiltration rate Figure 3. Infiltration rate

900
Open Field Forest
800
700
600

cm³/min
500
400
300
200
100
0
Ladies of the Lake Olsen Creek Agate Bay Preserve
(Phyllite Aluvium) Preserve (Outwash (Loess, Ash,
Alluvium) Outwash Alluvium)

Moisture Content

All three sites followed a similar trend in moisture content with similar levels at each site

(see Table 2 and Figure 4). The wet/dry ratio of Site 1 is 1.18 g for the open forest and 1.58 g for

the forest. Site 2 has a ratio of 1.32 g in the open field and 1.47 g in the forest. Site 3 has a ratio

of 1.34 g in the open filed and 1.43 g in the forest. All sites has a slightly high moisture content

in the forest vegetation cover than the open field.

 Table 2. Moisture measurements

Figure 4. Soil moisture content

1.8
Open Field Forest
1.6
1.4
Ratio of wet to dry wieghts

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Ladies of the Lake Olsen Creek Preserve Agate Bay Preserve
Discussion

It is possible that the differences and similarities of infiltration rates among the sites are

related to the types of parent material of the soil. It is also likely that a significant difference in

how water moves through soil depends on whether the surface has pasture cover or forest cover.

Those sites with parent material associated with glacial outwash had more similar infiltration

rates than the site associated with phyllite.

Site 1 – Ladies of the Lake has a slower over all infiltration rate than either of the other

two sites. The rates are much higher in the open field than in the forest at this site and the

moisture content of the forest soil was much greater than the open field. Out of all the sites the

open field soil at Site 1 had the least moisture content. This could be why the infiltration rate in

this open field was higher than the open fields of other sites. Both Site 2 – Olsen Creek and Site

3 – Agate Bay have very similar infiltration rates in both open field sites and forest sites. They

also have similar moisture content in both vegetation covers. Both sites’ soils are formed on

glacial outwash and have sandy or gravelly textures in their profiles (Soil Survey). The soil at

Site 1 has silty and loamy textures throughout its profile as described in the USDA Soil Survey

of Whatcom County. The difference is textures could be a result of the wreathing of the parent

material. The glacial outwash of Sites 2 and 3 weathered to sandy gravelly partials whereas the

phyllite derived alluvial parent material weathered into fine, layering particles to get the soil a

silty loamy texture.

 More research should be done to validate the finding of this study as some important

factors were not accounted for. Other factors could be at work that influence the infiltration rate

at each site. Cattle were grazed at all the open field sites but the duration and extent of this

grazing is not known. Other impacts like historic fluvial paths are also unaccounted for. Historic

land use is not well documented but interpretations may be possible by reviewing Whatcom

county assessor documents, historic aerial photographs, and surveillance of the forest stand.

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