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Original article
and external environments, as well as under precharged the kinetics of any other superimposed crack nucleation
conditions (Gangloff, 2003; Gangloff & Wei, 1977; Page & and growth process, such as fatigue. The environmental
Gerberich, 1982). In this paper, we only examine the rel- contributions can be only quantified in terms reduction
evant data from the literature that can help us in under- in the material resistance, taking into consideration inert
standing the generic material response under significant environment as reference. Hence, any lack of material
environmental and mechanical loading conditions. data in an inert environment will hinder the proper quan-
tification of the environmental effects on the nucleation
and growth of a crack. Unfortunately, there are not much
2.2 E nvironmentally assisted crack of data available for different materials in inert environ-
nucleation and growth ment to help us in understanding and quantifying the role
of environments in accentuating the crack initiation and
Figure 1 shows schematically the crack nucleation and growth.
growth in smooth, notched, or precracked specimen. Given that crack is a high-energy defect, its nuclea-
Environment can accelerate crack nucleation and growth tion and growth require stress concentration. Hence, in
process for a given applied stress, or reduce the stress smooth specimen, localized heterogeneous deformations
necessary for nucleation and growth for a given time. enhance the local buildup of internal stresses, which
Although the required stress that cause nucleation and/ help in the nucleation, and growth of the crack. Inter-
or crack growth decreases with increasing concentration nal stresses are normally generated via dislocations,
and/or time, there is threshold stress or minimum stress and hence material microstructure and flow properties
below which no further reduction occurs. This is similar become important considerations in failure process. The
to endurance limit under fatigue. For a cracked speci- presence of grain boundaries and interfaces provides the
men, this is called the threshold stress intensity factor, low-energy paths for both nucleation and propagation of
KISCC, which depends on material-environment conditions. cracks, as well as for the environmental accentuation of
In essence, stress is the primary factor in contributing to the damage. Hence, associated fractographic information
crack nucleation and growth, and environment enters would help in understanding the mechanisms involved.
through reduction in the material resistance. The reduc- In the following, we examine the crack nucleation and
tion depends on the specifics of the localized material- growth kinetics in smooth, notched, and precracked spec-
environmental reactions and their kinetics in relation to imens of 4340 steel to understand the material behavior,
particularly in aqueous environments.
Figure 2A shows schematically the typical material
Crack initiation to growth behavior of environmentally sensitive materials under
cyclic loads, as depicted earlier by McEvily and Wei (1972).
There are three distinct limiting thresholds, ΔK threshold
for fatigue, KISCC threshold under static loads, and KIC for
fracture toughness for overload fracture. Here K stands
for linear elastic stress intensity factor. Type A behavior
(Figure 2A) shows that environment accelerates fatigue
crack growth even when the applied stresses are below
Smooth Notch Fracture mechanics KISCC. Here the environmental contribution to fatigue
Crack growth
depends predominantly on the time of exposure of the
σf
Stage III crack tip to the environment. It is obvious that the process
con1 Failure
Initiation
that contributes to this superimposed environmental
Stage II
effect should be different from that which contributes to
da/dt
σapl
Plateau
σth KISCC. That process does not seem to be available during
Stage I
KISCC static or stress corrosion crack growth. Hence, this process
Time
Kapl accentuates only the crack growth under cyclic loads
but by itself does not independently contribute to crack
Figure 1: Schematic illustration of crack initiation to growth and
growth. As the crack growth rate due to fatigue process
failure of a crack in a smooth-notched-cracked specimen. σth is the
threshold stress for smooth specimen, and KISCC is the threshold
increases with stress, this environmental contribution
stress for a fracture mechanics specimen. Notch specimen falls decreases because the exposure time for a unit increment
between these two limiting conditions. of crack length decreases. Thus, we have an interplay of
nm ive
t
en
ro s
v i es
en ggr
A
Kmax → KIC
Kmax → KIC
Kmax → KIC
rt
Ine
Kmax → KISCC
Kmax → KISCC
KISCC
Threshold Kmax,th KIC > KISCC KISCC KIC > KISCC KISCC KIC > KISCC
Kmax
B
Frequency Frequency
Cycle
dependent
da/dN
(a) ∆K Kmax
Frequency
Frequency
Time
dependent
da/dt
(b) ∆K Kmax
Figure 2: (A) Schematic representations of inert and environmental effects on fatigue crack growth showing early classification due to
McEvily and Wei (1972). (B) Representation of frequency effects in cycle and time-dependent processes in terms ΔK and Kmax.
cycle-dependent process due to fatigue and time-depend- crack growth contribution due to static load is zero as
ent process due to crack tip chemical driving forces. In the applied stress intensities are below KISCC. The type B
the following, we use the terms chemical driving force behavior shown in the figure involves contribution from
and chemical stress somewhat interchangeably, although fatigue and stress corrosion crack growth, and the linear
it is the stress that is computed and is represented in all summation of the two can be applicable only in this case,
figures. The time-dependent accentuation of crack growth if there is no synergism between the two. The contribution
due to environment should itself depend on frequency from the stress corrosion becomes important only when
of testing, as increasing frequency reduces the time of the Kmax at the crack tip exceed KISCC. This stress-dependent
exposure to environment and crack growth moves toward contribution increases with the increase in stress although
a cycle-dependent process. By contrast, decreasing fre- the time of exposure of crack tip decreases with increasing
quency increases the time of exposure of the crack tip to crack growth rate. Hence, this environmental contribution
the aggressive environment, enhancing the environmen- is more of a stress-dependent process than a time-depend-
tally induced time-dependent process. The type A behav- ent process. There may be additional synergetic effects as
ior cannot be computed by linear summation rule because a function of R ratio and frequency. For example, KISCC
itself can be reduced at high frequencies and R ratios for pure fatigue condition, ΔK = Kmax. In the 3-D plot, one
because of the ripple-load effects that were found earlier can make cuts at constant da/dN and represent the data
(Pao, Bayles, & Yoder, 1991) in some structural steels. The in terms of ΔK and Kmax for different da/dN values starting
type C behavior in the figure is a combination of types A from da/dN = 0, which represents the threshold condition.
and B, and hence the linear summation rule does not work Thus, we have to recognize that fatigue threshold is not a
fully for this case. single value but a curve involving two parameters with the
The simplest way to find out if the crack growth limiting thresholds ∆Kth∗ and ∆K max,th
∗
. The crack growth
process is time or cycle dependent is to represent the trajectory is defined by the variation of these two limiting
data in terms of both da/dN vs. ΔK, and da/dN or da/dt values with crack growth rate (Figure 3C). The pure fatigue
vs. Kmax, for a given R ratio, but at different frequencies. process is designated by the 45° line in this plot. Any
If the process is purely cycle dependent, the data should deviation from this line represents a superimposed Kmax-
collapse on da/dN vs. ΔK plot because crack growth is dependent process. In the environmentally accelerated
predominately frequency independent. If the process is process, the deviation from this 45° line represents the
purely time dependent, then the collapse occurs in da/dt environmental contribution. To develop the crack growth
vs. Kmax plot, see Figure 2B. If both are present as in the trajectory maps, the tests have to be done for a range of
case of type C, then such collapse does not occur or occurs R ratios that scan the material behavior in the full range
in a limited range where one or the other process is domi- of ΔK and Kmax values. For expediency, at least two tests,
nant. We will use this procedure in analyzing the crack one at low R ratio and the other at high R ratio, have to be
growth data in 4340 steel. evaluated.
It should be recognized that when crack growth rate
(da/dN or da/dt) is represented in terms of Kmax and ΔK, we
2.2.1 Two-parametric approach for fatigue
are only accounting the crack growth in terms of mechani-
cal crack tip driving forces. The contribution from environ-
Unlike the static case (such as stress corrosion), cyclic
ment enters through chemical potential gradients, which
loads involve two load parameters for unambiguous
cannot be quantified directly. Hence, to evaluate these
(Sadananda & Vasudevan, 2004). They involve cyclic
contributions, it is important to have crack growth rate
amplitude and mean or maximum stress. Hence, ideally,
data in an inert state as a reference. For the same crack
fatigue crack growth needs to be represented in a 3-D plot
growth rate, it is then possible to measure the changes in
(Figure 3), involving da/dN vs. ΔK and Kmax with the rec-
the mechanical driving forces due to contribution from
ognition that one cannot have ΔK without Kmax. Hence,
Chemical forces. Unfortunately, crack growth rate data in
vacuum or inert environment for many materials including
Alloy 4340 are not available. In Figure 3C, trajectory path,
B Kmax,th*
the 45° line, provides some reference in which a measure
A da/dN ry of the environmental contribution can be estimated,
to
<0 jec although actual data would help in computing correctly
R >0 Tra
R
da/dN4 the contribution to each of the two parameters, Kmax and
∆K
4
2
3 ΔK. The reason is environment can affect both ΔK and Kmax
1 parameters, although the effect on Kmax is more dominant
Threshold ∆Kth*
in general. Here the chemical forces help in the reduction
Kmax
Km
ax of Kmax component required for crack growth, which can
∆K C be quantified using the trajectory map. However, the lack
Θ=45°
R=
R=0
c
pla ons of inert or vacuum data required to establish the reference
ax *
ne t
would prevent the quantification of the environmental
m
K
∆K*
th
row
∆K
load parameters ck g contributions to crack growth for life prediction. For mate-
Cra jectory
tra
3-D representation rials that are extremely environmentally sensitive, ultra-
Kmax* high vacuums are required to establish the reference inert
material behavior. With this background, we examine the
Figure 3: (A) Three-dimensional representation of fatigue crack
crack growth behavior in AISI 4340 steel reported in the
growth in terms of two parameters ΔK and Kmax. (B) Two-dimensional
representation by taking cuts at various da/dN. (C) Crack growth
literature.
trajectory map showing the variation of the two limiting values of ΔK There is also a question of how to quantify the envi-
and Kmax vary with increasing crack growth rate. ronmental effects during fatigue crack growth. For
da/dN (m/cycle)
the trajectory maps? It appears to be convenient to define 10-7
and quantify the changes in the crack growth rates for
10-8
a given ΔK or Kmax, as has been done by many investiga- R=0.1
R=0.4
tors in the past. The problem becomes complicated if one 10-9 R=0.7
recognizes, as has been done in our analyses, that fatigue R=0.8
R=0.9
involves two load parameters, and the effect of environ- 10-10
R=0.95
ment differs in each. Hence, it is convenient to define the
10-11
environmental contribution in terms of the changes in the 1 10 100
∆K (MPa (m)0.5)
crack tip driving forces needed to cause the same crack
growth rate, using the inert environment as reference B 10-4
stated (Figure 3C). 4340 steel
10-5 Newman et al.
air
10-6
3 C
rack growth under fatigue
da/dN (m/cycle)
10-7
ent R ratios (Figure 4A). If crack growth is purely cycle Kmax (MPa (m)0.5)
A 10-3 B 10-3
4340 steel 4340 Steel
Cycle-dependent
air regime Distilled water
10-4 10-4
da/dN, mm/cycle
da/dN, mm/cycle
10-5 10-5
R=0.1, 10 Hz R=0.1, 10 Hz
R=0.5, 10 Hz
R=0.25, 10 Hz
-6 -6 R=0.1, 20 Hz
10 R=0.5, 10 Hz 10
R=0.5, 20 Hz
R=0.1, 20 Hz
10-7 10-7
2 4 6 8 10 30 50 1 10 100
∆K (MPa (m)0.5) ∆K (MPa (m)0.5)
C 10-2 D 10-3
da/dN, mm/cycle
10-4 10-5
R=0.1, 10 Hz
R=0.5, 10 Hz R=0.1, 10 Hz
10-5 10-6
R= 0.1, 20 Hz R=0.5, 10 Hz
R=0.5, 20 Hz
-6
10 10-7
1 10 100 1 10 100
0.5
Kmax (MPa (m) ) ∆K (MPa (m)0.5)
E 10-2
4340 Steel
NaCl Environment
10-3
da/dN, mm/s
10-4
R=0.1, 10 Hz
R=0.5, 10 Hz
10-5
10-6
1 10 100
Kmax (MPa (m)0.5)
Figure 6: (A) Crack growth rate in air at three R ratios and two frequencies. The data merge at higher crack growth rates. (B) Crack growth
rate in distilled water at two R ratios and two frequencies. (C) The data from panel b is replotted in terms of (da/dt) as a function of Kmax. The
data collapses, indicating the predominately the time-dependent crack growth. (D) Crack growth data in NaCl environment as a function of
ΔK. (E) The crack growth data in panel d is replotted in terms of (da/dt) vs. Kmax. At higher Kmax, the data merge indicative of time-dependent
process.
the crack length goes to zero (Tanaka, Nakai, & Yamashita, By considering that fatigue is a two-load parameter
1981). Under this scenario, the specimen endurance and problem, we have shown that (a) the crack growth behav-
the thresholds for long crack growth depend on R ratio, ior of long crack is a fundamental material property for
thereby resulting in a separate diagram for each R ratio, as a given environment; (b) there are two limiting thresh-
shown by Usami and Shida (1979). olds, ΔKth and Kmax,th; and (c) Kmax,th ≥ ΔKth. Hence, the
Endurance
be sufficient to generate the required internal stresses for
Non-propagating
crack nucleation or for a preexisting crack to propagate
∆σ
cracks ∆σe
further. In the giga-cycle regime, crack nucleation can
NF
shift from surface to internal inhomogeneity, which is
close to surface where local cyclic plasticity can generate
Log (crack length)
the required internal stresses for propagation. Thus, the
Figure 7: Original Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram connecting the modified Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram in Figure 8 unifies
endurance of smooth specimen and the crack growth threshold the crack nucleation, short crack growth regime with
of fracture mechanics specimen, thus defining nonpropagating
long crack growth thresholds. Most important to note is
regime.
that the internal stress triangle defines both the minimum
local stress and its stress gradient required to ensure the
previous diagram can be represented in terms of two incipient crack that is nucleated propagates continuously
limiting thresholds and endurance limits (Sadananda, to failure. For example, if the applied stress is at A, then
Sarkar, Kujawski, & Vasudevan, 2009): ΔKth and Δσe, or the local stress needs to be increased to a minimum level
Kmax,th and σmax,e. However, Kmax,th and σmax,e representation indicated by B for crack to initiate, and the gradient has to
is more convenient because time-dependent environmen- be such that crack can grow along paths B to C and C to D
tal effects can easily be represented by Kmax variable. The to become long enough for it to grow even under remote
R ratio dependence is then reduced to the dependence on applied stress. In this example, remote stress is the endur-
ΔK or Kmax. The modified diagram is shown in Figure 8. The ance limit. Hence, for crack less than ac, the internal stress
diagram is further modified by extrapolating the crack magnitude and the minimum gradient have to be fulfilled
growth threshold line and fracture line (KIC line) to crack to ensure crack growth. Otherwise, growing crack can get
lengths less than ac to meet the y-axis at σIN and σf, the arrested, resulting nonpropagating cracks. In the case of
crack initiation stress and failure stress for smooth speci- crack initiated at very sharp notches, although the magni-
men, respectively. The physical interpretation for the inter- tude of the internal stress is high to nucleate a crack, the
nal stress triangle thus formed has been provided before internal stresses fall down rapidly, resulting in nonpropa-
(Sadananda & Sarkar, 2013). In essence, it corresponds to gating cracks. For this reason, the fatigue stress concentra-
tion factor, KF, differs from the elastic stress concentration
factor. The modified Kitagawa-Takahashi diagram hence-
ac forth is called “failure diagram” because it is applicable
E σf
Modified Kitagawa- to all subcritical crack growth phenomena, where internal
Takahashi diagram
B σIN
stresses and their gradients, short crack growth analysis,
F σ=KIC/{y(πa)0.5} nonpropagating cracks, etc., are equivalently applicable.
C a* The diagram connects the behavior of smooth specimen to
Internal stress that of fracture mechanics specimen. The notched speci-
Cr reg
G
ac im
σ=Kmax,th/{y(πa)0.5}
men falls in between these two extremes.
kg e
A
σmax,e. D
ro
wt
h
Log (σ)
Non-propagating
cracks Crack growth at
constant σ H 5 F ailure diagram for stress
corrosion
Log (cl)
Failure diagram Here it consists of two components. One is the local defor-
σf*
σIN mation at the crack tip, which can accelerate the crack
B
c1 growth process by creating internal stresses. The local
ac
Log (stress)
σth KIC/{√(πa) σf
Internal stress con1 Failure deformation itself could be accentuated by, say, adsorp-
C
σth*
cS A
D KISCC/{√(πa)} Initiation tion or chemisorption or by the reduction of the resistance
σapl
σth
to deformation or plastic flow. Enhanced localized defor-
Non-propagating Time mation that aids the cracking process by way of building
cracks
internal stresses is the essence of the hydrogen-enhanced
Log (crack length) local plasticity (HELP)-type of mechanisms. Many acro-
σth
σth*
Con
nyms have been used in the literature to characterize the
interdependent mechanisms involving environment and
Figure 9: Failure diagram for stress corrosion connecting thresholds local plasticity. Figure 9 defines the essential role of these
for smooth specimen, σth, and for fracture mechanics specimen, KISCC.
interactive processes in terms of building the necessary
σ ∗th is the limiting threshold with increasing concentration.
internal stresses and their gradients, which is applicable
to all subcritical crack growth processes. Using this figure,
concentration C1. With increasing concentration, this one can define, in essence, the mechanical equivalent
threshold also reaches a limiting threshold stress value of chemical forces. Ultimately, measurable entity is only
σ ∗th , as shown in Figure 9. The crack growth threshold the mechanical force, and the role of chemistry can only
line for a long crack is represented by KISCC. As in fatigue, be deduced using a pure inert environment as reference.
we consider the long crack threshold KISCC as a material Thus, operating chemical forces can only be expressed
property and is therefore independent of crack length. as reduction in the mechanical forces required for crack
Internal stress triangle forms (Figure 9) as the horizontal increment using inert state as reference. This can be done
line joining the smooth specimen threshold joins the KISCC without knowing the details of the chemical and/or elec-
line. The critical crack length ac is the minimum crack trochemical forces involved in contributing to the local net
length that can grow under the imposed applied stress in internal stresses at the crack tip regime. Although Figure 9
the concentrated aggressive environment. For lengths less provides only the requirement of mechanical stresses for
than ac, either chemical or mechanical internal stresses continuous crack growth, it does not provide the rate of
are needed to force the crack to move from incipient stage crack growth or crack growth kinetics. As these concepts
to the sustaining-growth stage. The required internal are relatively new, there are not many experimental data
stresses have to meet in terms of both the magnitude and available in the literature for their validation. Figure 10,
the gradient as designated by the internal stress triangle for example, illustrates the role of H environment in terms
to ensure continuous crack growth from its inception. of reduction in the stress necessary for crack initiation
Otherwise, the incipient crack nucleated will get arrested, and failure. Here we are using the stress value at very low
resulting in nonpropagating crack, just as was observed H concentration as reference for convenience. If the curve
during fatigue crack growth (Sadananda & Vasudevan,
2011).
40
Considering that y-axis represents the mechani-
cal stress, the significance of the internal stress triangle
4340 steel
should be understood. For example, if the initial crack size 35
Gangloff, 1986
and applied stress is represented by A in Figure 9, then
Kth (MPa (m)0.5)
are not met, then we have nonpropagating stress corro- H Pressure (KPa)
sion cracks. The question then pertains to the nature and Figure 10: Chemical stress contribution can be defined using the
the source of the internal stress during stress corrosion. close to inert behavior as reference.
is unique for that environment, as the authors seem to Stress fields and gradients ahead of the notch tip can vary
imply, then one can define the mechanical equivalent of depending on the stress concentration factor Kt, notch tip
chemical forces for that environment for life prediction. In radius ρ, and material flow stress in relation to applied
addition, Figure 9 also provides chemical stress gradient stress. Figure 12 shows schematically how the stress fields
in terms of equivalent mechanical stress gradient repre- can vary under elastic-plastic conditions. Most important
sented by the internal stress triangle. It is the gradient in to note is that with increasing Kt, peak stress increases and
the chemical driving forces as the crack length increases, the stress gradients become sharp, which can affect the
which is reflected in terms of mechanical stress gradient. growth of an incipient crack originating from the notch
Failure diagram thus provides a measure of the localized tip. El Haddad, Topper, and Smith (1979) were the first one
chemical driving forces and their gradients as the crack to address this problem in a somewhat empirical way. The
grows in the combined mechanical and chemical driving stress intensity factor Kplc for an incipient crack emanat-
forces. ing from an elastic-plastic notch tip has been analyzed
Figure 11 provides an example of the application (Sadananda & Sarkar, 2013) for a 2-D case, and the results
of failure diagram for 4340 steel in H2SO4 environment, for selected Kt values are shown in Figure 13. After passing
where the authors have studied the stresses for crack ini- the regime of peak stress of the notch, the stress intensity
tiation at different notch configurations. Figure 11 demon- of the incipient crack decreases and reaches a minimum
strates that notch tip stresses for crack initiation exceed
the KISCC line. For a more critical evaluation of the previ-
ously mentioned concepts, tests are required using very Notch tip stress fields under elastic – plastic conditions
Peak stress
sharp notches in the propagating and nonpropagating
Stress gradient
regimes, as was done under fatigue crack growth.
Elastic notch
ρ Peak position
6 C
rack initiation and growth Stress profiles
at notches
Stress
two. For a smooth specimen, the internal stresses need to Figure 12: Notch tip stress fields under elastic-plastic conditions.
be generated by heterogeneous plasticity in the form of Peak stress and stress gradient change with increasing Kt.
dislocation pileups, cell walls, intrusions, and extrusions.
The preexisting notches provide stress concentrations to
some extent by localizing the deformation under stress. 8000
Crack emanating from a plastic notch
7000 Kt=6
ρ=0.5
6000 Kt=4
{x/ρ,Kpl}min
Stress intensity (Kpl)
Kt=3
σf=1880 MPa 5000
4340 steel
B 4000
Nominal stress (MPa)
1000
before it increases again with further increase in the crack conditions occur unless the applied stress is increased.
length. The decrease is due to sharp drop in the internal The previously mentioned equation provides the relation
stresses due to notch. The subsequent increase is due to between the Kplc and the notch severity Kt and notch tip
further increase in the crack length under the remote load. radius ρ.
This sharp reduction in the internal stress contribution Figure 14 shows the experimental data of Pao (2014)
explains why short cracks show decreasing and increasing on 4340 steel tested in vacuum using selected Kt and ρ
crack growth rates before they become one with those of values. Tests were done using single edge-notched speci-
the long crack. Hence, short crack acceleration and decel- mens, and the stress intensity for crack initiation is deter-
erations have nothing to do with the lack of crack closure mined using monotonically increasing loads to determine
but due to varying internal stress fields that are inherent when a detectable crack increment occurs. The computa-
with localized stress concentrations. Most important to tion of K is done considering notch as a sharp crack. Kplc is
note is that because the threshold for crack growth Kmax,th calculated using the previously mentioned equations for
is independent of crack length or notch configurations, the test specimens considering applied stress and their
crack arrest occurs when the minimum in Kplc in Figure 13 notch geometries. The results are shown in Figure 14.
falls below the crack growth threshold. Extensive analy- Because both Kt and ρ affect the stress fields and thus K
sis using different Kt’s and notch tip radii, ρ, showed that of short cracks, Kt/ρ is used as a characterizing parameter.
the stress intensity of an incipient crack growing in the The results show that (a) Kplc decreases essentially linearly
elastic-plastic stress field of a notch, Kplc, and the loca- with increasing severity of the notch and decreasing ρ.
tion where the minimum in Kplc occurs, X/ρ minimum, are Experimental Kint, which is calculated based on total crack
related to Kt as follows: length, is significantly higher than Kplc. However, with
increasing Kt/ρ, the experimental value drops continu-
( K plc / σ apl )min = 0.35 K t1.3 (1)
ously. The value of Kint for Kt/ρ close to 100 is for a fatigue
and precracked specimen, and therefore it can be considered
as close to the Kmax,th value of the material in vacuum
( X / ρ )min = 0.6 K t -0.46, (2)
because of lack of any better evaluation. Results indicate
and the continuous crack growth occurs only if Kplc ≥ Kmax,th. that for the specimen geometries and loads employed,
The condition for a crack to propagate continuously only when Kt/ρ is small, the initiated crack will con-
has been established as tinue to propagate for that applied load. For specimens
with higher Kt/ρ values (due to either higher Kt value or
2( K plc / σ apl ) min= ( √ ρ) (kt )1.3 , (3)
lower ρ value or both), Kplc is below Kint of the precracked
specimen. It implies that incipient crack nucleated at the
with the requirement that Kplc must exceed Kmax,th.
notch tip may become a nonpropagating crack unless
Equation 3 indicates the elastic stress concentration factor
the applied stresses are increased further. In most of the
Kt and the notch tip radius ρ are involved in determining
the propagating or nonpropagating conditions, besides
the applied stress σapl. From the point of failure diagram
(Figure 9), the previously mentioned relations can be 200
Vacuum
from pao, 2014
where the threshold condition and the minimum crack
length requirements are imposed based on the failure 100
diagram. KInt-Crack
Kplc is the stress intensity of an incipient crack or short
50
crack nucleated at the notch tip. As the crack grows, the
Kplc
notch depth becomes part of the total crack, and the K of
the short crack should become the same as that of the long 0
100 101 102 103
crack. The previous equation only provides stress inten-
Kt/ρ
sity of the short crack at the minimum value (Figure 13)
and the condition for its continuous growth. If Kplc at Figure 14: Variation of Kplc and experimental Kint as function of Kt/r
the minimum falls below Kmax,th, then nonpropagating (data from P. Pao, unpublished, 2014).
J-integral tests, specimens show the R curve behavior, systems (Vasudevan & Sadananda, 2011). In essence, the
indicating that applied stresses need to be increased to time of exposure increases to arrive at sufficient chemical
overcome the material resistance to crack growth. These forces to accumulate to compensate the decreased applied
concepts are somewhat similar. mechanical forces. The balance between the mechani-
cal and chemical forces needed for a crack to grow can
be deduced from the flow diagram (Figure 9) for a given
7 C
rack growth behavior in 4340 material and environment. Experimentally, Figure 15
10-2
4340 steel
H2S
Pao & Wei (1977) 100 µm 100 µm
-3
10
da/dt (m/s)
Slope=0.57
10-4
10-5 1
10 102 103 104
PH S (Pa)
2
A B
Figure 17: Steady-state crack growth rate as a function of gas Figure 18: Vehoff and Neumann (1983) show that with increasing H
pressure in 4340 steel. concentration, cleavage component increases in relation to blunting
component in Fe-Si alloys.
ment process. Hydrogen can reduce the stresses needed Vehoff & Rothe, 1983
313 K
Experimental basis embrittlement slowly takes over despite the local slip as
hydrogen accumulates at the crack tip.
e
an
Combined
pl
ip
Cleavage
q a
aN Crack growth behavior under corrosion and corrosion
b <r fatigue of 4340 steel was examined by using the avail-
Slip and able data in the literature and by applying the two-load
cleavage parameter requirement developed by the authors for
have to be
a <q H2 q the characterization of fatigue damage. It is shown that
alternating
for crack based on the crack growth trajectory maps, environ-
growth ment affects crack growth from its inception to speci-
men failure. The effects vary with the environment.
Cleavage component = aN=cot(a )
Environmental effects on Crack growth can be time
From vehoff and neumann, 1979 dependent, stress dependent, or both. Environmental
Figure 20: Relative roles of blunting and cleavage during crack
contribution depends on the aggressiveness of the envi-
growth. ronment, the test frequency, and the magnitude of the
applied stresses. The quantification of the environmen-
tal contribution requires the reference data in an envi-
ronment-free condition, which is lacking for most of the
the reduction in the flow stress, but eventually cleavage
materials including for 4340 steel. Both the amplitude
occurs before slip is again facilitated.
ΔK and the peak stress intensity Kmax are affected by the
The analysis requires the detailed evaluation of hydro-
environment and need to be quantified for the reliable
gen behavior at atomic level, dislocation process at dislo-
prediction of the crack growth of components in service,
cation level, crack nucleation, and extension at fracture
which are subjected spectrum loads and varying envi-
mechanics level. Solanki (2014) is currently doing this,
ronments. It is shown that the use of failure diagrams
and the preliminary results indicate that dislocation glide
can help in quantifying the internal stresses arising
and cleavage alternate as the energies for each process
from both mechanical and chemical forces in causing
oscillate around the mean. This is shown schemati-
crack initiation and growth. The importance of both the
cally in Figure 21. Thus, analysis indicates that hydrogen
magnitude and the gradients of these stresses is shown
in the initiation and growth of an incipient crack and the
conditions under which the initiated crack can become
propagating or nonpropagating under given applied
loads and environments.
References
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