Saraf

Topic Nervous System
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. List the primary functions of the nervous system;
2. Differentiate between the two main divisions of the nervous
system;
3. Describe the components of the nervous system;
4. Describe the basic anatomy and functions of the spiral cord, brain
and nerves; and
5. Describe the two groups of senses and sensory receptors.
INTRODUCTION
The single most important attribute that makes us stand apart from our
evolutionary contemporaries, our intelligence, is a product of our nervous
system. The presence of a complex nervous system is characteristic of higher
animals like mammals, birds and reptiles, amphibians and fish. Lower animals
like insects also possess a very simplified nervous system. The function of the
nervous system can best be understood from a homeostatic point of view. The
nervous system is the coordinator and controller of all these systems. When
several systems are working towards a common goal, they need to be able to
communicate to exchange information.
The nervous system operates on two levels. One is the unconscious and
automatic level. Examples of the unconscious are the act of breathing and
digestion of food. The other level is the conscious level. This includes acts such as
giving a speech and playing games or sports. Our intelligence is manifested in
the conscious level. However, these two levels can overlap. A good example
would be a situation where an activity we have learnt becomes automatic such as
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 7 NERVOUS SYSTEM 149
driving. A good driver never thinks to himself: „Now I have to step on the clutch,
then I have to change gears.‰ These activities become automatic. Sports also have
many examples of learned behaviour becoming automatic. Athletes at the highest
levels have perfected their skills to a point where many of the routines of their
performance become automatic and they can free their minds to concentrate on
strategy.
The nervous system (as illustrated in Figure 7.1) is normally divided into four
functional systems:
(a) Sensory receptors;
(b) Nerves;
(c) Spinal cord; and
(d) Brain.
Figure 7.1: Human nervous system

Source: Seeley, Stephens & Tate (2003)
150 TOPIC 7 NERVOUS SYSTEM
7.1 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is a coordinator and controller of all body systems, and is to
some extent involved in virtually every process of our lives. However, for the
sake of simplicity we can consider the nervous system to have five primary
functions:
(a) Homeostasis: The nervous system performs a regulatory and coordinating

role that ensures homeostasis is maintained. This is achieved primarily
through the collection of information and communication.
(b) Sensory input: The nervous system has several receptors that monitor
several internal and external stimuli, ranging from blood glucose levels and
body temperature, to taste and smell.
(c) Integration: The brain and the spinal cord process information and
integrate the activity of organ systems to respond to this information (see
Figure 7.2).
(d) Control of muscles and glands: The activities of most muscles and glands
are controlled by the nervous system. Movement and body posture both
result from the control of the muscles by the nervous system. Likewise,
secretions from several glands like the sweat glands are under nervous
control.
(e) Mental activities: The brain is the origin and centre of our intelligence and
the mental processes like thinking and emotions that result from this.

Figure 7.2: Integrative role of the nervous system

Source: Marieb (2004)
7.2 DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is divided into two subdivisions:
(a) Central nervous system (CNS); and
(b) Peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord (see
Figure 7.1). These two organs are continuous with each other and both are
protected by specialised developments of the skeletal system. The brain is located
in the skull, while the spinal cord is located in the vertebral canal formed by the
vertebrae. The CNS is the major site for the processing of information and
initiating responses.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of plexuses, ganglia, nerves, and
sensory receptors. The PNS receives inputs from sensory receptors and transmits
these to the CNS, and receives instructions from the CNS and transmits these to
effector organs. Thus, the PNS can further be divided into two categories, namely
the sensory division (or afferent division) which transmits action potentials from
sensory receptor cells to the CNS; and the motor division (or efferent division)
which transmits action potentials from the CNS to effector organs (see Figure 7.3).

Figure 7.3(a), (b) and (c): Divisions of the peripheral nervous system

(a) The motor division is made up of the somatic nervous system which
transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles; and the
autonomic nervous system (ANS) which transmits action potentials from
the CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and some glands.
(b) The somatic nervous system is under voluntary control meaning we can
choose which muscles to move and when, while the ANS functions
involuntarily, or subconsciously, meaning we have no control over the
impulses it transmits.
(c) The ANS is further subdivided into the sympathetic nervous system which
prepares the body for physical activity, the parasympathetic nervous
system which regulates resting activity such as digestion and urination, and
the enteric nervous system which has some regulatory functions.
7.3 COMPONENTS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

In this section, we will explore the components of the nervous system by looking
at these two aspects:
(a) Nerves and cells of the nervous system; and
(b) Organisation of nervous tissue.
7.3.1 Nerves and Cells of Nervous System

The nervous system is made of neuron cells (or neurons) and neuroglia cells.
(a) Neurons receive stimuli and transmit action potentials. They are made up
of a neuron cell body (also called a soma) and two types of processes called
dendrites and axons (also called nerve fibres). Dendrites are the input
section of a neuron and often highly branched, while axons are the
transmitting section of an axon, and can range in length from a few
millimetres to over 1 metre. Axons end in a branched end called a
presynaptic terminal (Figure 7.4).

Figure 7.4: Basic structure of a neuron cell


Neurons can be classified according to their function or their structure.

Based on function, there are three types of neurons:
(i) Sensory or afferent neurons that transmit action potentials towards

the CNS;
(ii) Motor or efferent neurons that transmit action potentials from the
CNS to effector organs; and
(iii) Interneurons or associated neurons that conduct action potentials

between neurons.
Based on structure, neurons can also be divided into three groups (see
Figure 7.5):
(i) Multipolar neurons that have many dendrites and a single axon. Most
neurons in the body are multipolar;
(ii) Bipolar neurons that have only two processes, namely a dendrite and
an axon; and
(iii) Unipolar neurons that have only one process extending from the cell
body. This process branches into two, with one branch extending
towards the CNS and the other branch extending to sensory receptors.
Figure 7.5: The three types of neurons

(b) Neuroglia are specialised cells that perform many functions, the most
important of which is the support and protection of neuron cells. They are
more numerous in the CNS than neurons and account for more than half
the weight of the brain.

There are four types of neuroglia cells:
(i) Astrocytes that are responsible for regulating the composition of brain
fluid;
(ii) Ependymal cells that secrete the cerebrospinal fluid that circulates
through the ventricles of the brain;
(iii) Microglia that are specialised mobile macrophages of the CNS that
keep the CNS free of foreign substances; and
(iv) Oligodendrocytes that form the myelin sheaths that surround many
axons.
In the PNS, Schwann cells, also called neurolemmocytes, are responsible for the
formation of a myelin sheath around the axon (unlike oligodendrocytes,
Schwann cells form a myelin sheath around only one axon at a time), while
satellite cells provide support and nutrition to the neuron cell bodies.
7.3.2 Resting Potential

When a neuron is „at rest‰, the inside of the membrane is negatively charged
while the external environment is positively charged (Figure 7.6). This charge is
governed by the active transport using the different concentration of sodium
(Na+) and potassium (K+). The Na+ ions are picked by carrier proteins and
transported to the outside. At the same time, K+ ions are picked from the outside
and brought into the cytoplasm of the axon. These ions will continue to move in
and out of the cell until equilibrium is reached. The resting potential is
established.
Figure 7.6: Axon of a resting neurone

7.3.3 Action Potential

A nerve impulse will be initiated when a stimulus is detected and this interrupts
the plasma membrane of a dendrite, causing the Na+ channels to open. The Na+
ions then flow into the cell causing the charges to change. If the stimulus is great
or continues, it will cause more Na+ channels to open and bring the inside of the
cell having more positive charge. The membrane at the location of stimulus is
then depolarised. This condition will then further affects neighbouring Na+
channels and moves the depolarisation along the membrane. The process of
moving depolarisation is known as action potential (Figure 7.7).
As the action potential continues to move forward, changes also occur behind the
action potential. This is to restore the resting membrane potential. In this
situation, the Na+ channels close and the K+ channel open. By doing so, the
membrane inside the cell is again negatively charged and the outside is
positively charged, this process is known as repolarising (Figure 7.8). All these
processes occur within a few milliseconds!
Figure 7.7: Movement of ions Figure 7.8: Action

potential
7.3.4 Organisation of Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is often described as occurring in two forms of groupings: white
matter and grey matter.
(a) White matter is composed of bundles of parallel axons and their myelin
sheaths. These bundles appear whitish in colour, hence their name. Several
bundles of axons form what is termed a nerve tract.

(b) Grey matter is composed of a grouping of several neuron cell bodies and
unmyelinated axons. These appear grey in colour, hence their name. The
outer surface of the brain, called the cortex, is made up primarily of grey
matter, as is the central area of the spinal cord. Grey matter is a zone of
neuron integration, where several axons synapse with the cell bodies of
other neurons.
The junction between two neurons is called a synapse. An action potential from
one cell can cause an action potential in another cell by transmission across a
synapse. This is achieved through the use of transmitter substances. The source
neuron of the action potential is called the pre-synaptic neuron and the neuron
that receives the action potential is called the post-synaptic neuron.
Neurons are often arranged in pathways and circuits as follows:
(a) A convergent pathway is formed when several neurons synapse with a few
neurons.
(b) A divergent pathway is formed when a few neurons synapse with many
neurons.
(c) An oscillating circuit is formed when several neurons are arranged in a

circuit to form a complex array of neurons, with some postsynaptic neurons
synapsing with presynaptic neurons.
7.4 SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord extends from an inferior region of the brain to the second lumbar
vertebra (see Figure 7.9). It forms the communication link between the brain and
the PNS inferior to the head and is as such vital for the overall function of the
nervous system. It is divided into four segments based on the section of the
vertebral column at which nerves exit and enter the spinal cord (see Figure 7.10).
These sections are the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral segments. Altogether,
there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves exiting the spinal cord and these are grouped
into five groups according to the segment of the spinal cord that they exit at.
These nerves enervate specific regions of the body resulting in the different
section of the spinal cord having different functions (see Figures 7.11 and 7.12).

Figure 7.9: Spinal cord and associated spinal nerve roots

Figure 7.10: A cross-section of the spinal cord showing the internal structure

Figure 7.11: Details of the spinal nerves and their general functions
Figure 7.12: Dermatomal map

There are two notable enlargements along the length of the spinal cord. These
enlargements occur where nerves that supply the upper and lower limbs enter
and exit the spinal cord and are called the cervical enlargement and the lumbar
enlargement respectively. Just inferior to the lumbar enlargement the spinal cord
forms a region called the conus medullaris (see Figure 7.11).
In cross-section, the nervous cord is seen to consist of two halves, each with a
peripheral white section and a central grey section with a central canal at the
middle of the grey portion. The two halves are partially separated by an anterior
median fissure and a posterior median sulcus. In each half, the white matter is
arranged into three columns called the ventral, dorsal and lateral columns; while
the grey matter is arranged into three horns called the anterior, lateral and
posterior horns. Spinal nerves arise along the dorsal and the ventral surfaces of
the spinal cord, forming a ventral root and a dorsal root. Each dorsal root has an
enlargement called the dorsal root ganglion. The ventral and dorsal roots join just
lateral to the spinal cord to form a spinal nerve (see Figure 7.10).
The spinal cord and the brain are surrounded by membranes called meninges.
The most superficial of these membranes is called the dura mater. Between the
dura mater and the vertebral canal is a space called the epidural space. Epidural
anaesthesia, often given to women during child birth, is induced by injecting
anaesthetics into this space. Epidural anaesthesia is also commonly used for
surgical procedures involving the lower abdomen, pelvis and the lower limbs.
7.5 BRAIN
The brain is the portion of the CNS located in the cranial cavity formed by the
bones of the skull. It is a complex concentration of nervous tissues responsible for
the control and coordination of most of the bodyÊs functions. The brain is also
responsible for our human traits such as possessing emotions, intelligence and
memories.
The brain is divided into four regions (see Table 7.1; Figures 7.13 and 7.14):
(a) Brainstem;
(b) Cerebellum;
(c) Diencephalon; and
(d) Cerebrum.

Figure 7.13: Regions of the brain as viewed through the right half

Figure 7.14: Superior (a) and lateral (b) views of the cerebrum. Note the two hemispheres
and the various lobes
Surrounding the brain and extending to the rest of the CNS are three layers of
connective tissue called meninges. These are:
The dura mater is tightly connected to the periostonium of the cranial cavity. It
helps to anchor the brain in the cranial cavity and prevent it from moving
around. Between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater is a space called the
subdural space, while the space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater
is called the subarachnoid space.
Located within the brain are four cavities called ventricles (see Figure 7.15). The
largest of these is the lateral ventricle. There are two portions of the lateral
ventricle, each located in either hemisphere of the cerebrum, and these are often
named the first and second ventricle. In addition to the lateral ventricles there is
a small cavity called a third ventricle between the two lateral ventricles, and an
additional cavity called the fourth ventricle located in the superior region of the
medulla oblongata.

Blood is supplied to the brain by the internal carotid arteries and the vertebral
arteries. The vertebral arteries join to form a larger basilar artery on the ventral
side of the brainstem. Together, the basilar artery and the internal carotid arteries
contribute to the cerebral arterial circle (also called the circle of Willis). The
cerebral cortex is supplied on each side of the brain by three arteries that branch
from the cerebral arterial circle. These are called the anterior, the middle and the
posterior cerebral arteries. The arteries to the brain are located in the
subarachnoid space from which small cortical arteries enter the pia mater and
then the brain, where they divide into capillaries.
Figure 7.15: Ventricles of the brain as viewed from the left

7.5.1 Brainstem
The brainstem is further divided into four functional sections:
(a) Medulla oblongata;
(b) Pons;
(c) Midbrain; and
(d) Reticular formation.

7.5.2 Cerebellum
The cerebellum is divided into three functional sections that are vital in balance
and motor control:
(a) Flocculonodular lobe;
(b) Vermis; and
(c) Lateral lobes.
7.5.3 Diencephalons
The diencephalon is also divided into four functional regions:
(a) Thalamus;
(b) Subthalamus;
(c) Epithalamus; and
(d) Hypothalamus.
7.5.4 Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and can weigh up to 1.5 kg in adult
humans. It is a folded and convoluted mass of nervous tissue and is what people
refer to as „the brain‰. The folds of the cerebrum are called gyri and the grooves
between the gyri are called sulci (see Figure 7.14). A central sulcus is located
about midway along the length of the brain and extends across the lateral surface
of the cerebrum from the superior to anterior ends. The cerebrum is divided into
a left and a right hemisphere by a deep groove called the longitudinal fissure.
Each hemisphere is also divided into four lobes named after the cranial bones
that overly them (see Figure 7.14). These are:
(a) Frontal lobe;
(b) Parietal lobe;
(c) Occipital lobe; and
(d) Temporal lobe.

The temporal lobe is separated from the rest of the cerebrum by a lateral fissure.
Each of the lobes is associated with specific nervous functions.
The outer surface of the cerebrum is covered by a layer of grey matter called the
cortex or the cerebral cortex. Most of the neural activity of the cerebrum occurs
within this layer (see Figure 7.16). Beneath the cortex is a layer of white matter
called the cerebral medulla. Embedded within the medulla are additional clusters
of grey matter called nuclei.
Figures 7.16(a) and (b): Functional and structural areas of cerebral cortex
Source: Marieb (2004)

7.5.5 Functions of the Brain

Table 7.1 presents the functions of each brain division.
Table 7.1: Divisions and Functions of the Brain

Brainstem Connects the spinal cord Cerebellum Control of muscle
to the cerebrum; several movement and tone;
important functions (see regulates extent of
below); location of cranial intentional movement;
nerve nuclei. involved in learning motor
skills.
Medula Pathway for ascending Diencephalon
Oblongata and descending nerve
tracts; relay between
cerebrum and cerebellum;
reflex
Thalamus Major sensory relay centre;

influences mood and
movement
Subthalamus Contains nerve tracts and
nuclei
Epithalamus Contains nuclei responding
to olfactory stimulation
and contains pineal body
Hypothalamus Major control centre for
maintaining homeostasis
and regulating endocrine
function
Pons Contains ascending and Cerebrum Conscious perception,
descending nerve tracts; thought, and conscious
relay between cerebrum motor activity; can override
and cerebellum; reflex most other systems
Midbrain Contain ascending and Basal nuclei Control of muscle activity

descending nerve tracts; and posture; largely inhibit
visual reflex; part of unintentional movement
auditory pathway when at rest
Reticular Scattered throughout Limbic system Autonomic response to

formation Brainstem; controls cyclic Smell, emotion, mood and
activities such as the other such functions
sleep-wake cycle

7.6 NERVES
Nerves are composed of bundles of axons with their Schwann cells surrounded
by connective tissue. Nerves are normally divided into two groups based on their
locality:
(a) Peripheral nerves of the PNS located outside the cranial cavity and the
vertebral column.
(b) Cranial and spinal nerves located in the cranial cavity and the vertebral
column.
7.6.1 Nerves of Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Peripheral nerves of the PNS enervate the entire body. They are better protected
than nerves of the CNS. They consist of connective tissue together with bundles
of axons and Schwann cells. Each axon is termed a nerve fibre, and together with
its associated Schwann cell, is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called
the endoneurium. Groups of axons are surrounded by a thicker layer of
connective tissue called the perineurium to form nerve fascicles. These are bound
by a third layer of connective tissue called the epineurium to form a nerve.
7.6.2 Nerves of Central Nervous System (CNS)

Nerves of the CNS are divided into two groups, namely spinal nerves and cranial
nerves.
(a) Spinal Nerves

There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves exiting the spinal cord. These are
divided into five groups and are coded using a capitalised letter and
number starting from the most superior nerve (Figure 7.11(a)):
(i) Cervical nerves (8) C1 to C8;
(ii) Thoracic nerves (12) T1 to T12;

(iii) Lumber nerves (5) L1 to L5;
(iv) Sacral nerves (5) S1 to S5; and
(v) Coccygeal nerves (1) (Co).
Spinal nerves are also grouped into plexuses (see Figure 7.11a):
(i) C1 to C4 form the cervical plexus;
(ii) C5 to T1 form the brachial plexus;
(iii) L1 to S4 form the lumbosacral plexus (also called the lumbar and
sacral plexuses); and
(iv) S4, S5 and Co form the coccygeal plexus.
(b) Cranial Nerves

There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves (see Figure 7.17). They are normally
represented using Roman numerals I to XII from anterior to posterior. Any
given cranial nerve may control any one or more of three functions:
(i) Sensory functions, like touch and the special senses;
(ii) Somatic motor functions, also referred to as control of the skeletal

muscle, as well as proprioception, which is the gathering of
information about various body parts; and
(iii) Parasympathetic functions, like control of secretory glands, smooth

muscle and cardiac muscle.

Figure 7.17 illustrates the location of the cranial nerves and summarises the
functional role of each pair of cranial nerves.
Figure 7.17: Inferior surface of the brain showing the origin of the cranial nerves
Source: Seeley, Stephens & Tate (2003, p 451)
7.7 SENSORY RECEPTORS

Let us look at the explanation provided for sensation and sensory receptors in the
following sections.
7.7.1 Sensation
Sensation is also commonly referred to as perception. It can be defined as the
conscious awareness of stimuli received by sensory receptors (Seeley et al. 2000).
The brain is vitally important in the perception of stimuli, and it is constantly
bombarded by stimuli from both inside and outside the body. It sorts the stimuli
out and allows us to perceive only those stimuli that it considers important at
that particular time.

The brain receives information about the body and the environment from the
senses. The senses monitor both the external environment and conditions within
the body and gather information which is transmitted to the brain. The senses are
divided into two groups (see Table 7.2):
(a) General senses; and
(b) Special senses.
Table 7.2: Classification of Senses
Types of Sense Receptor Type Initiation of Response

(a) General senses
(i) Somatic
Touch Mechanoreceptors Compression of receptors.
Pressure Mechanoreceptors Compression of receptors.
Temperature Thermoreceptors Temperature around nerve endings.
Proprioception Mechanoreceptors Compression of receptors.
Pain Nociceptors Irritation of nerve endings.
(e.g., mechanical, chemical or
thermal)
(ii) Visceral
Pain Nociceptors Irritation of nerve endings.
Pressure Mechanoreceptors Compression of receptors.
(b) Special senses
Smell Chemoreceptors Bindings of molecules to membrane
receptors.
Taste Chemoreceptors Bindings of molecules to membrane
receptors.
Sight Photoreceptors Chemical change in receptors
initiated by light.
Hearing Mechanoreceptors Bending of microvilli on receptor
cells.
Balance Mechanoreceptors Bending of microvilli on receptor
cells.

The general senses are characterised by having sensory receptors located all over
the body. They are normally grouped into two classes:
(a) Somatic senses, which gather information about the body and the
environment. They include:
(i) Touch;
(ii) Pressure;
(iii) Temperature;
(iv) Pain; and
(v) Proprioception.
(b) Visceral senses gather information about the various organs of the body.
These are primarily pain and pressure receptors.
The special senses are more specialised. They are located in specific parts of
the body and are housed in specialised organs. They include sight, sound,
smell, taste, light and balance.
7.7.2 Sensory Receptors

Different types of receptors are specialised to receive and respond to different
types of stimuli. Sensory receptors function to convert these stimuli into action
potentials that are then transmitted to the CNS. In the CNS, these signals are
interpreted and acted upon through effectors. Sensory receptors range in
structure from simple free nerve endings such as those of cold and warm
thermoreceptors, to complex specialised cells such as the rods and cons
associated with light perception in the eye.
The nervous system is the coordinator and controller of the various systems
of the body.
It is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).
The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is located in the
skull, while the spinal cord is located in the vertebral canal formed by the
vertebrae.
The CNS is the major site for the processing of information and initiating
responses.
The PNS consists of plexuses, ganglia, nerves and sensory receptors.
The PNS can be divided into the sensory division which transmits action
potentials from sensory receptor cells to the CNS and the motor division
which transmits action potentials from the CNS to effector organs.
The motor division is made up of the somatic nervous system which

transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles; and the
autonomic nervous system (ANS) which transmits action potentials from the
CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and some glands.
The ANS is subdivided into the sympathetic nervous system which prepares
the body for physical activity, the parasympathetic nervous system which
regulates resting activity such as digestion and urination, and the enteric
nervous system which has some regulatory functions.
The nervous system is made of neuron cells and neuroglia cells.
Nervous tissue occurs in two forms of groupings of nerve and neuroglia cells
white matter and grey matter.
White matter is composed of bundles of parallel axons and their myelin

sheaths.
Grey matter is composed of a grouping of several neuron cell bodies and

unmyelinated axons.
The junction between two neurons is called a synapse.
The source neuron of the action potential is called the pre-synaptic neuron
and the neuron that receives the action potential is called the post-synaptic
neuron.
The spinal cord forms the communication link between the brain and the
PNS inferior to the head. It is divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar and
sacral segments.
The brain is divided into the brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalons and

cerebrum. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain.

Nerves are composed of bundles of axons with their Schwann cells

surrounded by connective tissue.
Nerves are normally divided into two groups based on their locality, namely,
peripheral nerves of the PNS, and cranial and spinal nerves.
The senses are divided into general senses and special senses.
General senses are characterised by having sensory receptors located all over
the body.
Special senses are more specialised, located in specific parts of the body and
in specialised organs.
Brain Peripheral nervous system

Central nervous system Sensation
Nerves Senses
Nervous system Sensory receptors
Neuron tissue Spinal cord
1. Differentiate between the central and peripheral nervous system.
2. Describe the structure of a nerve cell.
3. Differentiate between the white and grey matter of the nervous tissue.
4. List the major divisions of the brainstem and give a primary function of
each division.
5. Differentiate between general and special senses.

Saraf

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Saraf

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Topic Nervous System

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(a) Sensory receptors;

(c) Spinal cord; and

Figure 7.1: Human nervous system

7.1 FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

(a) Homeostasis: The nervous system performs a regulatory and coordinating

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 7.2: Integrative role of the nervous system

7.2 DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

(a) Central nervous system (CNS); and

(b) Peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

7.3 COMPONENTS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

(a) Nerves and cells of the nervous system; and

(b) Organisation of nervous tissue.

7.3.1 Nerves and Cells of Nervous System

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 7.4: Basic structure of a neuron cell

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Neurons can be classified according to their function or their structure.

(i) Sensory or afferent neurons that transmit action potentials towards

(iii) Interneurons or associated neurons that conduct action potentials

Figure 7.5: The three types of neurons

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

There are four types of neuroglia cells:

7.3.2 Resting Potential

Figure 7.6: Axon of a resting neurone

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

7.3.3 Action Potential

Figure 7.7: Movement of ions Figure 7.8: Action

7.3.4 Organisation of Nervous Tissue

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Neurons are often arranged in pathways and circuits as follows:

(c) An oscillating circuit is formed when several neurons are arranged in a

7.4 SPINAL CORD

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 7.9: Spinal cord and associated spinal nerve roots

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 7.12: Dermatomal map

(c) Diencephalon; and

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 7.15: Ventricles of the brain as viewed from the left

(a) Medulla oblongata;

(c) Midbrain; and

(d) Reticular formation.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

(a) Flocculonodular lobe;

(b) Vermis; and

(c) Lateral lobes.

(c) Epithalamus; and

(a) Frontal lobe;

(b) Parietal lobe;

(c) Occipital lobe; and

(d) Temporal lobe.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

7.5.5 Functions of the Brain

Table 7.1: Divisions and Functions of the Brain

Thalamus Major sensory relay centre;