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CHAPTER 1
Research
Undertaken in a systematic way
On its own
With a clear purpose
With interpretation
Research is something that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic way, thereby increasing
their knowledge.
Research will involve an explanation of the methods used to collect the data, will argue why the results
obtained are meaningful, and will explain any limitations that are associated with them.
Purpose of Research
Describing
Explaining
Understanding
Criticising
Analysing
Business and management research needs to engage with both the world of theory and the world of practice
Mode 1 Knowledge
Mode 2 Knowledge
Mode 3 Knowledge
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Undertaken purely to understand the process of business and management and their outcomes
Undertaken largely in universities & largely as a result of an academic agenda (?)
Little attention given to its practical applications
Mode 2 & Mode 3 business and management research are unlikely to fulfil these conditions (because
M2 & M3 make considerations to practical consequences)
2. Applied Research
Purpose Purpose
- findings of signigicance and value to society - findings of practical relevance and value
in general to managers in organizations
Context Context
Formulating and clarifying a topic (formulating research questions that research must answer)
Reviewing the literature
Designing the research
Collecting data
Analysing data
Writing up
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
CHAPTER 2
If you have already been given a research idea, you must make sure that your research question and
objectives relate clearly to that idea
Symmetry of potential outcomes means that your results will be of similar value whatever you find out
It is important to choose a topic in which you are likely to do well and, if possible, already have some academic
knowledge look at assignments where you received good grades.
Rational thinking
Creative thinking
Keeping a notebook of ideas (note down any interesting research idea and what sparked off your
thought)
Exploring personal preferences using past projects
Relevance trees
Brainstorming
Notebook diary
Preliminary study – refining (clarifying) the research idea in order to turn it into a research project
General focus research question – first question that flows from your research idea, this may lead to
several more detailed questions or the definition of research objectives
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Research objectives are likely to lead to greater specificity that research questions. They are evidence
of the researcher`s clear sense of purpose and direction
Specific – what precisely do you hope to achieve from undertaking the research?
Measurable – what measures will you use to determine whether you have achieved your objectives?
Achievable – Are the targets you have set for yourself achievable given all the possible constraints
Realistic – Given all the other demands upon your time, will you have the time and energy to complete
the research on time?
Timely – will you have the time to accomplish all your objectives in the time frame you have set?
Theory
A formulation regarding the cause and effect relationships between two or more variables, which may
or may not have been tested
Logical argument to explain the reasons for the described phenomena must be included if a document
is to “contain theory” (why did the things you describe occur; what is the logical explanation?)
Theory is about the connections between phenomena, a story about why events, structure and
thoughts occur
To understand the systematic reasons for a particular occurrence or nonoccurence
Theory types
Grand theories – e.g. Darwin & Newton (theories that change the way we think about the world)
Middle-range theories – lack the capacity to change the way we think about the world, but which are
nonetheless of significance (e.g. theories of human motivation)
Substantive theories – restricted to a particular time, research setting, group or population or problem
Clarifying your thoughts & organise your ideas into a coherent statement of your research intent
Convincing reader and tutor that the planned research is possible/achievable
Receiving acceptance and agreement for the proposed research
Title – may change as your work progresses, it should closely mirror the content of your proposal
Background – tell the reader why you feel the research that you are planning is worth the effort
(evidence that there is sufficient interest from you). This is also the section where you will demonstrate
your knowledge of the relevant literature. Moreover it will clarify where your proposal fits into the
debate in the literature. In contrast to the literature review, it will just provide an overview of the key
literature sources from which you intend to draw.
Statement of research questions & objectives – make sure objectives are precisely written and lead to
observable outcomes
Method – details precisely how you plan to achieve your research objectives. It will also justify your
choice of method in the light of those objectives (can be divided into research design (overall view of
the method chosen and the reason for that choice) & data collection (how specifically the data have to
be collected, e.g. sample size/questionnaire type…))
Timescale – e.g. using a Gantt chart to divide tasks and estimate how much time each will take up
Resources – will allow you and your reader to assess whether what you are proposing can be
resourced. Resource considerations may be categorised as finance, data access and equipment. Think
through expenses involved and ensure that you can meet these expenses.
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
References – a few key-literature sources to which you have referred in the background section
CHAPTER 3
Preliminary search that helps you to generate and refine your research ideas.
Critical literature review is part of your research project. It consists of reading and writing about
previous work in your field which increases your subject knowledge and helps you to clarify your
research questions further.
After the initial search you will be able to redefine your parameters more precisely and undertake further
searches, keeping in mind your research questions and objectives.
Main purpose is to help you develop a good understanding and insight into relevant previous research
and the trends that have emerged.
Use literature to help you identify theories and ideas that you will test using data (deductive
approach)
Plan to explore your data and develop theories from them that you will relate to the literature
(inductive approach)
To help you fefine your research questions & objectives further
To highlight research possibilities that have been overlooked in previous research
To help you avoid repeating work that has already been done
To discover and provide insight into research approaches, strategies and techniques that may be useful
for your own research questions and objectives
You will need to show how your findings and the theories you have developed or are using relate to the
research that has gone before, thereby demonstrating that you are familiar with what is already known about
your research topic.
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Critique of tradition where does justification of being critical exist/ conventional wisdom
Critique of authority dominant view in the literature you are reading
Critique of objectivity recognising that knowledge & information you are discussing are not value
free
Critically reviewing the literature for your research topic therefore requires you to have gained topic-based
background knowledge, understanding, the ability to reflect upon and to analyse the literature and, based on
this, to make reasoned judgements that are argued effectively. For your review to be critical, you will need to
show critical judgement.
0. Explain precisely how you searched for the literature you included in your review, outlining your choice
of key words and of databases used
1. Start at a more general level before narrowing down to your specific research questions & objectives
2. Provide a brief overview of key ideas and themes
3. Summarise, compare and contrast the research of the key writers
4. Narrow down to highlight previous research work most relevant to your own research
5. Provide a detailed account of the findings of this research and show how they are related
6. Highlight those aspects where your own research will provide fresh insight
7. Lead your reader into subsequent sections of your project report, which explore these issues
The key to writing a critical literature review is to link the different ideas you find in the literature to form a
coherent and cohesive argument, which sets in context and justifies your research. The review should relate to
your research questions and objectives.
Literature sources
Language of publication
Subject area (e.g. accountancy)
Business sector (e.g. manufacturing) Can be broad, in order to obtain more
Geographical area information
Publication period (e.g. the last 10 years)
Literature type (e.g. journals and books)
Read articles by key authors and recent review articles in the field of your research (helps to suggest
appropriate key words and contains reference to other work pertinent to your research questions &
objectives)
Check dissertations and theses in your library
Brainstorming
Thesauruses, dictionaries & encyclopedias
Discussion with colleagues
Relevance trees
Which key words are directly relevant to your research questions & objectives
Which areas you will search first and which your search will use later
Which areas are more important – these tend to have more branches
An abstract provides the same information as an index but also includes a summary of the article.
Nonetheless they should not be used as a substitute for the full article as they exclude much of
relevance.
2. Meta search engines (search by using a selection of engines at the same time using the same
interface less easy to control the sites that are retrieved, consequently meta search engines
often generate more innapropriate or unreliable sites that general search engines)
3. Specialised search engines and information gateways (for specific subject areas, therefore the
subject area needs to be defined; the number of sites obtained is fewer, but they can be far more
relevant
4. Subject directories (hierarchically organised indexes categorised into subject areas; useful for
searching for broad topics; their content has normally been censored and evaluated; number of
sites retrieved is fewer but usually more appropriate)
Read all the literature that is closely related to your research questions and objectives
The literature which is most likely to cause problems is that which is less closely related
For new research areas, there is unlikely to be much closely related literature and so you will have to
review more broadly
For research questions where research has been going on for some years you may be able to focus on
more closely related literature
When looking for relevance remember, you are looking for relevance, not critically assessing the ideas
within (it helps to think about the criteria for inclusion and exclusion prior to assessing each item of
literature)
Assessing the value of the literature you have collected on the other hand is concerned with the
quality of the research that has been undertaken (methodological rigour, theory robustness as well as
the quality of the arguments)
When further searches provide mainly references to items you have already read
CHAPTER 4
Epistemology
Ontology
Axiology
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Direct realism - What you see is what you get what we experience through our senses portrays the world
accurately. It argues that the world is relatively unchanging: that it operates, in the business context, at one
level (the individual, the group or the organization).
Critical realism – what we experience are sensations, the images of the things in the real world, not the things
directly (representations of what is real). We will only be able to understand what is going on in the social world
if we understand the social structures that have given rise to the phenomena that we are trying to understand
What we see is only part of the bigger picture. We can identify what we don`t see through the practical and
theoretical processes of the social sciences. Thus our knowledge of reality is a result of social conditioning and
cannot be understood independently of the social actors involved in the knowledge derivation process. The
critical realist recognizes the importance of multi-level study (for example, at the level of the individual, the
group and the organization. Each of these levels has the capacity to change the researcher`s understanding of
that which is being studied. This would be the consequence of the existence of a greater variety of structures,
procedures and processes and the capacity that these structures, procedures and processes have to interact
with one another. Therefore the critical realist`s position that the social world is constantly changing is much
more in line with the purpose of business and management research which is too often to understand the
reason for phenomena as a messenger to recommending change.
Ontology
Raises questions of the assumptions researchers have about the way the world operates and the
commitment held to particular views
Social phenomena are created from the perceptions and consequent actions of social actors. This is a
continual process in that through the process of social interaction these social phenomena are in a
constant state of revision.
Necessary to study the details of the situation to understand the reality or perhaps a reality working
behind them (constructionism or social constructionism)
Social constructionism views reality as being socially constructed
Social actors may place many different interpretations on the situations in which they find themselves,
therefore they will perceive different situations in varying ways as a consequence of their own view of
the world. These different interpretations affect their actions and the nature of their social interaction
with others.
As the researcher you must seek to understand the subjective reality of the research subjects in order
to be able to make sense of and understand their motives, actions and intentions in a way that is
meaningful
Culture is something that the organization is as a result of continuing social enactment
The most important determinant of the research philosophy adopted is the research question
Positivist or interpretivist philosophy can be adopted (depending on the question), or one can work
with both
Study what interests you and is of value to you, study in the different ways that you think are
appropriate, and use the results in ways that can bring about positive consequences within your value
system
Axiology
Research paradigms
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
A paradigm is a way of examining social phenomena from which particular understandings of these
phenomena can be gained and explanations attempted
1. Functionalist
2. Interpretive
3. Radical humanist
4. Radical structuralist
Purposes of paradigms
To help researchers clarify their assumptions about their view of the nature of science and society
To offer a useful way of understanding the way in which other researchers approach their work
To help researchers plot their own route through their research; to understand where it is possible to
go and where they are going
1. Radical change – the radical change dimension approaches organizational problems from the
viewpoint of overturning the existing state of affairs
2. Regulation – the regulatory dimension seeks to work within the existing state of affairs
3. Subjectivist – mentioned above
4. Objectivist - mentioned above
Functionalist paradigm
Interpretive paradigm
The philosophical position to which it refers is the way we as humans attempt to make sense of the
world around us
Concerned to understand the fundamental meanings attached to organisational life
Discovering irrationalities may be the principal concern
Your concern here would not be to achieve change in the order of things, it would be to understand
and explain what is going on
Located within the subjectivist and radical change dimensions (radical change dimension adopts a
critical perspective on organisational life)
Working within this paradigm you would be concerned with changing the status quo
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
The ontological perspective you would adopt here, as in the interpretivist paradigm, would be
subjectivist
1. Deducing a hypothesis (a testable proposition about the relationship between two or more concepts
or variables) from the theory
2. Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms (that is, indicating exactly how the concepts or
variables are to be measured), which propose a relationship between two specific concepts or
variables
3. Testing this operational hypothesis
4. Examining the specific outcome of the inquiry (it will either tend to confirm the theory or indicate the
need for its modification)
5. If necessary, modifying the theory in the light of the findings
An attempt is then made to verify the revised theory by going back to the first step and repeating the
whole cycle
1. Deduction emphasises
Scientific principles
Moving from theory to data
The need to explain causal relationships between variables
The collection of quantitative data
The application of controls to ensure validity of data
The operationalisation of concepts to ensure clarity of definition
A highly structured approach
Researcher independence of what is being researched
The necessity to select samples of sufficient size in order to generalise conclusions
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
2. Induction emphasises
Gaining an understanding of the meanings humans attach to events
A close understanding of the research context
The collection of qualitative data
A more flexible structure to permit changes of research emphasis as the research progresses
A realisation that the researcher is part of the research process
Less concern with the need to generalise
CHAPTER 8
Secondary data – data that have already ben collected for some other purpose (raw data & published
summaries)
Raw data – where there has been little if any processing
Compiled data – that have received some form of selection or summarising
Include written materials such as notices, minutes of meetings, reports to shareholders, diaries (…)
Can also include books, journal and magazine articles and newspapers, but also non-written materials
such as voice and video recordings, pictures, drawings, films, DVDs (…)
Can be analysed quantitatively and qualitatively
Can be used to help triangulate findings based on other data such as written documents and primary
data collected through observation, interviews or questionnaires
Data collected using a survey strategy, usually by questionnaires that have already been analysed for
their original purpose
Such data normally refer to organisations, people or households
Made available as a downloadable matrix of raw data for secondary analysis
Survey-based secondary data collected through three subtypes of survey strategy: censuses,
continuos/regular surveys or ad hoc surveys
Censuses – carried out by government; participation is obligatory; clearly defined, well documented
and of high quality (e.g. censuses of population)
continuos/regular surveys – repeated over time (e.g. general household survey)
ad hoc surveys – very specific in their subject matter; include data from questionnaires of independent
researchers as well as interviews undertaken by organisations and government
Different data sets have been combined to form another data set (e.g. compilations of company
information; can be based on Documentary secondary data or on Survey-based secondary data or on
both)
1. Establishing that the sort of data you require are likely to be available as secondary data
2. Locating the precise data you require
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Secondary data will have been collected for a specific purpose that differs from your research question
and to meet your objectives data you are considering may be inappropriate to your research
question
Access may be difficult or expensive
Definitions of data variables may not be the most appropriate for your reaearch question
The documents you are using may represent the interpretations of those who produced them, rather
than offer an objective picture of reality
No control over data quality
Initial purpose may affect how data are presented (e.g. newspapers select what they consider most
important, therefore the culture and ideals of those who originally collected the data will have
influenced the nature of these data to some extent)
The secondary data will enable you to answer your research question and to meet your objectives
The benefits associated with their use will be greater than the costs
You will be allowed access to the data
Overall suitability
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Measurement validity
Measures used for secondary survey data may not match those that you need
Minutes of a company meeting may be based on the chairperson`s interpretation and may not really
reflect what actually happened
Precise suitability
Reliability and validity are functions of the method by which the data were collected and the source
(you can make a quick assessment of those by looking at the source of the data, this is called assessing
the authority or reputation of the source )
1. Discover the person or organisation responsible for the data
2. Look for a copyright statement and the existence of published documents relating to the data (on the
internet titles such as institute of research (… ) may be made up)
However sometimes the webpages/institutes with the most authority often feel the least need to
proclaim it
3. Assessment of the methods used to collect the data (is the method clearly described?)
4. Look at the process by which the data were collected or recorded
Measurement bias
Deliberate or intentional distortion (change for the worse) of data (when data are recorded
inaccurately on purpose, e.g. minor accidents not recorded to improve safety reports, graphs may be
deliberately distorted to show an organisation in a more favourable light).
Other distortion may be deliberate but not intended for any advantage (employees keeping a time
diary may only record the approximate time spent on their main duties)
What was the original purpose for which the data were collected?
Changes in the way data are collected change of bias
You need to compare the findings with other independent data sources (cross-check verification)
Final criterion for assessing secondary data is a comparison of the costs (time & money) of aquiring
them with the benefits (the extent to which they will enable you to answer your research question and
meet your objectives) they will bring.
CHAPTER 9
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Observation – systematic observation, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of people`s behaviour
Participant observation – qualitative and derives from the work of social anthropology. Emphasis on discovering
the meanings that people attach to their actions
Structured observation – quantitive and more concerned with the frequency of those actions
Participant observation
The researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and activities of subjects and thus becomes a
member of their group, organisation or community. This enables the researcher to share their
experiences by not merely observing what is happening but also feeling it.
To get to the root of “what`s going on”
Sharing in peoples` lives while attempting to learn their symbolic world
High level of absorption
Trying to get to the bottom of the process by which the individual constantly constructs and
reconstructs his or her identity
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
1. Primary – note what happened or what was said at the time. Keeping a diary is a good way of doing
this.
2. Secondary – statements by observers of what happened or was said. This necessarily involves those
observers` interpretations.
3. Experiental – data on your perceptions and feelings as you experience the process you are researching.
Keeping a diary of these perceptions proves a valuable source of data. You also collect data on for
example the roles played by key participants and how these may have changed; organisational
structures and communication patterns
Data collection
Data analysis
Data collection and analysis activity may be part of the same process
While the journalist is interested in a story, you are interested in generating a theory to help you
understand “what is going on”
The greatest threat to reliability of your research conclusion produced as a result of a participant
observation study is that of observer bias (because we are part of the social world we are studying we
cannot detach ourselves from it, or avoid relying on our common sense knowledge and life experience
when we try to interpret it).
We cannot avoid observer bias, but we can become aware of them and try to control them
(ask yourself questions about your conclusions, like “what other interpretations could I have put on
this” + use informant verification (present written accounts to informants for them to verify the
content)
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Advantages
Disadvantages
Structured observation
Advantages
It can be used by anyone after suitable training in the use of the measuring instrument. Therefore you
could delegate this extremely time-consuming task. In addition, structured observation may be carried
out simultaneously in different locations. This would present the opportunity of comparison between
locations.
It should generate highly reliable results by virtue (advantage) of its replicability
Structured observation is capable of more than simply observing the frequency of events. It is also
possible to record the relationship between events
The method allows the collection of data at the time they occur in their natural setting. Therefore
there is no need to depend on second accounts of phenomena from respondents who put their own
interpretation on events
Structured observation secures information that most participants would ignore because to them it
was too mundane (ordinary) or irrelevant
Disadvantages
The observer must be in the research setting when the phenomena under study are taking place
Research results are limited to overt (obvious; unconcealed) action or surface indicators from which
the observer must make inferences (conclusions)
Data are slow and expensive to collect
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Subject error
May cause data to be unreliable (e.g. if you are concerned with observing the output of sales
administrators as measured by the amount of orders they process in a day. Subject error may be
evident if you chose administrators in a section that was short-staffed because of illness. This may
mean that they were having to spend more time answering telephones, and less time processing
orders, as there were fewer people available to handle phone calls.
Chose subjects who in as many respects as possible are “normal” examples of the population
under study
Time error
It is essential that the time at which you conduct the observation does not provide data that are
untypical of the total time period in which you are interested
Observer effect
the threat that the process of the observer`s observation of behaviour changes the nature of that
behaviour owing to the fact that the subject is conscious of being observed.
Ways to overcome the observer effect:
Minimal interaction (stay in background as much as possible, as little interaction with subjects as
possible, no eye contact)
Habituation (subjects become familiar with process of being observed and take it for granted
CHAPTER 10
Structured interviews
Use questionnaires based on a predetermined and standardised or identical set of questions and we
refer to them as interviewer-administered questionnaires
You read out each question and then record the response on a standardised schedule, usually with pre-
coded answers
While there is social interaction between you and the respondent, such as the preliminary
explanations that you will need to provide, you should read out the questions exactly as written and in
the same tone of voice so that you do not indicate any bias.
As structured interviews are used to collect quantifiable data they are also referred to as quantitative
research interviews
Semi-structured interviews
Non-standardised
Referred to as qualitative research interviews
The researcher has a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from
interview to interview
This means that you may exclude some questions in particular interviews
The order of questions may also be varied depending on the flow of the conversation
Data will be recorded by audio-recording the conversation or perhaps note taking
Used to help identify the questions that should be asked in your questionnaire (used in the design of
your questionnaire or structured interview)
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Used to explore and explain themes that have emerged from the use of your questionnaire
Are informal
Use these to explore in depth a general area in which you are interested
Referred to as in-depth interviews
No predetermined list of questions to work through, although you need to have a clear idea about the
aspect you want to explore
Interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to
the topic area (this type of interaction is called non-directive)
Labelled as an informant interview since it is the interviewee`s perceptions that guide the conduct of
the interview
Respondent interview
The interviewer directs the interview and the interviewee responds to the questions of the researcher
Can be conducted face to face or through telephone, internet or intranet
There are many situations in which the use of non-standardised (qualitative) research interviews as a method of
data collection may be advantageous. These can be grouped into four aspects related to interview:
An interview will be the most advantageous approach to obtain data in the following circumstances:
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Reliability
Forms of bias
Validity and generalisability
Reliability
The lack of standardisation in such interviews may lead to concerns about reliability
In relation to qualitative research, reliability is concerned with whether alternative researchers would
reveal similar information
Concern about reliability also related to issues of bias
Interviewer bias
Where comments, tone or non-verbal behaviour of the interviewer creates bias in the way that
interviewees respond to the questions being asked. This may be where you attempt to impose your
own beliefs and frame of reference through the questions that you ask. It is also possible that you will
demonstrate bias in the way you interpret responses.
Where you are unable to develop the trust of the interviewee, or perhaps where your credibility is
seen to be lacking, the value of the information given may be limited, raising doubts about its validity
and reliability
Interviewee bias
May be caused by perceptions about the interviewer or in relation to perceived interviewer bias
Interviewee may be willing to participate but may be sensitive to the unstructured exploration of
certain themes, therefore they may choose not to discuss an aspect of the topic that you wish to
explore interviewee may provide a partial picture of the situation that casts himself in a “socially
desirable” role, or the organisation for which they work in a positive or even negative fashion.
Time-consuming requirements of the interview process may result in a reduction in willingness to take
part
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Summary Research Methods for Business Students
Validity refers to the extent to which the researcher gains access to their participants` knowledge and
experience, and is able to infer a meaning that the participant intended from the language that was
used by this person
Qualitative research using semi-structured or in-depth interviews will not be able to be used to make
generalisations about the entire population
Reliability
One response to the issue of reliability is that findings derived from using non-standardised research
methods are not necessarily intended to be repeatable since they reflect reality at the time they were
collected, in a situation which may be subject to change.
The assumption behind this type of research is that the circumstances to be explored are complex and
dynamic. The value of using non-standardised interviews is derived from the flexibility that you may
use to explore the complexity of the topic. Therefore an attempt to ensure that qualitative, non-
standardised research could be replicated by other researchers would not be realistic without
undermining the strength of this type of research.
Preparation
Appropriateness of location
Somewhere where the participants feel comfortable
A place where you will not be disturbed
A place where no outside noise will interfere with the interview or the recording
Approach to questioning
Start with general, “simple” questions to gain the respondent`s trust and to relax the situation.
Later on in the interview (as you gained the respondent`s trust) you can ask more sensitive questions
Be neutral but interested
Keep relevant interview themes in mind
Open questions
Probing questions
Can be used to explore responses that are of significance to the research topic
They may be worded like open questions but request a particular focus or direction
E.g. how would you evaluate the success of this new marketing strategy?
Group interview – all non-standardised interviews conducted with two or more people
Make sure everybody gets their say, encourage people who didn`t say anything yet to participate
Neutral room people feel comfortable (not managers office)
People should be of the same rank (don`t mix managers with low employees)
Best with two interviewers, one to facilitate, one to take notes
Both questions that search for a particular answer and questions that allow participants to range more
freely in discussion
Advantage variety of points of view, because several participants (they also challenge each others
point of view)
Focus group interview – group interview that focuses clearly upon a particular issue, product, service or topic
and includes the need for interactive discussion amongst participants
Participants are encouraged to discuss and share their point of view without being pressured to reach
a consensus
CHAPTER 11
Questionnaires work best with standardised questions that will be interpreted the same way by all respondents.
A questionnaire offers only one chance to collect data (because often difficult to identify respondents)
Self-administered questionnaires
Interviewer-administered questionnaires
1. Opinion variables – record how respondents feel about something or what they believe is true or false
2. Behaviour variables – when recording what respondents do (what did they do in the past, what will
they do in the future e.g. in an organisation)
3. Attribute variables – data about the respondents´ characteristics, things a respondent posesses (age,
gender, status, education…)
Reliability in questionnaires – is concerned whether or not the questionnaire will produce consistent findings at
different times and under different conditions , such as with different samples and different interviewers
List – where the respondent is offered a list of items, any of which may be selected
Category – where only one response can be selected from a given set of categories
Ranking – where the respondent is asked to place something in order
Rating – in which a rating device is used to record responses
Quantity – to which the response is a number giving the amount
Grid – where responses to two or more questions can be recorded using the same matrix
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