Bioresource Technology 179 (2015) 98–103

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Bioresource Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biortech

Study on the preparation of wood vinegar from biomass residues

by carbonization process
Qiaomei Wu, Shouyu Zhang ⇑, Baoxin Hou, Hongjun Zheng, Wenxiang Deng, Dahai Liu, Wenjiao Tang
School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China

h i g h l i g h t s

 Cotton stalk was used to produce wood vinegar by carbonization process.

 The highest yield of the refined wood vinegar reaches 25% at 350 °C.
 The main organic components in the wood vinegars are acids, phenols and ketones.
 The presence of potassium restrains the formation of ketones.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the paper, the production of wood vinegar from Chinese fir sawdust (FS), cotton stalk (CS) and bamboo
Received 25 September 2014 sawdust (BS) by carbonization process was addressed. The wood vinegar yield was investigated and the
Received in revised form 7 December 2014 organic compounds contained were determined by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. It was
Accepted 8 December 2014
found that the refined wood vinegar yield of FS increased firstly and then decreased with increasing
Available online 13 December 2014
carbonization temperature and the highest yield reached about 25% in 350–450 °C. The relative contents
of acids and ketones from FS decreased and that of phenols increased with increasing temperature. The
Keywords:
relative contents of acids and phenols in the wood vinegars produced from the samples were in the order
Chinese fir sawdust
Cotton stalk
of BS > CS > FS and that of ketones reversed. KCl solution treatment caused a decrease in the relative
Bamboo sawdust contents of the phenols and ketones, but an increase in that of the acids in FS wood vinegar.
Wood vinegar Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Carbonization

1. Introduction compositions. It is reported that the high concentration of the

Wood vinegar (WV) or Pyroligneous acid (PA) is an acidic
reddish-brown aqueous liquid. It is obtained by clarifying the
liquid product of the carbonization process of woods or wood
residues from wood processing industry, tree branches, bamboo,
crop straw, fruit shell and other biomaterials (Wei et al., 2010).
WV is often used as insect repellent, odor remover, wood preserva-
tive, soil or foliar fertilizer and plant growth promoter or inhibitor,
animal feed additive, coagulant in NR sheets’ preparation. Until
now, lots of the products have been applied in a wide variety of
markets (Wu et al., 2014; Shiny and Remadevi, 2014; Mu et al.,
2004; Ferreira et al., 2005; Baimark and Niamsa, 2009).
The properties and utilizations of wood vinegar have been
widely researched and the utilization is closely related to its
⇑ Corresponding author at: School of Energy and Power Engineering, University of
Shanghai for Science and Technology, 516 Jungong Road, Shanghai 200093, China.
Tel.: +86 18939950839; fax: +86 21 65711123.
E-mail address: zhangsy-guo@163.com (S. Zhang).
organic acids in the WV exhibited the high antimicrobial activity
(Ma et al., 2011) and the phenolic compounds showed significant
antioxidant activity, and demonstrated dosage dependency (Loo
et al., 2007, 2008). Wood vinegar contains lots of very complicated
organic components and over 200 compounds have been found in
the wood vinegar obtained from different resources (Guillén et al.,
2001). In China, there have been some researches only on the
organic components contained in the wood vinegars obtained
directly from the charcoal kiln or WV Company. The wood vinegars
are produced from Mongolian oak, birch, apple tree and pear by
carbonization process.
Based on the heating rate, pyrolysis process can be divided into
three modes: fast, intermediate and slow. As a kind of pyrolysis
technology with low heating rate, carbonization process has been
widely used in the conversion process of agricultural and forestry
residues into high added-value products (Xiong et al., 2014).
During the carbonization process, the raw material is heated up
in oxygen-free environment and volatile matters emits from the
parent materials and the three-phase matters of charcoal, liquid

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.12.026
0960-8524/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Q. Wu et al. / Bioresource Technology 179 (2015) 98–103 99

products, and fuel gas are produced. As a high application value
product, WV can be obtained by clarifying from the liquid prod-
ucts. During the process, the final carbonization temperature
employed plays a notable role in the distribution of the three-
phase products (Kwapinski et al., 2010; Angın, 2013).
The production and characterization of wood vinegar from rub-
berwood was studied by Ratanapisit et al. (2009) and it was found
that the optimum condition of pyrolysis was obtained at the heat-
ing rate of 1.4 °C/min to the final temperature of 550 °C with a WV
yield of 27.45%. The main ingredient contained in the WV was ace-
tic acid and included the high content of methanol compared to the
WV produced from other woods. Moreover, Sßensöz (2003) also
found that there was an obvious difference in the ingredients of
the wood vinegar produced from different raw materials and under
different process conditions. However, there have been very few
papers reported about WV preparation and the influence of prepar-
ing condition and feedstock on the yields and compositions of the
resultant wood vinegar.
In the paper, as agricultural and forestry residues, Chinese fir
sawdust, cotton stalk and bamboo sawdust were chosen as the
raw materials for the wood vinegar production. Because that the
wood residue including the fir sawdust is the main biomaterials
for the production of the wood vinegar (Wei et al., 2010), Chinese
fir sawdust was chosen as main research object. The experiment
was conducted on a vertical tubular carbonization reactor and
the organic constituents of the resultant wood vinegar were ana-
lyzed and determined. Thus, the effect of carbonization tempera-
ture and feedstock type on the yields and organic constituents of
the resultant wood vinegar could be investigated in detail. Further-
more, Chinese fir sawdust was pretreated by KCl solution and the
resultant sample was carbonized in order to investigate the effect
of the presence of potassium on the compositions of the resultant
wood vinegar. The aim of the research was to provide a theoretical
basis for the further development and utilization of WV.
2. Methods
2.1. Materials
Three agricultural and forestry residue samples, Chinese fir
sawdust (FS), cotton stalk (CS) and bamboo sawdust (BS) were cho-
sen as the raw materials for the investigation. Their proximate and
ultimate analyses are shown in Table 1 and their ash analyses are
listed in Table 2. The ash constituents of FS could not be deter-
mined due to its very low ash yield as shown in Table 1. Thus,
the influence of the mineral matters contained in the biomass is
slight and could be neglected. The samples were dried at 105 °C
for 2 h in a thermostatic air-blower-driven drying oven (DXG-
9073B-1, Fuma Laboratory Instrument Co., Shanghai, Temperature
precision 1 °C). Then, the dried materials with the particle size of
0.5–3 mm were prepared using a grinding machine (FW-400A,
Zhongxing Weiye Instrument Co., Beijing).
FS sample was immersed in KCl solution with a concentration of
20% in the ratio of 20 ml/g biomass for 12 h, then filtered and dried
in an oven at 60 °C for 24 h. The dried samples were placed in the
dry airtight container for the subsequent carbonization experi-
ment. The charcoal powder (60.5 mm) was prepared by Xiong
et al. (2014) from FS carbonized under the final carbonization tem-
perature of 550 °C.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Biomass carbonization
As illustrated in Fig. 1, the carbonization processes of the sam-
ples were carried out in a vertical quartz tube reactor with the
body length of 970 mm and the internal diameter of 35 mm. There
was a quartz frit used as a gas distributor in the center section of
the tube reactor. The tube reactor was heated by an electric furnace
(temperature precision 1 °C) based on the designed procedure.
During every run, about 90 g sample was loaded on the quartz frit.
A flow of dry nitrogen (99.999%, 200 ml/min) was purged into the
tube reactor to provide an inert atmosphere. A gas chromatograph
(GC2014, Japan SHIMADZU Company) was used to test the oxygen
in the outlet gas. When there was no O2 determined in the outlet
gas, the reactor was heated from room temperature to the
designed final temperature at 10 °C/min and held at the tempera-
ture for 30 min to ensure complete pyrolysis. The final carboniza-
tion temperature range was designed from 250 °C to 550 °C. At
the end of each run, the reactor was cooled down in nitrogen atmo-
sphere to room temperature and the liquid in the condenser was
collected. The collected liquid product is considered as the crude
wood vinegar in the research. The yield of the crude wood vinegar
could be obtained by calculating the increase in weight of the
condenser. Each experiment under the same temperature was
repeated three times in order to obtain adequate liquid and ensure
the yield accuracy. The product yield was the average value of the
three trials.
2.2.2. Crude WV refining
According to the refining process shown in the literature (Wei
et al, 2010), the crude wood vinegars prepared under the different
carbonization temperature and from different raw materials were

Table 1
Proximate and ultimate analyses of the samples.

Samples Proximate analysis (wt%, ad) Ultimate analysis (wt%, ar)

M A V FC C H O N S
CS 4.25 3.78 72.11 19.86 46.19 3.09 38.82 0.84 0.39
BS 2.85 2.04 78.97 16.14 47.14 3.26 41.01 0.73 0.27
FS 2.13 1.64 80.67 15.56 50.60 2.62 36.69 0.91 0.03

M = moisture; A = ash; V = volatile yield; FC = fixed carbon yield; ad = air-dried basis; ar = as received basis.

Table 2
Ash analyses of the samples.

Samples wt/%
SiO2/% Al2O3/% Fe2O3/% CaO/% MgO/% TiO2/% SO3/% K2O/% Na2O/% P2O5/%
CS 11.69 1.75 1.13 30.8 13.88 1.39 6.3 18.86 10.03 4.07
BS 37.04 1.51 2.99 11.67 3.15 1.8 6.15 27.6 3.67 4.39
100 Q. Wu et al. / Bioresource Technology 179 (2015) 98–103

1 by 3 ml ether for six times. The ether left in the liquid was removed
by water-bath heating at 40 °C. The concentrated wood vinegar
N2 2 was dried using anhydrous magnesium sulfate powder for
GC–MS analysis.

3
10 2.2.4. GC–MS analyzing
4 The analysis of the organic components contained in the refined
WV was carried out using the combination of gas chromatography
and mass spectrometry (GC–MS, Agilent 7890A-5975C, America).
5 N2 (99.999%) was used as carrier gas with a constant flow rate of
1.0 ml/min. The separation was performed using a HP-INNOWAX
6 (30 m  0.25 mm  0.25 lm). The injection port temperature was
designed as 260 °C. The column temperature was maintained at
9 50 °C for 3 min and then programmed to increase to 250 °C at a
heating rate of 4.0 °C/min and held at the temperature for
7 15 min. The split injection was conducted at a split rate of 20:1.
8
The mass spectroscopic conditions were given as follows: electron
impact source, electron energy 70 eV, ion source temperature
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the carbonization apparatus. 1. Thermocouple; 2. 230 °C, mass scanning range 20–500 amu/s. The compounds were
quartz tube reactor; 3. vertical electric furnace; 4. feedstock; 5. quartz frits; 6.
identified by the comparison of the retention time and mass spec-
volatile products; 7. crude WV; 8. ice-bath trap; 9. gas; 10. temperature controller.
tra with the library data of mass spectra (NIST2011). The relative
contents of the compounds were determined by the corresponding
stood for 1 month. Then, there appeared three layers in the crude peak areas.
wood vinegars: a thin layer of oil on the top, a thick layer in the
middle, and a thin layer of ropy wood tar in the bottom. The middle 3. Results and discussion
layer was siphoned off and then the liquid was mixed with the
charcoal powders in the charcoal–liquid ratio of 5% (w/w). The 3.1. Effect of carbonization temperature on FSWV yield
mixtures were stirred for 10 min and then stood for 72 h to ensure
the removal of the wood tar residues. The supernatant was FS consists of celluloses, hemicelluloses and lignins with the
decanted carefully and the remaining liquid was filtrated using content of 47.40%, 10.65% and 32.94%, respectively (Zhang et al.,
Syringe Filter (Nylon, diameter of 13 mm, aperture of 0.45 lm). 2004). Fig. 2 shows the yields of the crude and refined WV pro-
Then the refined wood vinegar was obtained and labeled as FSWV, duced from FS under the different carbonization temperature. As
BSWV and CSWV, respectively. FSKWV-350 means the wood vine- shown from the figure, the crude FSWV yield increases with the
gar produced from KCl solution treated FS at the carbonization increasing carbonization temperature. The increase in the crude
temperature of 350 °C. The both yields of the crude and refined FSWV yield with the increasing carbonization temperature is
wood vinegar were calculated based on the weight of the samples mainly attributable to the degradation of hemicelluloses, celluloses
loaded in the quartz tube during every run. and lignins contained in the feedstock. When the temperature rises
from 300 °C to 350 °C, the crude FSWV yield increases quickly from
2.2.3. Sample preparing for gas chromatographic and mass 19.8 to 43.2 wt.%. The sharp increase in the crude FSWV yield is
spectrometric (GC–MS) analysis mainly caused by the cellulose and lignin decomposition because
According to the methods from the literature (Wei et al, 2010), they are the major constituents contained in FS. The research of
10 ml of the refined wood vinegar was subjected to the extraction Wang et al. (2008) indicated that the temperature corresponding

70 90
Crude WV yield
65 85
Refined WV yield
60 Refined WV percent in crude WV
80
Percent of Refined WV in crude WV /%

55
75
50

45 70
WV yield /%

40 65
35
60
30
55
25
20 50

15 45
10
40
5
35
200 300 400 500 600
Carbonization temperature /oC

Fig. 2. Effect of carbonization temperature on WV yield of FS.

 Q. Wu et al. / Bioresource Technology 179 (2015) 98–103 101

Acids Aldehydes in Fig. 3, the organic compounds contained in FSWV indentified by

30 Phenols Alcohols
Ketones Esters
GC–MS mainly consist of acids, phenols, ketones, aldehydes, alco-
hols and esters. Of these matters, the components with higher con-
25
tent are acids, phenols and ketones. However, the relative contents
of aldehydes, alcohols and esters are lower and have no obviously
20
regular change with the carbonization temperature. Only at 550 °C,
Relative content/%

the relative content of the alcohols increases notably and reaches

15 9.04%. Of the alcohols, the compound with the highest content of
6.6% is tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol may due to the decomposition
10 of the celluloses under high carbonization temperature. The glyco-
sidic linkages as well as some C–C bonds in the pyranose rings of
5 celluloses rupture and the molecular fragments are dehydrated
to form tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol (Shafizadeh et al., 1971).
0 The relative content of the acids decreases from 19.31% to 6.64%
200 300 400 500 600 with the carbonization temperature increasing from 250 °C to
o
Temperature / C
550 °C. The highest content (19.31%) of the acids is obtained at
Fig. 3. Effect of carbonization temperature on the organic compositions of FSWV. 250 °C and decreases sharply to 9.96% at 350 °C. The ratio of the
acids to the total organic compounds in the refined wood vinegar
decreases with increasing temperature may be owing to the large
24 BSWV amount of volatile matters emitting in the temperature rang of
22 CSWV 250–350 °C. The breakage of the acetyl groups in hemicelluloses
FSWV and celluloses is contributed to the higher content of the acids at
20
FSKWV low temperature (Wang et al., 2009).
18
The content of the ketones is at relatively high level but
Relative content /%

16
14
12
10
8
6
4 et al., 2008). The higher the carbonization temperature is, the more
2 vigorous the decomposition is. The maximum weight loss of lignin
0 during the carbonization occurs at 450 °C (Wang et al., 2008). Thus,
Acids Phenols Ketones Aldehydes Alcohols Esters
Fig. 4. Effect of the feedstock type on the organic components of WV.
to the maximum weight loss of cellulose is around 333 °C. Thus,
lots of the volatile matters emits from the parent material in the
temperature range of 300–350 °C.
However, the yield of the refined WV increases until the car-
bonization temperature of 350 °C and then decreases. The highest
yield of the refined WV reaches 25% during the carbonization tem-
perature range of 350–450 °C. When above 450 °C, the yield
decreases to 21.22%. The decrease may due to the secondary deg-
radation of some ingredients contained in the refined WV under
higher carbonization temperature because they are thermally
unstable products (Demiral and Ayan, 2011).
The variation in the percent of the refined WV in the crude WV
under the different carbonization temperature is given in Fig. 2.
The refined WV percent decreases sharply from 79% to 59% as
the temperature ranged from 250 °C to 300 °C and remains nearly
constant from 300 °C to 350 °C and then decreases from 59% to 39%
as the temperature increases to 550 °C. Considering the high yield
of the wood tar produced under the carbonization temperature
above 350 °C, the temperature of 350 °C is suitable for WV
preparation.
3.2. Effect of carbonization temperature on the organic compositions of
FSWV
The relative contents of the main organic components con-
tained in the refined wood vinegars produced from FS under differ-
ent carbonization temperature are given in Fig. 3. As demonstrated
decreases gradually with the increasing carbonization tempera-
ture. However, the content of the phenols increases as the temper-
ature increases and reaches the highest content of 24.35% at
450 °C. The phenols are formed due to the decomposition of the
lignins with cross-linked structures of various hydroxyl- and meth-
oxy-substituted phenylpropane units (Evans and Milne, 1987)
occurring in the large temperature range of 250–550 °C (Wang
the content of the phenols produced at 450 °C is much higher than
that at 350 °C.
In sum, the above analyses indicate that the highest content of
the acids contained in FSWV can be produced at the carbonization
temperature of 250 °C and the higher content of phenols can be
obtained at 350–450 °C.
3.3. Effect of feedstock type on the organic components of the resultant
WV
Based on the above yield and organic composition analyses of
FSWV, the carbonization temperature of 350 °C is chosen for the
wood vinegar production from cotton stalk and bamboo sawdust.
As seen from the Fig. 4, the main organic components of the
three wood vinegars produced from FS, BS and CS all include acids,
phenols and ketones. In particular, the high relative content of the
alcohols contained in BSWV and CSWV can be observed. The rela-
tive contents of the acids and phenols contained in the three wood
vinegars are in the order of BSWV > CSWV > FSWV and that of
ketones is FSWV > CSWV > BSWV. The result also indicates the
highest content acids and phenols contained in BSWV and the
highest content ketones contained in FSWV. The alcohols are the
typical compounds in CSWV.
The main compounds in the acids, phenols and ketones con-
tained in the refined WV are listed in Table 3. The table indicates
that the acetic acid and propionic acid are the main compounds
in the acids and acetic acid content is the highest of them. It was
reported that acetic acid and propionic acid is mainly derived from
the thermal decomposition of hemicelluloses (Demirbas, 2007).
The relative concentrations of the hemicelluloses in the three res-
idues are in the order of BS (23.59%) > CS (14.82%) > FS (10.65%)
(Dong and Xiong, 2014; Jiang et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2004).
102 Q. Wu et al. / Bioresource Technology 179 (2015) 98–103

Table 3
Main compounds of the acids, phenols and ketones contained in the refined wood vinegar (relative content P1%).

Organic compounds Relative content %

BSWV CSWV FSWV FSKWV
Acids
Acetic acid 10.1887 7.6456 4.0346 8.381
Propionic acid 2.4254 1.5694 1.1683 1.0267
3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl acetic acid – – 1.2097 1.3011
Phenols
2-Methoxy phenol 2.5099 3.1398 3.969 5.1693
2,6-Dimethoxyphenol 5.7586 3.9201 <1 <1
2-Methoxy-4-methylphenol 1.0296 1.5745 3.8925 2.225
4-Ethyl-2-methoxyphenol <1 1.1249 2.1088 1.4598
1,2-Benzenediol 1.0539 1.1764 1.6167 2.0651
Trans-2-methoxy-4-propenylphenol <1 <1 2.3306 –
5-tert-Butylpyrogallol 1.2779 1.5772 <1 –
2,6-Dimethoxy-4-(2-propenyl)phenol 1.6688 1.9942 – –
4-Ethylphenol 1.8406 <1 – –
3-Methoxy-2-benzenediol 1.2321 1.0086 – –
Phenol 1.1466 <1 <1 –
2-Methylphenol 1.1466 <1 – –
Ketones
2,3-Dimethyl-2-cyclopentene-1-one 1.9792 4.6179 5.6855 3.4955
Hydroxyacetone 1.8177 2.3165 2.8544 2.495
Methyl cyclopentenolone 1.9792 2.4401 2.7957 2.0602
(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)acetone <1 1.0328 1.8058 2.1303
1-Hydroxy-2-butanone 1.8808 1.2343 <1 –

The highest content of the hemicelluloses contained in BS contrib-
ute to the highest content of the acids contained in BSWV and the
lowest content of the acids contained in FSWV.
The phenols, the typical carbonization products of lignins, are
generated from the dehydration reaction of hydroxy groups in pro-
pane side chains followed by the cleavage of ether linkages among
the lignin units (Amen-Chen et al., 2001). The guaiacols and their
derivatives are the main compounds contained in FSWV and the
higher content of the syringols are found in CSWV and BSWV as
shown in Table 3. It can be deduced that the lignins contained in
FS is composed of guaiacyl units and those of CS and BS consists
of syringyl units. The ether linkages among syringyl units are easier
to be broken than that among guaiacyl units during the carboniza-
tion process (Jakab et al., 1997). Furthermore, the products derived
from guaiacyl unit are easily dehydrogenated and accumulated in
char residues (Fengel and Shao, 1985). Thus, the higher content
of the phenols contained in CSWV and BSWV is observed than that
of FSWV. The decomposition of lignins is influenced by the oxygen
content and the reaction activity of the lignins with higher oxygen
content is higher (Fengel and Shao, 1985). The ultimate analyses
are given in Table 1. The table indicates that the oxygen content
of the three biomasses is in the order of BS > CS > FS. Thus the phe-
nols concentration in the three wood vinegars is in the order of
BSWV > CSWV > FSWV.
As shown in Fig. 4, the relative content of the ketones in the
three refined wood vinegars is in the order of FSWV > CSWV >
BSWV. The main ketone compounds include 2,3-dimethyl-2-cyclo-
pentene-1-one, hydroxyacetone and methyl cyclopentenolone,
et al. The large difference exists in the relative content of 2,
3-dimethyl-2-cyclopentene-1-one contained in the three wood
vinegars. The difference may be caused by the minerals presenting
in the raw materials. Table 2 indicates that the high content potas-
sium oxide in BS ash is observed while there is almost no potas-
sium oxide determined in FS ash. The presence of potassium
maybe inhibits the formation of ketones.
3.4. Effect of potassium on the organic compounds in WV
Fig. 4 gives that the relative content of the main components in
FSKWV-350. It can be known from the figure that the content of
the phenols and ketones decreases, that of the acids increases
and that of alcohols doubles approximately compared to the corre-
sponding components in FSWV. The main compounds contained in
FSKWV-350 are listed in Table 3. The data presents a decrease in
the content of almost all the main compounds of ketones, a
decrease in that of the phenol compounds and guaiacol derivatives
and an increase in the content of acetic acid. The results indicate
that the presence of KCl promotes the carbonization of FS to form
acetic acid and alcohols, while inhibits the formation of ketones
and phenols. In sum, based on the above analyses on the content
of the ketones contained in the three wood vinegars, the presence
of potassium shows a certain inhibition effect on the formation of
ketones during the carbonization process.
4. Conclusion
The yield of the crude WV increases with the increasing carbon-
ization temperature and that of the refined WV increases firstly
then decreases. The refined wood vinegar yield of 25% can be
obtained in the carbonization temperature range of 350–450 °C.
The relative contents of the acids and ketones contained in FSWV
decrease and that of the phenols increases with the increasing
temperature. The typical components with high content are the
acids and phenols in BSWV, the ketones in FSWV and alcohols in
CSWV, respectively. The presence of potassium has a certain nega-
tive effect on the formation of ketones in WV.
Acknowledgement
This work was financially supported by the National Program
on Key Basic Research Project (973 Program) of China (No.
2012CB214900).
References
Amen-Chen, C., Pakdel, H., Roy, C., 2001. Production of monomeric phenols by
thermochemical conversion of biomass: a review. Bioresour. Technol. 79, 277–
299.
Angın, D., 2013. Effect of pyrolysis temperature and heating rate on biochar
obtained from pyrolysis of safflower seed press cake. Bioresour. Technol. 128,
593–597.
 Q. Wu et al. / Bioresource Technology 179 (2015) 98–103
Baimark, Y., Niamsa, N., 2009. Study on wood vinegars for use as coagulating and
antifungal agents on the production of natural rubber sheets. Biomass
Bioenergy 33, 994–998.
Demiral, I.,_ Ayan, E.A., 2011. Pyrolysis of grape bagasse: effect of pyrolysis
conditions on the product yields and characterization of the liquid product.
Bioresour. Technol. 102, 3946–3951.
Demirbas, A., 2007. The influence of temperature on the yields of compounds
existing in bio-oils obtained from biomass samples via pyrolysis. Fuel Process.
Technol. 88, 591–597.
Dong, Q., Xiong, Y.Q., 2014. Kinetics study on conventional and microwave pyrolysis
of moso bamboo. Bioresour. Technol. 171, 127–131.
Evans, R.J., Milne, T.A., 1987. Molecular characterization of the pyrolysis of biomass.
Energy Fuels 1, 123–137.
Fengel, D., Shao, X., 1985. Studies on the lignin of the bamboo species Phyllostachys
makinoi Hay. Wood Sci. Technol. 19, 131–137.
Ferreira, V.S., Rego, I.N.C., Pastore, J.F., Mandai, M.M., Mendes, L.S., Santos, K.A.M.,
Rubim, J.C., Suzrez, P.A.Z., 2005. The use of smoke acid as an alternative
coagulating agent for natural rubber sheets’ production. Bioresour. Technol. 96,
605–609.
Guillén, M.D., Manzanos, M.J., Ibargoitia, M.L., 2001. Carbohydrate and nitrogenated
compounds in liquid smoke flavourings. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49, 2395–2403.
Jakab, E., Faix, O., Till, F., 1997. Thermal decomposition of milled wood lignins
studied by thermogravimetry/mass spectrometry. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 40–41,
171–186.
Jiang, W., Chang, S.L., Li, H.Q., Oleskowicz-Popiel, P., Hu, J., 2015. Liquid hot water
pretreatment on different parts of cotton stalk to facilitate ethanol production.
Bioresour. Technol. 176, 175–180.
Kwapinski, W., Byrne, C., Kryachko, E., Wolfram, P., Adley, C., Leahy, J.J., Novotny,
E.H., Hayes, M.H.B., 2010. Biochar from waste and biomass. J. Waste Biomass
Valor. 1, 177–189.
Loo, A.Y., Jain, K., Darah, I., 2007. Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities of the
pyroligneous acid from a mangrove plant, Rhizophora apiculata. Food Chem.
104, 300–307.
Loo, A.Y., Jain, K., Darah, I., 2008. Antioxidant activity of compounds isolated from
the pyroligneous acid, Rhizophora apiculata. Food Chem. 107, 1151–1160.
103
Ma, X.H., Wei, Q., Zhang, S.S., Shi, L., Zhao, Z., 2011. Isolation and bioactivities of
organic acids and phenols from walnut shell pyroligneous acid. J. Anal. Appl.
Pyrolysis 91, 338–343.
Mu, J., Uehara, T., Furuno, T., 2004. Effect of bamboo vinegar on regulation of
germination and radicle growth of seed plants II: composition of moso bamboo
vinegar at different collection temperature and its effects. J Wood Sci. 50, 470–
476.
Ratanapisit, J., Apiraksakul, S., Rerngnarong, A., Chungsiriporn, J., Bunyakarn, C.,
2009. Preliminary evaluation of production and characterization of wood
vinegar from rubberwood. Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. 03, 343.
Sßensöz, S., 2003. Slow pyrolysis of wood barks from Pinus brutia Ten. and product
compositions. Bioresour. Technol. 89, 307–311.
Shafizadeh, F., Philpot, C.W., Ostojic, N., 1971. Thermal analysis of 1,6-anhydro-b-D-
glucopyranose. Carbohydr. Res. 16, 279–287.
Shiny, K.S., Remadevi, O.K., 2014. Evaluation of termiticidal activity of coconut shell
oil and its comparison to commercial wood preservatives. Eur. J. Wood Wood
Prod. 72, 139–141.
Wang, G., Li, W., Li, B., Chen, H., 2008. TG study on pyrolysis of biomass and its three
components under syngas. Fuel 87, 552–558.
Wang, Z.Y., Cao, J.Q., Wang, J., 2009. Pyrolytic characteristics of pine wood in a
slowly heating and gas sweeping fixed-bed reactor. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 84,
179–184.
Wei, Q., Ma, X.H., Dong, J.E., 2010. Preparation, chemical constituents and
antimicrobial activity of pyroligneous acids from walnut tree branches. J.
Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 87, 24–28.
Wu, S.Y., Wu, Y.Q., Gao, J.S., 2014. The effect of wood vinegar on hydrothermal
liquefaction of cotton stalk under CO atmosphere. Energy Sources A 36, 411–
417.
Xiong, S.W., Zhang, S.Y., Wu, Q.M., Guo, X., Dong, A.X., Chen, C., 2014. Investigation
on cotton stalk and bamboo sawdust carbonization for barbecue charcoal
preparation. Bioresour. Technol. 152, 86–92.
Zhang, Q.H., Zhao, G.J., Jie, S.J., 2004. Liquefaction and product identification of main
chemical compositions of wood in phenol. Forestry Stud. China 02, 31–37.