5 - Beam Theory - Part II - Ver2

12.
10 Torsional behaviour
Stress state on the cross section due to the presence of a torsional (or twisting moment) Mz.
Circular cross sections Thin-walled cross sections
Open sections Closed sections

solid
hollow
(Multiple rectangles)
Fundamentals of Strength of Materials – Bachelor in Mechanical Engineering and Automotive Engineering – Prof. S. Zucca
12.10 Torsional behaviour
Circular cross sections
Sections remain circular and diameters remain straight after twisting of the sections.
y ∆θ y
A B A B
γzc
B’
B’ z z
O
∆z ∆z
The displacement of point B is related both to the shear strain γzc and the angle of
twist ∆θ, c being the circumferential direction.
BB’ = γzc·∆z BB’ = ∆θ·r

y y
∆θ
B B
A
γzc B’ ∆𝜃𝜃
γzc = 𝑟𝑟
B’ ∆𝑧𝑧
z c r x
∆𝜃𝜃
τzc = 𝐺𝐺γzc = 𝐺𝐺 𝑟𝑟
∆𝑧𝑧
∆z
D
The tangential stresses are axially symmetric around the z-axis.
τzc
τyz τxz = −τzc sin(α)
r y α
τzc τxz τyz = τzc cos(α)
α
c
Tx = � τxz dA = � −τzc sin(𝛼𝛼) dA =
x A A
∆θ ∆θ
= −� G rsin 𝛼𝛼 dA = −G � y dA = 0
A ∆𝑧𝑧 ∆z A
D
Ty = � τyz dA = � τzc cos(𝛼𝛼) dA =
A A
∆θ ∆θ ∆θ
τzc =G r =� G rcos(𝛼𝛼) dA = G � x dA = 0
∆z A ∆z ∆z A
The shear stresses are axially symmetry around the z-axis.
Mz = � τyz x − τxz y dA =
r y A
τzc
α ∆θ 2 2 ∆θ
c =� G r cos (α) + G r 2 sin2 (α) dA =
A ∆z ∆z
x
∆θ 2
∆θ
= G � 𝑟𝑟 dA = G I𝑝𝑝
∆z A ∆z
D
𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷4
∆θ I𝑝𝑝 = � 𝑟𝑟 2 dA =� 𝑥𝑥 2 dA + � 𝑦𝑦 2 dA =
τxz = −τzc sin(α) A A A 32
τzc =G r
∆z τyz = τzc cos(α)
∆θ
Mz = G I
∆z 𝑝𝑝
r y
the angle of twist per unit length
τzc (z tends to zero) is
α
c
dθ ∆θ Mz
= =
x dz ∆z GIp
and the shear stress is
D
Mz
τzc = r
Ip
∆θ
τzc =G r
∆z
τzc
α
Stress distribution
Mz
τzc = r x
Ip
D
0≤r≤
2
Hollow circular cross sections
2
π D14 − D42
2
y
Ip = � r dA − � r dA =
A1 A2 32
τzc
α
Stress distribution
Mz
τzc = r D2 x
Ip
D2 D1
≤r≤
2 2
D1
Thin-walled rectangular sections
For a bar of rectangular cross−section of width b and thickness t the shear stress and the
angle of twist are given according to the following equations (no proof is gives at this
stage)
Mz Mz τMAX
τMAX = = b
C1 ab 2 C1 ab 3
b
dθ Mz
= a
dz C2 Gab 3
a/b 1.0 1.5 1.75 2.00 2.5 3.0 4 5 6 8 ≥ 10
C1 0.208 0.231 0.239 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282 0.299 0.307 0.313 0.333
C2 0.141 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.263 0.281 0.282 0.299 0.307 0.313 0.333
Sections composed of thin-walled rectangulars
𝑁𝑁
𝑎𝑎i b3i
Ip,eq =�
3
𝑖𝑖=1
b2 a3
The torsion angle per unit length
is the same for the entire section b3
dθ Mz a2
=
dz GIp,eq
a1
b1
The thickest rectangle has
the highest shear stress.
Mz
τMAX,i = b
Ip,eq i
Thin-walled closed cross sections
τzc is tangent to the outer walls, in agreement with the De Saint Venant hypothesis.
Due to the thin wall:
- the orientation of τzc is supposed to be same over the whole thickness

- The value of τzc is supposed to be constant along the wall
y
x
t1 ds
τzc
t2
τzc is tangent to the outer walls, in agreement with the De Saint Venant hypothesis.
Due to the thin wall:
- the orientation of τzc is supposed to be same over the whole thickness

- The value of τzc is supposed to be constant along the wall
τzc
Zoom on a portion of the

thin-walled cross section
τzc
y
dMz = τzc thds
dΩ
x Mz = � τzc thds =
ds
S
h
If t is constant
t
τzc = tτzc ∫S hds =
= 2tτzc ∫Ω dΩ = 2tτzc Ω
Mz
Bredt’s formula τzc =
2tΩ
s1 Piece-wise constant thickness
Mz = � τzc thds =
s2 s4 S
= ∑𝑖𝑖 ∫𝑠𝑠 τzc,𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 hds

𝑖𝑖
s3
τzc,𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 is the shear flow q and it is constant along the cross section
Mz Mz
Mz =q ∑𝑖𝑖 ∫𝑠𝑠 hds q= τzc,MAX =
𝑖𝑖 2Ω 2𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 Ω
16Mz
Circular cross section τzc,max = D
π D14 − D42 1
Mz
Bredt’s formula τzc,BREDT = D2
2tΩ
2
D1 − D2 Dm D1 + D2
t= Ω=π Dm =
2 4 2
D1
D2 /D1
0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

1
0.98
τzc,BREDT 0.96
τzc,max 0.94
0.92
0.9
12.X Torsional behaviour
Mohr circles.
Stress tensor
y
τzc 0 0 τxz
α σ = 0 0 τyz
τxz τyz 0
x
Mz
τzc = r
Ip
Mohr circles.
Stress tensor
τzc x
0 0 0
y
σ = 0 0 τyz
0 τyz 0
Principal stresses
D
σyy + σzz σyy − σzz 2
σY,Z = ± + τyz 2 = ±τyz
2 2
Mz
τyz = τzc = r
Ip
Mohr circles.
Principal stresses
τzc x
σyy + σzz σyy − σzz 2
y σY,Z = ± + τyz 2 = ±τyz
2 2
τ σ1 = τyz
τyz
σ2 = 0
σ3 = −τyz
D
σ3 σ2 σ1 σ
Mz
τyz = τzc = r
Ip
Static failure for brittle materials
Ideal stress
τmax x σid = σ1 = τmax

y
τ
τmax
2α = 90°
D σ3 σ1 σ
Mz D
τmax =
Ip 2
Static failure for ductile materials
Ideal stress (Tresca)
τmax x σid = σ1 − σ3 = 2τmax

y
τ
τyz
D σ3 σ1 σ
Mz D
τmax =
Ip 2
12.14 Shear forces in beams
Relationship between stress resultants and stresses.

y
τyz
Ty
Tx x τyz
τxz
σzz
N τxz
z
N = � σzz dA Tx = � τxz dA Ty = � τyz dA

A A A
Relationships between shear forces and bending moments.
dz
dTy
Ty + dz
Ty dz
y
dMx
Ty =
Mx z dMx dz
Mx + dz
dz
dz
dTx
Tx + dz
dz
Tx x
dMy
Tx = −
My z dMy dz
My + dz
dz
For a portion of a beam of length ∆z, in case of Mx different from zero, ...
y
x
Mx + ∆Mx
σ*zz = y
Mx Ix
σ zz = y
Ix ∆z
z
Mx + ∆Mx M ∆Mx
σ*zz = y= x y+ y = σ zz + ∆σ zz
Ix Ix Ix
The portion of the beam is sectioned with a cut plane π parallel to and at a distance y
from the xz plane
y
x
σ zz π
σ*zz = σ zz + ∆σ zz
z
∆z
y
C G
y σ*zz = σ zz + ∆σ zz F
D
B
σ zz x H x
A E
average τ
shear stress yz
z z
y
x y
Fz A* Fz + ∆Fz Fz + ∆Fz
Fz
b
Fyz Fyz
z
z
∆z
Fz = ∫A * σ zz dA
Fyz = τyz ⋅ b ⋅ ∆z
Fz + ∆Fz = ∫A * σ zz dA + ∫A * ∆σ zz dA
Equilibrium along the z direction is
Fz + ∆Fz − Fz − Fzy = 0
with
Mx Mx ∆Mx
Fz = � σzz dA = � ydA Fz + ∆Fz = � σzz dA = � ydA + � ydA
A∗ A∗ Ixx A∗ A∗ Ixx A ∗ Ixx
The following equation is obtained
∆Mx
� ydA − τ�yz b∆z = 0
A∗ Ixx
which becomes
∆Mx
� ydA − τ�yz b∆z = 0
Ixx A∗
Since Sx∗ = � ydA

A∗
∆Mx ∗
then S − τ�yz b∆z = 0
Ixx x
Sx∗ ∆Mx
The average shear stress is τ�yz =
bIxx ∆z
Sx∗ ∆Mx Sx∗

τ�yz = lim τ�yz = T
and as ∆z approaches zero bIxx ∆z→0 ∆z bIxx y
For the reciprocity of shear stresses the stresses across the chord are equal to the average
shear stresses over the ADEH surface.
y
y
A*
x
τzy
D τzy
H
b
A Ty x
E
z
Sx∗
Uniform shear stress along the chord b. τ�yz = τ�zy = T
bIxx y
Rectangular cross section
y
Sx∗
A* τzy = T Ixx =
bh3
bIxx y 12
y Ty x
h
h
h 2+y b h2
Sx∗ = A∗ yG∗ = b −y = − y2
2 2 2 4
A∗ yG∗
b
b h2 2
− y 6 h2
Parabolic 2 4
τzy = 3 Ty = 3 − y 2 Ty
distribution bh bh 4
b 12
Rectangular cross section
y y
6 h2
A* τzy = 3 − y 2 Ty
bh 4
y Ty x
h Condition for a local
τmax
zy
τzy maximum:
dτzy 6Ty
= − 3 2y = 0
dy bh
b
3 Ty
τmax
zy (y = 0) =
2 bh
Circular cross section
y y
4 Ty
τmax
zy =
3A
Ty
x τmax
zy
τzy
πD2
A=
4
The same logic applies if we section the beam with a plane π parallel to and at a distance
x from the yz plane y
x
σ zz z
∆z
The same logic applies if we section the beam with a plane π parallel to and at a
distance x from the yz plane
y
x
z
b σ zz
∆z
Sx∗
Uniform shear stress along the chord b. τ�xz = τ�zx = T
bIxx y
In case of My and Tx, the logic is the same.

x
C G
x
σ zz σ*zz = σ zz + ∆σ zz D F
B
A E b
average τ xz
shear stress
z z
y y
∆z
Fzx = τ�zx b∆z

Equilibrium along the z direction is
Fz + ∆Fz − Fz − Fzx = 0
with
My My ∆My
Fz = � σzz dA = − � xdA Fz + ∆Fz = � σzz dA = − � xdA − � xdA
A∗ A∗ Iyy A∗ A∗ Iyy A ∗ Iyy
The following equation is obtained
∆My
− �zx b∆z = 0
� xdA − τ Sy∗ = � xdA
Iyy A∗ A∗
which becomes
Sy∗ ∆My Sy∗

τ�zx =− lim τ�zx = T
bIyy ∆z→0 ∆z bIyy x
Summary
Sx∗ Sx∗
τ�yz = τ�zy = T τ�xz = τ�zx = T
bIxx y bIxx y
Sy∗ Sy∗
τ�yz = τ�zy = T τ�xz = τ�zx = T
bIyy x bIyy x
Generic thin-walled sections
In thin-walled cross sections the shear stress along a direction parallel to the wall
is negligible, compared to the shear stress parallel to the longer edge. As a
consequence, the shear stress can be assumed tangent to the section wall.
τ=0
τ=0
Generic thin-walled sections
In thin-walled cross sections the shear stress along a direction parallel to the wall
is negligible, compared to the shear stress parallel to the longer edge. As a
consequence, the shear stress can be assumed tangent to the section wall.
τzx τzx
τzy
Tx
Ty
τzy
τzx τzx
Sx∗ Sy∗
For the linear superposition principle: τ= T +
bIxx y bIyy x
T
C-shaped cross section
As an example of shear stress distribution, let’s analyze together a C-shaped cross section.
The first step is to delete the actual cross section and to retain only its mid-line.
y y
s2
s1
Ty Ty
h h
x x
s1
b b
The cross section is made of 3 thin-walled rectangles: the upper flange, the web and the lower flange.
Sx∗
12.14 Shear forces in beams τz𝑥𝑥 = T
bIxx y
C-shaped cross section Sx∗

τzy = T
bIxx y
ξ1 : coordinate used to define

the location of the chord Upper flange
Sx∗ ℎ
τzx = T Sx∗ = s1 𝜉𝜉1
y s1 Ixx y 2
𝜉𝜉1
s1
Ty
h
x
Sx∗
bIxx y

τzy = T
bIxx y

Sx∗ ℎ
y s1 Ixx y 2
s2
s1
𝜉𝜉2 Web
Ty Sx∗ ℎ ℎ ξ2
h τzy = T Sx∗ = s1 b + s2 ξ2 −
x s2 Ixx y 2 2 2
Sx∗
bIxx y

τzy = T
bIxx y

Sx∗ ℎ
y s1 Ixx y 2
Web
Ty Sx∗ ℎ ℎ ξ2
h τzy = T Sx∗ = s1 b + s2 ξ2 −
x s2 Ixx y 2 2 2
Lower flange
𝜉𝜉3
b
Sx∗ h
τzx = T Sx∗ = −s1 b − ξ3
s1 Ixx y 2
C-shaped cross section
Upper flange
Ty ℎ
Web τzx = 𝜉𝜉
Ixx 1 2
Ty ℎ ℎ ξ2
τzy = s1 b + s2 ξ2 −
s2 Ixx 2 2 2
𝜉𝜉2 y 𝜉𝜉1
τmax Ty
h
Maximum shear stress? x
𝑑𝑑τzy Ty ℎ ξ2
= s2 − 2s2 =0 𝜉𝜉3
𝑑𝑑ξ2 s2 Ixx 2 2 b
ℎ ξ2 ℎ
s2 − 2s2 =0 ξ2 = Lower flange
2 2 2
Ty ℎ
Ty ℎ ℎ 2 τzx = − b − ξ3
Ixx 2
τmax = s1 b + s2
s2 Ixx 2 8
Maximum shear stress vs maximum normal stress
Ty Mx
F
F FL
L
Circular cross-section
4 Ty 16 F Mx D FL πD2
τmax
zy = = σmax
zz = = 32 3 A=
3A 3 πD2 Ixx 2 πD 4
πD4
Ixx =
16 F 1 F 64
1
τmax
zy 3 πD2 3 πD2 3 1
= = = = L = nD
σmax
zz FnD F 2n 6n
32 3 2 2 n
πD πD
In slender beams (n >> 1) shear stresses due to shear forces are negligible.
12.15 Shear center
Let’s consider a C-shaped cross section under the action of a vertical shear force Ty
applied at the centroid.
y Tzx
Resultant forces due to the
s1 shear stress distributions:
Tzy e Tzy = ∫ τzy dA = Ty

h x
s2 G
Tzx = ∫ τzx dA
flange
Tzx
b
12.15 Shear center
The set of stress resultants Tzx and Tzy acting over the different parts of the cross section must be
statically equivalent to the shear force Ty.
y Tzx y
s1
Ty
Tzy e
h x x
s2 G G
g
Tzx
b b
What is the value of g, the distance of the line of action of Ty from G, which guarantees that the two
sets of forces are statically equivalent to each other?
12.15 Shear center
The resultant moment of the two sets of forces about point G must be equal:
Tyg = Tzxh + Tzye g = Tzxh/Ty + e
y Tzx
Ty g defines the location of the shear center.

Tzy
e
If the shear force Ty is applied to the shear
h x center the stress distribution is the one
G
g due to the shear force only.
Tzx
b
12.15 Shear center
If the shear force Ty is not applied to the shear center….
y y
Ty Ty
Mz = Tyg
Statically
x x
G equivalent G
g g
the stress distribution is the sum of:
- Stresses due to the shear forces

- Stresses due to the twisting moment Mz = Tyg.
12.15 Shear center
12.Y Ideal stresses in beams
In any point of a beam, we have: Given the two tangential stress components,
It is possible to write the total tangential stress τ as:
τyz
τzy τ= τzx 2 + τzy 2
τzx
σzz
σ = σzz
τxz
z
τzx
τzy
The resultant stress tensor τ
can be written as: x
y
either… or…
0 0 0 0 0 τ
σ = 0 0 τ σ = 0 0 0
0 τ σ τ 0 σ
Principal stress σc
0 0 0
In case the stress tensor is: σ = 0 0 τ
0 τ σ
We can use the inverse contruction method to draw the Mohr circles and compute the principal stresses
τ
τ σ 2 = σc = 0
σ3 σc σ1 σ σ 2
σ σ σ1,3 = ± + τ2
2 2
No matter the values of σ and τ, the two unknwon

principal stresses will be σ1>0 and σ3<0.
Given the principal stresses:
σ σ 2
σ2 = σc = 0 σ1,3 = ± + τ2
2 2
The ideal stresses will be:
Rankine (brittle materials):
σ σ 2
σid = σ1 = + + τ2
2 2
Tresca (ductile materials):
σ σ 2 σ σ 2 σ 2
𝝈𝝈𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 = σ1 − σ3 = + + τ2 − + + τ2 =2 + τ2 = 𝛔𝛔𝟐𝟐 + 𝟒𝟒𝝉𝝉𝟐𝟐
2 2 2 2 2
Given the principal stresses:
σ σ 2
σ2 = σc = 0 σ1,3 = ± + τ2
2 2
Von Mises (ductile materials):
1 2 2 2
1 2 2 2
𝝈𝝈𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 = σ1 − σ2 + σ1 − σ3 + σ2 − σ3 = σ1 + σ1 − σ3 + −σ3 =
2 2
1
= 2σ1 2 + 2σ3 2 − 2σ1 σ3 = σ1 2 + σ3 2 − σ1 σ3 =
2
σ 2 σ 2 σ σ 2 σ 2 σ 2 σ σ 2
= + + τ2 + 2 + τ2 + + + τ2 − 2 + τ2 − σ1 σ3 =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
σ2 2
σ2 σ 2 σ 2
= +τ + + τ2 − − + τ2 = 𝝈𝝈𝟐𝟐 + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟐𝟐
2 2 2 2
13. The buckling phenomenon
in slender beams
Learning Outcomes
How to:
- Determine the critical load for buckling of slender beams
- Verify slender beams against buckling
13 The buckling phenomenon in slender beams
Under the action of a compressive load, slender beams bend…
https://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/File:Buckledmodel.JPG
… and at a certain load (called critical load) the beam collapses.
The model used to study the effect of axial load in the beams’ theory is not able to predict
this phenomenon.
A model of the deformed structure is necessary.
y
P A v(z) B P
z Euler bar
l0
S
Mx
v(z) B P
RB
z
S
Mx
v(z) B P
RB
z
S Mx − Pv + R B l0 − z = 0
RB = 0 (No transverse loads)
Mx = Pv
The elastic line equation
d2 v Mx
= − (Mx = Pv)
dz 2 EIxx
becomes
d2 v Pv
= −
dz 2 EIxx
d2 v Pv
+ =0
dz 2 EIxx
The solution is 𝑣𝑣 𝑧𝑧 = Vsin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑)
with V and ϕ depending on the boundary conditions.
In the case under analysis

v z = 0 = 0,
v(z = l0 ) = 0.
Two types of solution are possible:
V=0 (Undeformed shape)
ωl0 = nπ φ = 0 and V arbitrary
1 π
v z v z = Vsin( z)
l0
0.5
2π
0 0 v z = Vsin( z)
l0
-0.5
3π
v z = Vsin( z)
-1
l0
0 z l0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
The differential equation is

d2 v Pv
+ =0
dz 2 EIxx
The solution
ωl0 = nπ
Becomes
𝑃𝑃
l = nπ
EIxx 0
The minimum value of P corresponds to n = 1
EIxx
Pcr = π2
l20
π
v z = Vsin( z)
Pcr l0
V=0
𝑉𝑉
In theory bending can occur either about the x or the y axis.

Actually bending will occur about the axis with the minimum second moment of area.
EImin
Pcr = π2
l20
Is the buckling phenomenon more dangerous than yielding?
To answer this questions we need stresses…

Minimum radius of inertia
2 Imin
Pcr EI min 𝐸𝐸ρ min
σcr = = π2 = π2 ρmin =
A Al20 l20 A
Slenderness
𝐸𝐸 l0
σcr = π2 λ=
λ2 ρmin
σlim
SY
FS =
σid
SY
σcr
FS =
|σ|
𝐸𝐸
σcr = π2
λ2
In slender beams, the buckling failure can be more dangerous than yielding.
EImin
The boundary conditions affect the value of the critical load. Pcr = π2
l20
https://en.wikipedia.org/w
iki/File:Buckledmodel.JPG
Effective length l0 = l l0 = l/2 l0 = 0.7l l0 = 2l

5 - Beam Theory - Part II - Ver2

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12.

Circular cross sections Thin-walled cross sections

Open sections Closed sections

Circular cross sections

Circular cross sections

BB’ = γzc·∆z BB’ = ∆θ·r

Circular cross sections

The tangential stresses are axially symmetric around the z-axis.

Circular cross sections

The shear stresses are axially symmetry around the z-axis.

Circular cross sections

and the shear stress is

Circular cross sections

Hollow circular cross sections

Thin-walled rectangular sections

a/b 1.0 1.5 1.75 2.00 2.5 3.0 4 5 6 8 ≥ 10

Sections composed of thin-walled rectangulars

Thin-walled closed cross sections

Due to the thin wall:

- the orientation of τzc is supposed to be same over the whole thickness

Thin-walled closed cross sections

Due to the thin wall:

- the orientation of τzc is supposed to be same over the whole thickness

Zoom on a portion of the

Thin-walled closed cross sections

Thin-walled closed cross sections

s1 Piece-wise constant thickness

= ∑𝑖𝑖 ∫𝑠𝑠 τzc,𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 hds

Thin-walled closed cross sections

0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1

Static failure for brittle materials

τmax x σid = σ1 = τmax

Static failure for ductile materials

Ideal stress (Tresca)

τmax x σid = σ1 − σ3 = 2τmax

Relationship between stress resultants and stresses.

N = � σzz dA Tx = � τxz dA Ty = � τyz dA

Relationships between shear forces and bending moments.

Equilibrium along the z direction is

The following equation is obtained

Since Sx∗ = � ydA

Sx∗ ∆Mx Sx∗

Rectangular cross section

Rectangular cross section

Circular cross section

In case of My and Tx, the logic is the same.

Fzx = τ�zx b∆z

Equilibrium along the z direction is

The following equation is obtained

Sy∗ ∆My Sy∗

Generic thin-walled sections

Generic thin-walled sections

C-shaped cross section

C-shaped cross section Sx∗

ξ1 : coordinate used to define

C-shaped cross section Sx∗

ξ2 : coordinate used to define

C-shaped cross section Sx∗

ξ3 : coordinate used to define

C-shaped cross section

Maximum shear stress vs maximum normal stress

Tzy e Tzy = ∫ τzy dA = Ty

Tyg = Tzxh + Tzye g = Tzxh/Ty + e