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I.

Confocal Microscope
"Confocal" is defined as "having the same focus." What this means in the microscope is that the final image has the
same focus as or the focus corresponds to the point of focus in the object. The microscope is able to filter out the out-of-
focus light from above and below the point of focus in the object. Normally when an object is imaged in the fluorescence
microscope, the signal produced is from the full thickness of the specimen which does not allow most of it to be in focus
to the observer. The confocal microscope eliminates this out-of-focus information by means of a confocal "pinhole"
situated in front of the image plane which acts as a spatial filter and allows only the in-focus portion of the light to be
imaged. Light from above and below the plane of focus of the object is eliminated from the final image.
Ref: http://www.gonda.ucla.edu/bri_core/confocal.htm
https://cdn.southampton.ac.uk/assets/imported/transforms/content-
block/UsefulDownloads_Download/EAA2CA3E29A845709A8224D05DB9CD40/GroupConfocalWeb.pdf
J. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is a microscopy technique whereby a beam of electrons is transmitted through
an ultra-thin specimen, interacting with the specimen as it passes through. An image is formed from the interaction of
the electrons transmitted through the specimen; the image is magnified and focused onto an imaging device, such as a
fluorescent screen, on a layer of photographic film, or to be detected by a sensor such as a CCD camera. At a maximum
potential magnification of 1 nanometer, TEMs are the most powerful microscopes. TEMs produce high-resolution, two-
dimensional images, allowing for a wide range of educational, science and industry applications.
Ref: http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/HIGP/Faculty/sksharma/GG711/GG711Lec15TEM.pdf
http://www.microscopemaster.com/transmission-electron-microscope.html
K. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a tool for seeing otherwise invisible worlds of microspace (1 micron = 10-6m)
and nanospace (1 nanometer = 10-9m). By using a focused beam of electrons, the SEM reveals levels of detail and
complexity inaccessible by light microscopy. SEMs can magnify an object from about 10 times up to 300,000 times. A
scale bar is often provided on an SEM image. From this the actual size of structures in the image can be calculated. A
scanning electron microscope is a machine comprised of an electron generating component called the gun, a column
through which the electron beam travels, a series of lenses to shape the electron beam, the sample chamber at the
base, and a series of pumps to keep the system under vacuum.
Ref: http://www.ammrf.org.au/myscope/pdfs/sem.pdf
http://www.medic.ula.ve/histologia/anexos/microscopweb/MONOWEB/anexos/scanningmicrosc.pdf
L. Scanning Tunneling Microscope
With the scanning tunneling microscope a small metal tip is brought very close to the sample surface, normally within
about 1 nm, i.e. several atomic layers. The small gap between the tip and sample is a classically forbidden region for
electrons. If tip and surface are put under a small voltage, a tunneling current IT flows. This current is strongly
dependent on the distance between the tip and the structures on the surface. The surface can be scanned with the tip
keeping either the height of the tip or the tunneling current constant. The tunneling current or the feedback parameters
are detected. If the surface is scanned in parallel lines, similar to reading a book written in braille, then a three
dimensional picture of the surface is generated.
Ref: http://www.nanoscience.com/files/9013/7961/8081/STM_TeachersManual.pdf
http://thesis.library.caltech.edu/1943/4/03chapter3.pdf

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