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CHAPTER
Imagine, for a moment, that you are sitting in a bed- sexuality. Creative minds have developed theories to
room, watching two people making love. Imagine, too, answer such questions. Given the diversity in human
that sitting with you in the room, thinking your same sexuality, we need a range of theories to understand it.
thoughts, are Sigmund Freud (creator of psychoana-
lytic theory), E. O. Wilson (a leading sociobiologist),
Albert Bandura (a prominent social learning theo-
rist), and John Gagnon (a proponent of script theory).
The scene you are imagining may evoke arousal and
Evolutionary Perspectives
nothing more in you, but your imaginary companions Sociobiology
would have a rich set of additional thoughts as they Sociobiology is defined as the application of evolu-
viewed the scene through the specially colored lenses tionary biology to understanding the social behavior
of their own theoretical perspectives. Freud might be of animals, including humans (Barash, 1982). Sexual
marveling at how the biological sex drive, the libido, behavior is, of course, a form of social behavior, and
expresses itself so strongly and directly in this couple. so the sociobiologists try, often through observations
Wilson, the sociobiologist, would be thinking how mat- of other species, to understand why certain patterns
ing behavior in humans is similar to such behavior in of sexual behavior have evolved in humans.
other species of animals and how it is clearly the prod- In terms of evolution, what counts is producing
uct of evolutionary selection for behaviors that lead to lots of healthy, viable offspring who will carry on one’s
successful reproduction. Bandura might be thinking genes. Evolution occurs via natural selection, the
how sexual arousal and orgasm act as powerful posi- process by which the animals that are best adapted
tive reinforcers that will lead the couple to repeat the to their environment are more likely to survive, repro-
act frequently and how they are imitating a technique duce, and pass on their genes to the next generation.
of neck nibbling that they saw in an X-rated film last How do humans choose mates? One major crite-
week. Finally, Gagnon’s thoughts might be about the rion is the physical attractiveness of the person (see
social scripting of sexuality; this couple begins with Chapter 11). The sociobiologist argues that many of the
kissing, moves on to petting, and finishes up with characteristics we evaluate in judging attractiveness—
intercourse, following a script written by society. for example, physique and complexion—are indicative
Some of the major theories of the health and vigor of the individual. These in turn are
Sociobiology: The application of
evolutionary biology to understanding
in the social sciences have had probably related to the person’s reproductive potential;
the social behavior of animals, including many—and different—things to the unhealthy are less likely to produce many vigorous
humans. say about sexuality, and it is these offspring. Natural selection would favor individuals pre-
Evolution: A theory that all living theories that we consider in this ferring mates who would have maximum reproductive
things have acquired their present chapter. Theories provide us with success. Thus, perhaps our concern with physical attrac-
forms through gradual changes in their
genetic endowment over successive
answers to the question “why?” tiveness is a product of evolution and natural selection.
gener ations. We often wonder why others do (See Barash, 1982, for an extended discussion of this
Natural selection: A process in nature or do not engage in particular point and the ones that follow.) We choose an attractive,
resulting in greater rates of survival sexual behaviors and relation- healthy mate who will help us produce many offspring.
of those plants and animals that are ships. We sometimes ask the Can you guess why it is that the sociobiologist thinks
adapted to their environment.
“why” question about our own most men are attracted to women with large breasts?
EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES 25
If attractiveness is an indicator of health, it should there are several obstacles to reproductive success, two
be more important in mate selection in societies being infant vulnerability and maternal death. Infant
where more people are unhealthy. An online sur- vulnerability is greatly reduced if the mother provides
vey obtained ratings of the attractiveness of images continuing physical care, including breast-feeding. It
of male faces from 4,800 women ages 21 to 40 from is further reduced if the father provides resources and
30 countries. Facial masculinity, manipulated by security from attack for mother and infant. Two mecha-
computer, had more impact on attractiveness rat- nisms that facilitate these conditions are a pair-bond
ings in countries with poorer health, as measured between mother and father, and attachment between
by mortality, life expectancy, and communicable infant and parent (Miller & Fishkin, 1997). Thus, an off-
disease (DeBruine et al., 2010). spring’s chances of survival are greatly increased if the
From this viewpoint, hanging out, playing sports, parents bond emotionally, that is, love each other, and
getting engaged, and similar customs are much like if the parents have a propensity for attachment. Fur-
the courtship rituals of other species (see Figure 2.1). ther, an emotional bond might lead to more frequent
For example, many falcons and eagles have a flying sexual interaction; the pleasurable consequences of sex
courtship in which objects are exchanged between the in turn will strengthen the bond. Research with small
pair in midair. The sociobiologist views this courtship mammals, including mice and moles, demonstrates the
as an opportunity for each member of the prospec- advantages of biparental care of offspring and the criti-
tive couple to assess the other’s fitness. For example, cal role of bonding (Morell, 1998).
any lack of speed or coordination would be appar- According to this theory, parents are most inter-
ent during the airborne acrobatics. Evolution would ested in the survival and reproductive success of
favor courtship patterns that permitted individuals their genetic offspring. Parental investment refers to
to choose mates who would increase their reproduc- the behavior and resources invested in offspring to
tive success. Perhaps that is exactly what we are doing
in our human courtship rituals. The expenditure of
money by men on dates indicates their ability to sup-
port a family. Dancing permits the assessment of
physical prowess, and so on.
Sociobiologists can also explain why the nuclear fam-
ily structure of a man, a woman, and their offspring is
found in every society. Once a man and a woman mate,
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1 (a) The courtship rituals of great egrets. (b) Dancing is a human dating custom. According to socio-
biologists, human customs of dating and becoming engaged are biologically produced and serve the same func-
tions as courtship rituals in other species: They allow potential mates to assess each other’s fitness.
26 CHAPTER 2 • THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SEXUALITY
achieve this end. Because of the high rates of divorce theory that modern biologists consider naive
and remarriage in the United States, many men have (Gould, 1987). For example, sociobiology has focused
both biological children and stepchildren. This situ- mainly on the individual’s struggle for survival and
ation leads to the prediction that men will tend to efforts to reproduce; modern biologists focus on
invest more in their genetic children than in their more complex issues such as the survival of the group
stepchildren. Research indicates that fathers invest and the species. Further, sociobiologists assume that
the most money on the genetic children of their cur- the central function of sex is reproduction; this may
rent union and the least money on stepchildren from have been true historically but is probably not true
a past relationship. However, they spend an equal today. Recent research does not support some of the
amount on their genetic children and the stepchil- evidence that is widely cited in support of the theory.
dren of their current relationship, perhaps to cement One sociobiologist reported that the winners of the
the pair-bond with their current partner (Anderson Miss America contest and Playboy’s centerfold mod-
et al., 2001). els have consistently had a waist-to-hip ratio of .7,
In addition to natural selection, Darwin also pro- arguing that this reflects a universal standard related
posed a mechanism that is not as much a house- to reproductive fitness (Singh, 1993). A closer look
hold word, sexual selection (Buss, 2009; Gangestad at the data shows that the average for Miss America
& Thornhill, 1997). Sexual selection is selection that winners has steadily declined since 1921, from .78
creates differences between males and females. It to .64 in 1986, contradicting the claim that a prefer-
consists of two processes: (1) competition among ence for .70 was hardwired by evolution thousands
members of one gender (usually males) for mating of years ago (Freese & Meland, 2002). Research ana-
access to members of the other gender, and (2) pref- lyzing waist-to-hip ratios across a large number of
erential choice by members of one gender (usually cultures, Western and non-Western, finds that the
females) for certain members of the other gender. In .7 ratio is most common in societies where women
other words, in many—though not all (Clutton-Brock, are economically dependent on men (not all cultures,
2007)—species, males compete among themselves as the theory asserts) (Cashdan, 2008).
for the right to mate with females; and females, for
their part, prefer certain males and mate with them
Evolutionary Psychology
while refusing to mate with other males.1 Research-
A somewhat different approach is taken by evolu-
ers have tested with humans some of the predic-
tionary psychology, which focuses on psychological
tions that come from the theory of sexual selection.
mechanisms that have been shaped by natural selec-
For example, the theory predicts that men should
tion (Buss, 1991). If behaviors evolved in response to
compete with each other in ways that involve dis-
selection pressures, it is plausible to argue that cogni-
playing material resources that should be attractive
tive or emotional structures evolved in the same way.
to women, and men should engage in these displays
Thus, a man who accurately judged whether a woman
more than women do (Buss, 1988).
was healthy and fertile would be more successful in
Is the heterosexual Examples might be giving impressive
reproducing. If his offspring exhibited the same abil-
male preference for the gifts to potential mates, flashy showing
ity to judge accurately, they in turn would have a com-
“hourglass” female figure of possessions (e.g., cars, stereos), or
universal? petitive advantage.
displaying personality characteristics
One line of research has concentrated on sexual
that are likely to lead to the acquisi-
strategies (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). According to this
tion of resources (e.g., ambition). Research shows
theory, females and males face different adaptive
that men engage in these behaviors significantly
problems in short-term, or casual, mating and in long-
more than women do, and that both men and women
term mating and reproduction. These differences lead
believe these tactics are effective (Buss, 1988).
to different strategies, or behaviors designed to solve
Many criticisms of sociobi-
these problems. In short-term mating, a female may
Sexual selection: A specific type
ology have been made. Some
choose a partner who offers her immediate resources,
of selection that creates differences critics object to the biological
such as food or money. In long-term mating, a female
between males and females. determinism that it implies.
Evolutionary psychology: The study
may choose a partner who appears able and willing
Also, sociobiology has been
of psychological mechanisms that have to provide resources for the indefinite future. A male
criticized for resting on an out-
been shaped by natural selection. may choose a sexually available female for a short-
moded version of evolutionary
term liaison but avoid such females when looking for
a long-term mate.
1
Sociobiologists use this mechanism to explain gender According to the theory, females engage in intra-
differences. sexual competition for access to males. Women
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 27
Erogenous Zones and much more difficult, time passing through it. For
Freud saw the libido as being focused in various a girl, the phallic stage begins with her traumatic real-
regions of the body known as erogenous zones. ization that she has no penis, perhaps after observ-
An erogenous zone is a part of the skin or mucous ing that of her father or a brother. She feels envious
membrane that is extremely sensitive to stimula- and cheated, and she suffers from penis envy, wish-
tion; touching it in certain ways produces feelings of ing that she too had a wonderful wand. (Presumably
pleasure. The lips and mouth are one such erogenous she thinks her own clitoris is totally inadequate, or
zone, the genitals a second, and the rectum and anus she is not even aware that she has it.) She begins to
a third. desire her father, forming her version of the Oedipus
complex, sometimes called the Electra complex.
Stages of Psychosexual Development In part, her incestuous desires for her father result
Freud believed that the child passes through a series from a desire to be impregnated by him, to substitute
of stages of development. In each of these stages a dif- for the unobtainable penis. Unlike the boy, the girl
ferent erogenous zone is the focus. does not have a strong motive of castration anxiety
The first stage, lasting from birth to about 1 year for resolving the Oedipus complex; she has already
of age, is the oral stage. The child’s chief pleasure is lost her penis. Thus, the girl’s resolution of the Elec-
derived from sucking and otherwise stimulating the tra complex is not so complete as the boy’s resolu-
lips and mouth. Anyone who has observed children of tion of the Oedipus complex, and for the rest of her
this age knows how they delight in putting any-thing life she remains somewhat immature compared
they can into their mouths. The second stage, which with men.
occurs during approximately the second year of life, is Freud said that following the resolution of the
the anal stage. During this stage, the child’s interest is Oedipus or Electra complex, children pass into a
focused on elimination. prolonged stage known as latency, which lasts until
The third stage of development, lasting from adolescence. During this stage, the sexual impulses
age 3 to perhaps age 5 or 6, is the phallic stage. The are repressed or are in a quiescent state, and so
boy’s interest is focused on his phallus (penis), and nothing much happens sexually. The postulation of
he derives great pleasure from masturbating.2 Per- this stage is one of the weaker parts of Freudian the-
haps the most important occurrence in this stage is ory, because it is clear from the data of modern sex
the development of the Oedipus complex, which researchers that children do continue to engage in
derives its name from the Greek story of Oedipus, behavior with sexual components during this period
who unknowingly killed his father and married his (see Chapter 9).
mother. In the Oedipus complex, the boy loves his With puberty, sexual urges reawaken, and the child
mother and desires her sexually. He hates his father, moves into the genital stage. During this stage, sexual
whom he sees as a rival for the mother’s affection. urges become more specifically genital, and the oral,
The boy’s hostility toward his father grows, but even- anal, and genital urges all fuse together to promote
tually he comes to fear that his father will retaliate by the biological function of reproduction.
castrating him—cutting off his prized penis. Thus, the According to Freud, people do not always mature
boy feels castration anxiety. Eventually the castra- from one stage to the next as they should. A person
tion anxiety becomes so great that he stops desiring might remain permanently fixated, for example, at
his mother and shifts to identifying with his father, the oral stage; symptoms of such a situation would
taking on the father’s gender role and acquiring include incessant cigarette smoking and fingernail bit-
the characteristics expected of ing, which gratify oral urges. Most adults have at least
Erogenous (eh-RAH-jen-us) zones: males by society. Freud consid- traces of earlier stages remaining in their personalities.
Areas of the body that are particularly ered the Oedipus complex and
sensitive to sexual stimulation.
Oedipus (EH-di-pus) complex:
its resolution to be one of the Evaluation of Psychoanalytic Theory
According to Freud, the sexual attrac- key factors in human personal- From a scientific point of view, one of the major
tion of a little boy for his mother. ity development. problems with psychoanalytic theory is that most
Electra (eh-LEK-tra) complex: Accord- As might be expected from the of its concepts cannot be evaluated scientifically to
ing to Freud, the sexual attraction of a name of this stage, the girl will see whether they are accurate. Freud postulated that
little girl for her father.
have a considerably different, many of the most important forces in personality
are unconscious, and thus they could not be studied
2
Masturbation to orgasm is physiologically possible at this age, using the scientific techniques common to the 20th
although males are not capable of ejaculation until they reach century. Recent advances in our ability to image
puberty (see Chapter 5). brain activity, for example, with high-powered
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 29
of modern learning theory will be reviewed, because segment of a sexually explicit videotape, for 11 trials;
they can help us understand our own sexuality (for a men in the control group saw only the target slide
more detailed discussion, see Hogben & Byrne, 1998). for 11 trials. Arousal was measured by a penile strain
gauge, which measures the extent of engorgement
Classical Conditioning or erection of the penis (see Chapter 12). Each man
Classical conditioning is a concept usually associ- then rated the 20 original slides again. In the experi-
ated with the work of the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov mental group, the target slide was associated with an
(1849–1936). Think of the following situations: You sal- increase in arousal as measured by the strain gauge;
ivate in response to the sight or smell of food, you blink in the control group, men were less aroused by the
in response to someone poking a finger in your eye, target slide following the repeated exposure. Subse-
or you experience sexual arousal in response to strok- quent research demonstrated classical conditioning
ing the inner part of your thigh. In all these cases, an of sexual arousal in women (Hoffmann et al., 2004).
unconditioned stimulus (US; for example, appeal- Classical conditioning is useful in explaining a
ing food) automatically, reflexively elicits an uncon- number of phenomena in sexuality. One example is
ditioned response (UR; for example, salivation). The fetishes, explained in Chapter 14.
process of learning that occurs in classical condition-
ing takes place when a new stimulus, the conditioned Operant Conditioning
stimulus (CS; for example, the sound of a bell) repeat- Operant conditioning, a concept that is often asso-
edly occurs paired with the original unconditioned ciated with the psychologist B. F. Skinner, refers to
stimulus (food). After this happens many times, the the following process. A person performs a particu-
conditioned stimulus (the ringing bell) can eventu- lar behavior (the operant). That behavior may be fol-
ally be presented without the unconditioned stimulus lowed by either a reward (positive reinforcement) or
(food) and will evoke the original response, now called a punishment. If a reward follows, the person will be
the conditioned response (CR, salivation). likely to repeat the behavior again in the future; if a
As an example, suppose that Nadia’s first serious punishment follows, the person will be less likely to
boyfriend in high school always wears Erotik cologne repeat the behavior. Thus, if a behavior is repeatedly
when they go out. As they advance in their sexual rewarded, it may become very frequent, and if it is
intimacy, they have many pleasant times, where he repeatedly punished, it may become very infrequent
strokes her thighs and other sexually responsive parts or even be eliminated.
of her body and she feels highly aroused, always with Some rewards are considered to be primary rein-
the aroma of Erotik in her nostrils. One day she enters forcers; that is, there is something intrinsically reward-
an elevator full of strangers in her office building ing about them. Food is one such primary reinforcer;
and someone is wearing Erotik. Nadia instantly feels sex another. Rats, for example, can be trained to learn
sexually aroused, although she is not engaged in any a maze if they find a willing sex partner at the end of
sexual activity. From the point of view of classical con- it. Thus, sexual behavior plays dual roles in learning
ditioning, this makes perfect sense, although Nadia theory: It can itself be a positive reinforcer, but it can
may wonder why she is feeling so aroused in the ele- also be the behavior that is rewarded or punished.
vator. The thigh-stroking and sexy touching were the Simple principles of operant conditioning can help
US. Her arousal was the UR. The aroma of the cologne, explain some aspects of sex (McGuire et al., 1965).
the CS, was repeatedly paired with the US. Eventually, For example, if a woman repeatedly experiences pain
the aroma occurred by itself, when she has intercourse (perhaps because she has
Classical conditioning: The learning evoking arousal, the CR. a vaginal infection), she will probably want to have
process in which a previously neutral Classical conditioning of sex- sex infrequently or not at all. In operant conditioning
stimulus (conditioned stimulus) is ual arousal has been demon- terms, sexual intercourse has repeatedly been associ-
repeatedly paired with an uncondi-
tioned stimulus that reflexively elicits
strated in an experiment using ated with a punishment (pain), and so the behavior
an unconditioned response. Eventually male students as participants becomes less frequent.
the conditioned stimulus itself will (Lalumiere & Quinsey, 1998). Another principle of operant conditioning that is
evoke the response. All of the participants were first useful in understanding sexual behavior holds that
Operant (OP-ur-unt) conditioning: shown 20 slides of partially consequences, whether reinforcement or punish-
The process of changing the frequency
of a behavior (the operant) by following
clothed women; a slide rated as ment, are most effective in shaping behavior when
it with positive reinforcement (which 5 on a scale of sexual attractive- they occur immediately after the behavior. The longer
will make the behavior more frequent ness ranging from 1 to 10 was they are delayed after the behavior has occurred, the
in the future) or punishment (which selected as the target slide. Ten less effective they become. As an example, consider
should make the behavior less frequent participants were shown the tar- a young man who has had gonorrhea three times yet
in the future).
get slide, followed by a 40-second continues to have unprotected sexual intercourse.
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 31
The pain associated with gonorrhea is certainly pun- behavior is punished using an aversive stimulus.
ishing, so why does he persist in having sex without Repeated pairing of the behavior and the aversive
a condom? The delay principle suggests the follow- stimulus should produce a decline in the frequency
ing explanation: Each time he engages in intercourse, of the behavior, or its extinction. In olfactory aversion
he finds it highly rewarding; this immediate reward therapy, the problematic sexual behavior is punished
maintains the behavior; the punishment, the pain of using an unpleasant odor, such as the odor of spirits
gonorrhea, does not occur until several days later and of ammonia, as the aversive stimulus. With the help
so is not effective in eliminating that behavior. of a therapist, the patient first identifies the behavior
A third principle that has emerged in operant con- chain or sequence that leads up to the problem behav-
ditioning studies is that, compared with rewards, pun- ior. Then the patient imagines one event in the chain
ishments are not very effective in shaping behavior. and is simultaneously exposed to the odor. The odor
Often, as in the case of the child who is punished for can be administered by the patient, using a breakable
taking an illicit cookie, punishments do not eliminate inhaler. This form of therapy not only punishes the
a behavior but rather teach the person to be sneaky behavior but also creates the perception in the patient
and engage in it without being caught. As an example, that the behavior is under his or her control.
some parents, as many commonly did in earlier times
in our culture, punish children for masturbating; yet Social Learning
most of those children continue to masturbate, per- Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977; Bandura &
haps learning instead to do it under circumstances Walters, 1963) is a somewhat more complex form of
(such as in a bathroom with the door locked) in which learning theory. It is based on principles of operant
they are not likely to be caught. conditioning, but it also recognizes two other pro-
One important difference between psychoanalytic cesses at work: imitation and identification. These two
theory and learning theory should be noticed. Psy- processes are useful in explaining the development of
choanalytic theorists believe that the determinants of gender identity, or one’s sense of maleness or female-
human sexual behavior occur in early childhood, par- ness (see Figure 2.3). For exam-
Behavior modification: A set of oper-
ticularly during the Oedipal complex period. Learn- ple, a little girl acquires many ant conditioning techniques used to
ing theorists, in contrast, believe that sexual behavior characteristics of the female role modify human behavior.
can be learned and changed at any time in one’s life by identifying with her mother Extinction: The process of repeatedly
span—in childhood, in adolescence, in young adult- and imitating her, as when she pairing a behavior with an aversive
hood, or later. When we try to understand what causes plays at dressing up after observ- stimulus, leading to a decline in the
frequency of the behavior.
certain sexual behaviors and how to treat people with ing her mother getting ready to
sex problems, this distinction between the theories
will have important implications.
Behavior Modification
Behavior modification involves a set of techniques,
based on principles of classical or operant condi-
tioning, that are used to change (or modify) human
behavior. These techniques have been used to modify
everything from problem behaviors of children in the
classroom to the behavior of schizophrenics. In par-
ticular, these methods can be used to modify problem-
atic sexual behaviors—that is, sexual disorders such as
orgasm problems (see Chapter 17) or deviant sexual
behavior such as child molesting. Behavior modifica-
tion methods differ from more traditional methods
of psychotherapy such as psychoanalysis in that the
behavioral therapist considers only the problem behav-
ior and how to modify it using learning-theory princi-
ples; the therapist does not worry about a depth analysis
of the person’s personality to see, for example, what
unconscious forces might be motivating the behavior. Figure 2.3 According to social learning theory,
One example of a technique used in modifying children learn about sex and gender in part by imita-
sexual behavior is olfactory aversion therapy (Abel tion. These children may be imitating their parents or a
et al., 1992). In aversion therapy, the problematic scene they have watched on TV.
32 CHAPTER 2 • THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SEXUALITY
go to a party. Also, various forms of sexuality may be 2004) uses the concept of reinforcement to explain
learned through imitation. In high school, for exam- stability and change in relationships between people.
ple, the sexiest girl in the senior class may find that The theory assumes that we have freedom of choice
other girls are imitating her behaviors and the way and often face choices among alternative actions.
she dresses. Or a boy might see a movie in which the Every action provides some rewards and entails cer-
hero’s technique seems to “turn women on”; then he tain costs. There are many kinds of rewards—money,
tries to use this technique with his own dates. The lat- goods, services, sexual gratification, approval by
ter example points to the importance of mass media others—and costs—time, effort, money, embarrass-
as a source of images of sexuality that young people ment. The theory states that we are hedonistic, that
imitate and personalities that they identify with (see we try to maximize rewards and minimize costs when
Chapter 9, Milestones in Sex Research). we act. Thus, we choose actions that produce profits
Once a behavior is learned, the likelihood of its (profits equaling rewards less costs) and avoid actions
being performed depends on its consequences. The that produce losses.
young man who imitates actor Brad Pitt’s roman- As its name indicates, social exchange theory views
tic technique may not succeed in arousing his com- social relationships primarily as exchanges of goods
panion. If the behavior is not reinforced, he will stop and services among persons. People participate in
performing it. If it is reinforced, he will repeat it. Suc- relationships only if they find that the relationships
cessful experiences with an activity over time create provide profitable outcomes. An individual judges
a sense of competence, or self-efficacy (Bandura, the attractiveness of a relationship by comparing the
1982), at performing the activity. If a woman feels effi- profits it provides against the profits available in alter-
cacious at using the female condom, she will expend native relationships. The level of outcomes in the best
more effort (going to the drugstore to buy one) and alternative relationship is called the comparison level
will show greater persistence in the face of difficulty for alternatives (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959). These ideas
(continuing to adjust it until it fits properly) than have been applied to personal relationships. Stud-
she did before. The concept of self-efficacy has been ies of heterosexual couples in long-term dating rela-
widely used in designing health intervention pro- tionships have found that the concepts of rewards
grams such as those that encourage individuals to use and costs can explain whether persons stay in or exit
condoms to prevent transmission of sexually trans- from such relationships (Rusbult, 1983; Rusbult et al.,
mitted diseases and HIV infection (e.g., DeLamater et 1986). Individuals are more likely to stay in when the
al., 2000). These programs provide opportunities for partner is physically and personally attractive, when
participants to practice the behaviors that are being the relationship does not entail undue costs (such as
promoted and be successful. high monetary commitments, broken promises, or
Social learning can also explain phenomena such arguments), and when romantic relationships with
as birth rates. Many adults want to have children— others are not available. In other words, they are more
that is, they have fertility intentions. They recognize likely to stay in a relationship when its rewards are
that infant mortality may deprive them of offspring, high, its costs are low, and the comparison level for
so they may increase or decrease their fertility in alternatives is low.
order to achieve their intention. Most adults are not Social exchange theory also predicts the conditions
aware of their cultural or national infant mortality under which people try to change their relationships.
rate, but are aware of the fertility outcomes of couples A central concept is equity (Walster [Hatfield] et al.,
they know and interact with. If the birth and survival 1978). A state of equity exists when participants in a
experiences of proximate others influence births, this relationship believe that the rewards they receive from
would reflect the impact of social experience, learn- it are proportional to the costs they bear. If a participant
ing, on reproduction. Research identified the social feels that the allocation of rewards and costs is ineq-
networks of a group of Nepalese women and assessed uitable, then the relationship is unstable. People find
the experiences of members of a woman’s network inequity unpleasant and may feel cheated or angry. As
on her fertility. As expected, experiences of network we will see in Chapter 10, a married person experienc-
members were related to timing of a woman’s births ing inequity may cheat on the spouse as a result.
(Sandberg, 2006). This perspective leads to the matching hypothesis
(see Chapter 11), which predicts that men and
Self-efficacy: A sense of competence
at performing an activity.
women will choose as mates people who match
Social exchange theory: A theory, Social Exchange Theory them on physical and social characteristics. People
based on the principle of reinforce- An important process based who match will provide each other with similar
ment, that assumes that people will on the principle of reinforce- rewards on dimensions such as attractiveness,
choose actions that maximize rewards ment is social exchange. Social social status, and wealth. We noted earlier that
and minimize costs.
exchange theory (Cook & Rice, sociobiologists predict that we will choose attractive
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 33
T
he Sambia are a tribe living in Papua New mother and father. This observational learning can be
Guinea in the South Pacific, which has been used a decade later when it is time for him to marry
extensively studied by anthropologists (see A and form a heterosexual relationship.
Sexually Diverse World in Chapter 13, on page 347). Third, the boy is provided with much cognitive
The Sambia are interesting for a number of reasons, structuring, a notion present in social learning the-
the chief one being that young males are expected to ory as well as cognitive psychology. He is instructed
spend 10 or more years of their lives in exclusively that a boy must pass through a series of stages to
homosexual relations. During this time they are become a strong, masculine man. This includes
taught to fear women and believe that women have first becoming the receptive partner to fellatio, then
polluting effects on them. After that stage of their being the inserting partner to fellatio, marrying,
lives, they are expected to marry women. They do, and defending himself from his wife’s first menstrua-
their sexual behavior becomes exclusively heterosex- tion (girls are usually married before puberty and
ual. These observations defy our Western notions that undergo no homosexual stage of development), and
one’s sexual orientation is a permanent characteristic then fathering a child by her. Essentially he is given
throughout life. Indeed, the very concepts of having a all the cognitive structures necessary to convince
“heterosexual identity” or “homosexual identity” are him that it is perfectly natural, indeed desirable, to
not present in Sambia culture. engage in sex with men for 10 years and then switch
Can social learning theory explain these patterns to women. Finally, there is some aversive condition-
of sexual behavior? It can, according to the analysis ing to the homosexual behavior that leads it to be
of John and Janice Baldwin. The thing that is puzzling not particularly erotic. The boy performs fellatio for
is how the Sambia male, who has had years of erotic the first time after several days of initiation, when
conditioning to homosexual behavior just at puberty he is exhausted. The activities are staged so that the
when he is most easily aroused and sensitive to con- boy feels fearful about it. He must do it in darkness
ditioning, would then switch to heterosexual behavior with an older boy who may be an enemy, and he is
and do so happily. required to do it with many males in succession. In
According to the Baldwins’ analysis, several fac- essence, unpleasantness or punishment is associ-
tors in social learning theory explain this switch. First, ated with homosexual behavior.
positive conditioning in the direction of heterosexu- In summary, then, social learning theory provides
ality occurs early in life. The boy spends the first 7 a sensible explanation of the seemingly puzzling shift
to 10 years of his life with his family. He has a close, that Sambia males make from exclusively homosexual
warm relationship with his mother. In essence, he has expression to exclusively heterosexual expression.
been conditioned to positive feelings about women.
Second, observational learning occurs. In those Sources: Baldwin & Baldwin (1989); Herdt (1984).
same first 7 to 10 years, the boy observes closely the
heterosexual relationship between two adults, his
mates—if true, men would fight for the most attrac- relationships. Some people believe that love is not
tive woman in the area and unattractive women and should not be about what one can get out of a
would not have partners. In fact, people at all levels relationship (i.e., its rewards). A related criticism is
of attractiveness find partners, reflecting the opera- that social exchange theories downplay other motiva-
tion of matching. tions. Because of the emphasis on rewards and costs,
Social exchange theories have been criticized such theories cannot explain, for example, selfless
for applying ideas of rewards and costs to romantic behaviors such as altruism and martyrdom.
34 CHAPTER 2 • THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SEXUALITY
(a) (b)
Figure 2.4 Pictures like these were used in the Martin and Halverson research on
gender schemas and children’s memory. (a) A girl engaged in a stereotype-consistent
activity. (b) Girls engaged in a stereotype-inconsistent activity. In a test of recall a week
later, children tended to distort the stereotype-inconsistent pictures to make them ste-
reotype consistent; for example, they remembered that they had seen boys boxing.
but it distorts our memory of information that is incon- Sociologists approach the study of sexuality with
sistent with the schema (stereotype-inconsistent). three basic assumptions: (1) Every society regulates
Our gender schema influences many everyday the sexuality of its members. (For a discussion of the
behaviors, for example, what we look at in magazines. reasons why, see Horrocks, 1997.) (2) Basic institutions
Male and female undergraduates completed a mea- of society (such as religion and the family) affect the
sure of masculinity/femininity of self-concept. They rules governing sexuality in that society. (3) The appro-
were later allowed to select from three male-typed priateness or inappropriateness of a particular sexual
(Men’s Health, Game Informer, Sports Illustrated), behavior depends on the culture in which it occurs.
three female-typed (Shape, Us Weekly, Glamour), and
three gender-neutral news magazines. Their selection
The Influence of Society
and reading behavior were videotaped. Biological
Sociologists view societal influences on human sex-
sex influenced choice of magazine. Gender schema
uality as occurring on several levels, including the
(masculinity/femininity) influenced what they read
macro level, or society as a whole, and the sub-cultural
in the selected magazine(s) (Knobloch-Westerwick &
level, at which one’s social class or ethnic group may
Hoplamazian, 2012).
have an impact on one’s sexuality. Our discussion in
One of the interesting implications of gender
this section emphasizes the macro level of influence.
schema theory is that stereotypes—whether they are
about males and females, or heterosexuals and homo-
sexuals, or other groups—may be very slow to change. Social Institutions
The reason is that our schemas tend to filter out According to the sociological perspective, at the
stereotype-inconsistent (that is, schema-inconsistent) macro level our sexuality is influenced by powerful
information so that we don’t even remember it. social institutions, including religion, the economy,
the family, medicine, and the law. Each major insti-
tution supports a sexual ideology, or discourse, about
sexual activity. This ideology influences the beliefs
Sociological Perspectives and behaviors of those affiliated with the institution.
Figure 2.5 According to sociologists, a culture’s economy may have a profound effect on patterns of sexuality,
marriage, and childbearing. High rates of male unemployment may lead to an increase in the number of female-
headed households.
Suffice it to say here that the Christian religion has surveillance, and scripts such as extramarital affairs
contained within it a tradition of asceticism, in and same-gender sex could be acted out more often.
which abstinence from sexual pleasures—especially Today we see much evidence of the extent to which
by certain persons such as monks and priests—is economic conditions, and especially the unemploy-
seen as virtuous. The tradition, at least until recently, ment rate, can affect the structure of the family and
has also been oriented toward procreation—that is, thus sexuality (see Figure 2.5). For example, when a
a belief that sexuality is legitimate only within tradi- group of men—such as lower-class Black men—have
tional heterosexual marriage and only with the goal less access to jobs and thus have a high unemployment
of having children, a procreational ideology. This rate, they are reluctant to marry because they cannot
view has created within our culture a set of norms, support a family. The result is many female-headed
or standards for behavior, that say, for example, that households, with sexuality occurring outside marriage
premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexual and children born without a legal father, although the
sex are wrong. The procreational ideology is our father may be present in the household, providing care
basis for asserting that marriage is exclusively for a for the children. The point is that a culture’s economy
man and a woman, since only a heterosexual couple may have a profound effect on patterns of sexuality,
can procreate. marriage, and childbearing (Teachman et al., 2000).
In a capitalist economy such as the United States,
The Economy goods and services become commodities that can be
The nature and structure of the economy is another sold for a price (an exchange). Not surprisingly, this
macro-level influence on sexuality. Before the Indus- includes sexual images and sexual gratification, giv-
trial Revolution, most work was done in the family unit ing rise to the sale of sexually explicit materials, in
in the home or farm. This kind of togetherness per- stores and on the Internet, and commercial sex work.
mitted rather strict surveillance of family members’ The increasing globalization of the economy has led
sexuality and thus strict norms could be enforced. to the development of sex tourism, in which well-
However, with the Industrial Revolution, people— to-do men and women travel to other cultures, such
most frequently men—spent many hours per day at as Thailand, to purchase sexual gratification from
work away from the home. Thus, they were under less “exotic” (e.g., Asian) sex workers (see Chapter 16).
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 37
and controls our sexual expression, at levels from This perspective emphasizes the importance of
institutions such as religion and the law to the inter- symbolic communication (see Chapter 11). It also
personal level of socialization by family and peers. alerts us to the mutual effort required to arrive at a
definition of the situation. Criticisms of this theory
include the fact that it emphasizes rational, conscious
Symbolic Interaction Theory thought, whereas in the realm of sexuality emotions
An important sociological theory is symbolic inter- may be very important in many interactions. Also,
action theory (Charon, 1995; Stryker, 1987). Its basic this perspective portrays humans as other-directed
premise is that human nature and the social order are individuals, concerned primarily with meeting oth-
products of symbolic communication among people. ers’ standards. A third criticism is that we don’t always
A person’s behavior is constructed through his or her consciously role take and communicate in an effort
interaction with others. People can communicate to achieve agreement. Sometimes we rely on past
successfully with one another only to the extent that experience and habit. Situations such as these are the
they ascribe similar meanings to objects and people. province of script theory.
An object’s meaning for a person depends not on the
properties of the object but on what a person might
do with it; an object takes on meaning only in rela- Sexual Scripts
tion to a person’s plans. Thus, the theory views people The outcome of these social influences is that each
as proactive and goal seeking. Achieving most goals of us learns a set of sexual scripts (Gagnon, 1977,
requires the cooperation of others. 1990; Gagnon & Simon, 1973). The idea is that sexual
This is especially true of many forms of sexual behavior (and virtually all human behavior, for that
expression. For example, suppose a woman invites a matter) is scripted much as a play in a theater is. That
person she is dating to her apartment; what meaning is, sexual behavior is a result of elaborate prior learn-
does this invitation have? Does she want to prolong ing that teaches us an etiquette of sexual behavior
the conversation, or engage in intimate sexual activ- (see Figure 2.6). According to this concept, little in
ity? The two people will have to achieve an agreement human sexual behavior is spontaneous. Instead, we
about the purpose of the visit before joint activity is have learned an elaborate script that tells us who,
possible. In terms of the theory, they have to develop what, when, where, and why we do what we do sexu-
a definition of the situation. Thus, to fit their actions ally. For example, the “who” part of the script tells
together and achieve agreement, people interacting us that sex should occur with someone of the other
with each other must continually reaffirm old mean- gender, of approximately our own age, of our own
ings or negotiate new ones. race, and so on. Even the sequence of sexual activity
Can a woman go to a strip club and get a lap is scripted. Scripts, then, are plans that people carry
dance? It depends on whether she can, in interaction around in their heads for what they are doing and
with one of the dancers, create a definition of herself what they are going to do; they are also devices for
as a “patron.” Many strippers are oriented toward helping people remember what they have done in the
male customers and pass over women because they past (Gagnon, 1977, p. 6).
perceive them as unlikely to pay for a dance. A few How could we study these scripts? How could we
perceive the situation as different and negotiate with find out if there are widely shared beliefs about how
women; the result may be more intimate contact one should behave in a specific situation? One way is
than in the typical male lap dance (Wosick-Correa & to ask people to describe what one should do in such
Joseph, 2008). a situation. Researchers asked male and female col-
Central to social interaction is the lege students to describe a typical “hookup” (Holman
Why do most sexual
process of role taking, in which an & Sillars, 2012). The hypothetical script written
interactions in our society
follow the same patterns? individual imagines how he or she by many participants included a basic sequence:
looks from the other person’s view- attending a party, friends present, drinking alcohol,
point. By viewing the self and potential actions from flirting, hanging out/talking, dancing, and a sexual
the perspective of the other person, we are often able encounter. Reflecting the ambiguity of a hookup, the
to anticipate what behavior will enable us to achieve sexual encounter might include oral, anal, or vaginal
our goal. One consequence of role taking is self-con- intercourse, just “fooling around” (not intercourse),
trol; we see ourselves from the or “only hugging and kissing.” The results also reflect
Symbolic interaction theory: A theory viewpoint of others and so strive contemporary gender roles; males were move likely
based on the premise that human to meet their standards, in the to provide a script than females. The widely shared
nature and the social order are prod- process exercising control over nature of this script enables relative strangers to
ucts of communication among people.
our behavior. interact smoothly.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 39
Figure 2.6 According to some people’s sexual scripts, a man taking a woman to dinner is one
scene of the first act in a sexual script that features intercourse as Act V.
One study attempted to identify the sequence not show sexual activity between people. How do we
of sexual behaviors that is scripted for males and make sense out of these implicit portrayals? A study of
females in a heterosexual relationship in our culture how women interpret such scenes in films found that
(Jemail & Geer, 1977). People were given 25 sen- they utilize scripts. If the film showed a couple engag-
tences, each describing an event in a heterosexual ing in two actions that are part of the accepted script
interaction. They were asked to rearrange the sen- for sexual intercourse (e.g., kissing and undressing
tences in a sequence that was “the most likely to each other) and then faded out, viewers inferred that
occur.” There was a high degree of agreement among intercourse had occurred (Meischke, 1995).
the participants about what the sequence should be.
There was also high agreement between males and
females. The standard sequence was kissing, hand The Social Importance of Sexuality
stimulation of the breasts, hand stimulation of the Reiss (1986) has proposed a sociological theory of
genitals, mouth–genital stimulation, intercourse, and human sexuality. Using script theory, he defines sexu-
orgasm. Does this sound familiar? Interestingly, not ality as “erotic and genital responses produced by the
only is this the sequence in a sexual encounter, it is cultural scripts of a society” (p. 37). Because it focuses
also the sequence that occurs as a couple progresses on societal influences, a sociological theory must
in a relationship. These results suggest that there are account for both cross-cultural variations and cross-
culturally defined sequences of behaviors that we cultural universals. One universal is that all societ-
all have learned, much as the notion of a “script” ies believe that sexuality is important. Even cultures
suggests. that are sexually repressive accord great importance
While the hookup script provides guidelines, each to sex as something that is dangerous and needs to
couple will enact that script in a unique way. What they be controlled. Why? Many theorists claim it is the
talk about, what they eat or drink, and whether they link between sexuality and making babies, but Reiss
dance will reflect the desires and expectations of each, points out there are societies that do not understand
and the course of their interaction. Whether they only the link between sex and reproduction yet consider
kiss, fool around, or engage in intercourse will depend sex important. Indeed, in North America today effec-
on each person’s past experience, current desire and tive contraception has allowed us to separate the two,
arousal, and how much each has had to drink. but we still think sexuality is really important.
Scripts also tell us the meaning we should attach Reiss’s explanation for the universal importance
to a particular sexual event (Gagnon, 1990). Televi- of sexuality points to two components: (1) Sexual-
sion programs and films frequently suggest but do ity is associated with great physical pleasure, and
40 CHAPTER 2 • THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SEXUALITY
(2) sexual interactions are associated with personal All societies have structured ways of dealing with
self-disclosure, not only of one’s body but thoughts such jealousy; even societies that practice polygyny
and feelings as well. Humans find great value in the have rituals designed to minimize jealousy among the
physical pleasure and psychic satisfaction associated wives. Thus, no society will be able to eliminate sexual
with sex. In fact, these are the basic elements of social jealousy, because it reflects the value that kin groups
bonding. Recall our discussion of the importance of and individuals attach to a particular relationship.
social bonding to the welfare of children. Second, sexuality is always linked to the power
According to Reiss, sexuality is linked to social structure of a society. Powerful groups in any society
structure in three areas: the kinship system, the power generally seek to control the sexuality of the less pow-
structure, and the ideology of the society. erful. Males are more powerful in many societies, and
First, because sexuality is the source of reproduc- so they typically control female sexuality.
tion, it is always linked to kinship, and all societies seek Third, sexuality is closely linked to the ideologies—
to maintain stable kinship systems. This explains sex- fundamental assumptions about human nature—of
ual jealousy. Jealousy sets boundaries on relationships a culture. Societies define carefully what sexual prac-
that are considered very important, such as marriage; tices are normal and abnormal, and which are right
jealousy in marriage about extramarital sex exists in and wrong. Some cultures define homosexuality as
all societies. Kin define what relationships are and are abnormal, whereas others define it as normal; the
not acceptable, and enforce the resulting rules/norms. point is that all cultures define it in some way.
SUMMARY
Theories provide explanations for sexual phenomena. used in treating sexual variations and sexual disorders.
Social learning theory adds the concepts of imitation,
identification, and self-efficacy to learning theory.
Evolutionary Perspectives
Exchange theory highlights the role of rewards and
Sociobiologists view human sexual behaviors as the
costs in relationships. Cognitive psychologists focus on
product of natural selection in evolution and thus
people’s thoughts and perceptions—whether positive
view these behavioral patterns as being genetically
or negative—and how these influence sexuality.
controlled. Contemporary evolutionary theorists
view behavior as the result of an interaction between
evolved mechanisms and environmental influence.
Sociological Perspectives
Sociologists study the ways in which society influ-
Psychological Theories ences our sexual expression. At the macro level of
Among the psychological theories, Freud’s psychoana- analysis, sociologists investigate the ways in which
lytic theory views the sex energy, or libido, as a major institutions such as religion, the economy, the family,
influence on personality and behavior. Freud intro- medicine, and the law influence sexuality. Symbolic
duced the concepts of erogenous zones and psychosex- interaction theory calls attention to processes of com-
ual stages of development. Learning theory emphasizes munication and interaction. Sexual scripts provide us
how sexual behavior is learned and modified through with guidelines for behavior in many situations. Reiss
reinforcements and punishments according to prin- argues that all societies regard sexuality as important
ciples of operant conditioning. Behavior modification because it is associated with great physical pleasure
techniques—therapies based on learning theory—are and self-disclosure.
Baker, Robin. (1996). Sperm wars: The evolutionary Freud, Sigmund. (1943). A general introduction to
logic of love and lust. New York: Basic Books. Baker psychoanalysis. Garden City, NY: Garden City Pub-
uses a series of vignettes describing sexual inter- lishing. (Original in German, 1917.) Good for the
actions to illustrate the many ways evolutionary reader who wants a basic introduction to Freud.
mechanisms may influence our selection of mates, For a one-chapter summary, see Hall, C. S., and
frequency of intercourse, success and failure to Lindzey, G. (1970). Theories of personality (2nd
conceive, and infidelity. ed.). New York: Wiley.
Buss, David M. (1994). The evolution of desire. New Gagnon, John H., & Simon, William. (1987). The
York: Basic Books. A detailed presentation of sexual scripting of oral-genital contacts. Archives
sexual strategy theory and data that are consistent of Sexual Behavior, 16, 1–26. An interesting discus-
with the theory. sion and application of script theory.