Automobile Manufacturing System

Chapter 1. Forging

1.1 Introduction:

Forging is one of the oldest metal working operations dating back to atleast
4000 B.C. Forging was traditionally done by blacksmiths. The equipments
used were heavy hand hammer and simple anvil.

Plastic deformation occurs when metal is stretched or compressed beyond

elastic limit. During the deformation the metal flows plastically and grain
shapes are changed. If the deformation is carried out at higher temperature,
total new grains are formed. This process of formation of new grains is
known as recrystallisation. The temperature at which this process is
complete is known as the recrystallisation temperature. This temperature
varies from metal to metal.

Plastic deformation of metal below its recrystallization temperature is called

as cold working, where as plastic deformation of metal above its
recrystallisation temperature, but below melting temperature is called as hot
working.

1.2 Forging:

Forging can be defined as the controlled plastic deformation of metals at

elevated temperatures in to a predetermined size or shape using
compressive forces exerted, through some type of die, by a hammer, a
press or upsetting machine.

Forging enhances the mechanical properties of metals and improves the

grain flow, which in turn increases the strength and toughness of the forged
components.

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 1
 Automobile Manufacturing System

1.3 Forgeability:

Forgeability can be defined as the tolerance of a metal or alloy for

deformation without failure.

Thus good forgeability means less resistance to deformation and even

adverse effects such as cracking are not there. Forgeability can be evaluated
on basis of following tests:

(a) Hot twist test

(b) Upset test

(c) Hot impact test

(a) Hot Twist Test:

In this test, a hot bar is twisted and numbers of twists

before failure are counted. A large number of twists before failure indicate
better forgeability.

(b) Upset Test:

In this test the cylindrical billets are upset-forged to

various thickness. The limit of upset forging without failure or cracking is
considered measure of forgeability. This test is widely used in forging
industry.

(c) Hot-Impact Tensile Test:

A conventional impact-testing machine fitted with a

tension test attachment is used. The impact tensile test is taken as
measure of forgeability.

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 2
 Automobile Manufacturing System

1.4 Forging Materials:

The selection of forging material is made on the basis of certain desirable

mechanical properties inherent in the composition of material and some
properties can be developed by forging such as strength, resistance to
fatigue, good machining characteristics, durability etc.

Following is the list of some alloys in ascending order of forgeability

1. Aluminium alloys 5. Low-alloy steels 9. Titanium alloys

2. Magnesium 6.Martensitic stainless 10. Tantalum alloys

Alloys Steels
3. Copper alloys 7. Austenitic stainless 11. Molybdenum

Steels alloys
4. Plain carbon 8. Nickel alloys 12. Tungsten alloys

Steels
1.5 Forging Temperatures:

For successful forging, the metal piece must be heated to proper

temperature to attain plastic properties before deformation.

Excessive temperature may result in the burning of the metal. Insufficient

temperature will not induce sufficient plasticity, so it will be difficult to shape
by hammering.

The finishing temperature is also important to get a fine grained structure.

The temperature ranges for some common metals are given in table 1.1

Forging Temperature oC
Sr.No. Metal / Alloy
Starting Finishing

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 3
 Automobile Manufacturing System

01 Mild steel 1300 800

02 Wrought iron 1275 900
03 Medium carbon steel 1250 750
04 High carbon steel 1150 825
05 Copper, brass and bronze 950 600
Aluminium and magnesium
06 500 350
alloys
Table 1.1 Forging Temperatures

1.7 Advantages of forging

I.Strength:

Forging reduces the failures. In this process workpiece yields with

high strength to weight ratio. Due to this, it can be able to withstand
fluctuating stress caused by sudden shock loading.

II. Metal conservation:

Practically there is no waste of metals.

III. Weight saving:

Strong thin-walled parts may be produced without damaging

important physical requirements.

IV. Machining time:

Forging can be made to close tolerances, which reduces

machining time for finishing operations of the products.

V. Speed of production:

High rate of production is possible.

VI. Incorporation in welded structures:

Parts can be welded easily due to fibrous structure.

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 4
 Automobile Manufacturing System

VII. It maintains uniform and same quality all over parts.

VIII. Close tolerances.

IX. Smooth surface finish.

1.8 Disadvantages of forging parts

I. High tool cost.

II. High tool maintenance.

III. No cord holes.

IV. Limitation in size and shape.

V. Heat treatment process increases cost of the product.

VI. Brittle materials like cast iron can not be forged.

VII. Complex shape can not be produced by forging

1.9 Classification of forging process:

Mainly forging process classified into two parts.

I. Open die forging:

a) Hand forging

b) Power forging:

i. Hammer forging

ii. Press forging

II. Close die forging:

a) Drop forging

b) Press forging

c) Machine forging

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 5
 Automobile Manufacturing System

I. Open die forging:

It is the simplest forging process. This process also known as

smith die forging or flat die forging. A solid workpiece placed between
two flat face dies as shown in fig.1.1 (a) and reduces their height by
compressing it.

Fig. 1.1 Open Die Forging Processes

The die surfaces have some cavity to produce relatively

simple forging. Deformation of workpiece takes place in ideal condition
as shown in fig.1.1 (b). Due to constant volume, reduction in height
increases the diameter of forged part. But in actual working conditions
part gets developed in barrel shape as shown in fig.1.1 (c). This
barreling is caused due to friction force between workpiece and die
surfaces. Barreling can be reduced easily with help of lubricant.

Smith die forging process sub-divided into two parts

a) Hand process:

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 6
 Automobile Manufacturing System

According to the name this process purely done by hand. The forging
is done on a anvil by hammering the workpiece at suitable
temperature. This temperature attained by heating the workpiece with
tongs.

Fig. 1.2 A Pair Of Fullers And Swages

Hand forging consist of two formers as shown in fig.1.2.

These formers are made of high carbon steel in different size to suit
various types of workpiece. It has two formers top and bottom
formers. Bottom formers also known as fuller. Working edges of the
fullers and formers are normally rounded. These are used for making
necks by reducing cross-section of a workpiece.

Generally are used in maintenance shops as well as rework

area. But now a days, a new forging process is developed known as
power forging.
Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 7
 Automobile Manufacturing System

b) Power forging:

Heavy machine parts can not be forged by hand. Low blow of

a hand or hammer is not able to produce a great degree of
deformation in a workpiece.

The machine or equipments driven by external source having

high power are used in power forging.

Power forging also sub-divided into two parts

i. Hammer forging:

Machine which is work by blow or impact to perform forging

process is known as hammer forging

ii. Press forging:

Machine which is work on pressure to perform forging process

is known as press forging.

II. Close die forging:

In open die forging Complex shape with great accuracy is

very difficult to forged. Close die forging process consist of specially
prepared dies to manufacturing forged parts in large quantities. It is

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 8
 Automobile Manufacturing System

also known as impression die forging.

Fig. 1.3 Close Die Forging

It consist of two dies as shown in fig.1.3. the workpiece takes

the shape of the die cavities ( impression ) during forging process.
Some materials comes outwards and forms a flash. The flash has a
very important role in the grain flow of material in close die forging.
Thin flash cools very easily. Flash have frictional resistance gives high
pressure to the material in die cavity. So it helps to filling of die cavity.

Generally this process is used for mass production with high

degree of accuracy.

This process sub-divided into two parts

a) Drop forging:

Drop forging is used when mass production of identical parts is

required. It is also called as stamping. It consist of special type of
hammer known as drop hammer or drop stamp.

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 9
 Automobile Manufacturing System

Perfectly made steel dies are used for forging. these dies are
made into two parts as shown in fig.1.4. One part is connected to the
top side and other part is fastened to the anvil block at the bottom
side. The top part of the die is raised by mechanical links to a certain
height. The heated metal placed accurately in the bottom part of the
die. The top part of the die is then allowed to fall suddenly. This gives
a high blow and completes the workpiece in a single operation. This

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 10
 Automobile Manufacturing System

process done due to squeezing of the metal into the die cavities.

Board being raised Raised board held a proper height

before dropping

Fig. 1.4 Working Principle Of A Drop Hammer

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 11
 Automobile Manufacturing System

The devices are used for raising the top part of the die is given
below

i. Belt

ii. Rope

iii. Friction rolls and board.

Working process:

At

b) Press forging:

The machine which is work on pressure to perform forging

process is known as press forging. This process consist of slow
squeezing of metal in closed impression dies, instead of Appling
repeated blow by hammers.

Generally two types of presses are used

i. Hydraulic presses:

These presses are used for heavy work. Hydraulic presses are
less faster than mechanical presses. But hydraulic presses produce
greater squeezing force than mechanical presses.

ii. mechanical presses:

These presses are used for light work. Mechanical presses are
faster than hydraulic presses. But mechanical presses not able to
produce greater squeezing force than hydraulic presses.

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 12
 Automobile Manufacturing System

In this presses more complicated shapes and better

dimensional accuracy can be easily achieved. The alignment of the die
is very easy as compared to drop hammer forging. These presses and
dies have longer life than hammer forging. Press forging requires less
skill operators. These presses produce less noise and vibration.

c) Machine forging:

This process also known as hot heading or up-setting.

This process consist of applying pressure longitudinally on a hot bar
clamped or gripped between grooved dies. Forging is done on the
end of the bar. Forging is done on various shapes of metals. But
most commonly used shape is round shape metals. The equipments
used for forging is forging machine or up-setter. Generally it gives
forging pressure in a horizontal directions.

Fig. 1.5 Machine Forging

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 13
 Automobile Manufacturing System

These dies are so designed such that complete operation is

performed in several stages and gradually final shape is obtained.
Operation performed with a die and punch called heading tool. Fig.
1.5 shows step by step operation done on the round bar. Die is either
made hallow to receive the round bar through it or in two parts to
open out and receive the bar. Heading tool is advanced in to die.
Many strokes of the heading tool may be needed to complete the
forging. In this process dies does not have draft as well as flash, so it
gives better dimensional accuracy.

1.10 Difference between drop forging and press forging:

Sr.
Drop forging Press forging
No.
1) This process involves fast This process involves slow
squeezing of metal in dies by squeezing of metal in dies by
applying repeated blows by applying pressure force.
hammers.
2) The dies used relatively more The dies used relatively less
draft and therefore more draft and therefore more
complicated shape can not be complicated shape can be
forged. forged.
3) Alignment of two dies halves is Alignment of two dies halves is
difficult. easy.
4) The life of machines and dies The life of presses and dies are
are shorter. longer.
5) This process requires highly This process does not requires
skilled operator. highly skilled operator.
6) This process have more noise This process have less noise
and vibrations. and vibrations.
7) Production rate is slower. Production rate is faster.
8) Less dimensional accuracy. Better dimensional accuracy.

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 14
 Automobile Manufacturing System

1.11 Difference between open die forging and close die

forging:
Sr.
Open die forging Close die forging
No.
1) It is the simplest forging It is the complex forging
process. process.
2) This process requires simple This process requires complex
and inexpensive dies. and expensive dies.
3) It is useful only for small scale It is useful for small scale as
production. well as large scale production.
4) It is very difficult to hold close It is very easy to maintain close
tolerances. tolerances.
5) Relatively poor utilization of Relatively good utilization of
materials. materials.
6) This process requires highly This process does not requires
skilled operator. highly skilled operator.
7) This forging process have less This forging process have better
dimensional accuracy. dimensional accuracy.
8) This forging process have less This forging process have better
reproducibility. reproducibility.
9) This forging process have less This forging process have high
die cost. die cost.
10) In this process machining is In this process machining is not
necessary to obtain final shape. necessary to obtain final shape.

1.12 Forging die design:

The design of forging dies requires a knowledge of
strength, ductility, sensitivity to deformation rate and melting point

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 15
 Automobile Manufacturing System

of the workpiece material.

Fig. 1.6 Standard Terminology of Forging Die

The terminology for forging die is as shown in fig. 1.6.

Some of these consideration are similar to those for casting. For
most of the forging, the parting line is usually at the largest cross-
section of the part for symmetrical parts, the parting line at the
center of the forging. But for more complex shapes the parting line
may not be lie in the center of the forging.
The flash materials allowed to flow into a gutter, so
that extra flash does not increase the forging load unnecessarily. The
length of the land is usually 2 to 5 times the flash thickness. Number
of gutter design have been developed throughout the years.
To removal of the workpiece from the dies in almost
all forging process draft angles are necessary. At the time of cooling,
forging shrinks both radialy and longitudinally. To overcome this
cause, internal draft angles are made larger than external draft
Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 16
 Automobile Manufacturing System

angles. Internal draft angles are about 7° to 10°, and external draft
angles are about 3° to 5°.
Selection of proper radii for corners and fillets is
important to give smooth flow of metal in a die cavity as well as to
improve die life. Small radii and fillets are not allowed due to stress
concentration and fatigue cracking of the dies.
Allowances are provided in forging die design because
machining of forging of forging may be necessary to obtain final
desired dimensional as well as surface finish. To produce a smooth
and accurate cavity with parting plane more care is required.
In a die, better and economical results are will be
obtained if the following points are considered:
I. The die should part along a single flat plane, if at all possible. If
not then parting plane should follow counter of the workpiece.
II. The parting line should be lies in one plane and not close to the
upper or lower edge.
III. Proper draft angles should be provided – at least 3° for
aluminum and 5° to 7° for steel. Also 1° to 5° draft is provided in
press forging and 3° to 10° in drop forging.
IV. Filets radii should be provided.
V. Ribs should be low and wide.
VI. The various sections should be balanced to avoid extreme
differences in metal flow.
VII. Full advantage should be taken of fiber flow lines.
VIII. Dimensional tolerances should not be closer than necessary.
IX. Forged component should be easily able to achive a radial flow
grains or fibers.
X. Too thin section should be avoided for easy flow of metal.

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 17
 Automobile Manufacturing System

1.13 Die materials and lubricants:

The die material and lubrication is the important
aspects of forging.

I. Die materials:
In most of the forging operation large parts are forged
at elevated temperature. Therefore the general requirements for die
materials are:
a) Good strength and toughness at elevated temperatures.
b) Good harden ability and ability to harden uniformaly.
c) Resistance to mechanical and thermal shocks.
d) It should have high wear resistance.

Selection of proper die material depends on following

factors:
i. Size of the die components.
ii. The properties and composition of the workpiece.
iii. Complexity of shape.
iv. Forging temperature.
v. Cost of the die material.
vi. Number of forging is required.
vii. Heat transfer from hot workpiece to die.
Common die materials are tool and die steel
containing chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and vanadium.
Dies are made from die block , which are forged from
casting. These dies are machined and finished to the desired
shape and surface finish.

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 18
 Automobile Manufacturing System

II. Lubrication:
Lubricants generally reduces friction and wear. They
also act as thermal conductor between hot workpiece and cool dies.
It can slows the cooling rate of workpiece and improving metal flow
or grain flow. It also act as a parting agent.
Wide variety of lubricants can be used in forging:

a) For hot forging:

i. Graphite.
ii. Glass.
iii. Molybdenum disulfide.
In hot forging lubricants are usually applied
directly in to the dies.

b) For cold forging:

i. Mineral oils.
ii. Soaps.
In cold forging, Lubricants are generally
applied on the workpiece.

1.14 Defects in forging:

All defects in forging are given below with the
reasons:

a) Defective structure of metal; Reason – defective original metal.

b) Presence of cold shuts or cracks at corners; Reason – improper
forging and faulty die design.

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 19
 Automobile Manufacturing System

c) Incomplete component; Reason – less metal used, faulty die

design and inadequate metal flow.
d) Mismatched forging; Reason – die halves not properly aligned.
e) Burnt and overheated metal; Reason – improper heating.
f) Fiber flow lines or grain flow lines disconnected; Reason – very
rapid plastic flow of metal.
g) Scale pits; Reason – formed by squeezing of scale into metal
during forging.
h) Oversize components; Reason – worn out dies, incorrect dies.

Also fig. 1.7 shows common examples of defects in forged parts

Fig. 1.7 Examples Of Defects In Forged Parts

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 20
 Automobile Manufacturing System

1.15 Forged parts:

I. Gear blank:

It can be made by upsetting the bar stock. The pattern of the grain flow
lines in the bar stock is as shown in fig. 1.8 (a). When bar stock is
placed in dies such that the flow lines are vertical. The grain pattern
produced will be radial and gear blank will give greatest strength to the

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 21
 Automobile Manufacturing System

teeth as shown in fig. 1.8 (b).

Fig 1.8 Forging Sequence For Gear Blank

All teeth will be equally strong. This is desired because each

tooth considered as a cantilever beam and grain flow lines will be
parallel with expected tensile and compressive stress along the face of
the gear teeth. If the bar stock is placed in the die in such a manner
that its flow lines are horizontal, then the grain pattern produced will be
shown in fig. 1.8 (c). the teeth cut on such blank will not be of the same

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 22
 Automobile Manufacturing System

strength . because gear blank have expected stresses are perpendicular

to the flow lines of bar stock.
II. Connecting rod:
It can be made by forging the bar stock. The blank
shape gradually changes, as shown in fig. 1.9 (a) of connecting rod.

Fig. 1.9 Forging Sequence For Connecting Rod

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 23
 Automobile Manufacturing System

Performing processes, such as fullering and edging [fig. 1.9(b) and fig.
1.9(c)] are used to distribute the material into various regions of the
blank. In fullering, material is distributed away from an area. In
edging, it is gathered into a localized area. The part is then formed into
the rough shape of a connecting rod by a process called blocking using
blocker dies. The final operation is the finishing of the forging in close
die forging that give the forging its final shape. The flash is removed

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 24
 Automobile Manufacturing System

usually by a trimming operation (fig. 1.9)

Fig 1.10 Practical Forging Process For Connecting Rod

III. Hook :

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 25
 Automobile Manufacturing System

Fig. 1.1 Open Die Forging Processes

Fig. 1.2 A Pair Of Fullers And Swages

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 26
 Automobile Manufacturing System

Fig. 1.3 Close Die Forging

Dhaigude. P. B.
Page 27