The principle of electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday (1791-1867) in 1831.

Induction coils were u

of induction coils in radio, see my chapter on spark coils in the "The Wireless Age" section of this web site.

An induction coil essentially operates like a big buzzer: The interrupter's contacts (C), are wired in series between
The magnetic contact arm (V) is pulled toward the core, opening the interrupter contacts and breaking the circui

The rising and falling magnetic field of the primary coil induces a high voltage across the secondary.

How They Were Used

Induction coils were used in many different kinds of experiments. In order to facilitate easy access to a variety o
The output of the coil was connected to the vertical brass uprights and the connections could be adjusted safely

The "hand electrodes" shown in the photo were used in experiments where the output of the coil was connected
mild electrical shock to be therapeutic. An entire industry of "quack" medical devices was born from the invent
 8" Experiment Table

A specialized type of induction coil called a Rhumkorff coil was used in early radio transmitters - so called "Sp
clicking here.

Powering an Induction Coil

The photo at left is of a Grenet cell. These early acid jar batteries was used wid
of Thomas Edison using the cell, click here.

Some other examples of induction coils in my collection are shown below.

Grenet Cell
1885

Griggs Conical Electromagnetic Machine

1873
 William Sturgeon Mercury Interrupter
English
1838

Described in "Annals of Electricity, Magnetism and Chemistry" Vol. III, London 1838 pgs 331-334, Plate Il figs. 15
and 16.

Compound Magnet and Electrotome

Daniel Davis
1840

Invented by Charles Page in 1838 (see Page's biography: Physics, Patents and Politics by R.C. Post pg. 24) but patented in 1868. F
"Magneto-Electric and ElectroMagnetic Apparatus and Experiments, " American Journal of Science, (1839), pgs 252-68, figs. 1-7.
 "Dr. C.B. Barrett Medico Electro-Medical Machine"
Likely Daniel Davis
1848

Pictured and described in Manual of Magnetism (pg. 301 fig. 182)

Hinds and Williams Double Helix and Vibrating Electrotome

Likely Daniel Davis
1848

(See pg. 301, fig. 182 of Davis' Manual of Magnetism 2nd Edition. )

PIKE'S ROTARY MAGNETIC MACHINE

Benjamin Pike, Jr.
1848

An electromagnetic machine and battery and with trade card attached to inside cover of walnut box measuring 16" x 6" x 7". Trade ca
Jr. Optician, Importer and Manufacturer of Mathematic and Philosophical Instruments, No. 294 Broadway, New York". Elaborate labe
box reads "Pike's Rotary Magnetic Machine introduced Nov. 1843 " with extensive instruction on use.

This machine is described in Pike's Catalog Vol. II on pages 44- 47 and pictured in fig. 468. The device is featured on the front wall (in
Pike's first shop in 1848 as seen in the woodcut frontispiece in his catalogs of 1848 and 1856.

NEW PORTABLE MAGNETO-ELECTRICAL MACHINE FOR MEDICAL PURPOSES

Benjamin Pike, Jr.
1848

Described in Pike's Catalog Vol. II pg. 49 fig. 471.

"DR. S.B. SMITH'S DIRECT AND TO-AND-FRO CURRENT ELECTRIC MACHINE"

1850.
 ELECTROMAGENTIC MEDICAL MACHINE
"Manufactured for G.M. Boardman by William Mead 409 Broad Street, Newark, N.J."
1840's

Contained in_ wooden box measures 6-1/2" x 6" x 3-1/2" with primitive copper-zinc battery.

"DR. C.B. BARRETT MEDICO ELECTRO-MEDICAL MACHINE"

New York, 1848

Pictured and described in the Manual of Magnetism pg. 301, fig. 182 and likely made by Davis but signed by "Barrett".

Double Helix and Vibrating Electrotome

Daniel Davis, Jr.
1840's

Missing a finial. Illustrated in the Manual of Magnetism on pg. 301, fig. 182.
 A36

"HINDS AND WILLIAMS, MANUFACTURER'S OF APPARATUS TO ILLUSTRATE MAGNETISM, GALVANISM, ELECT

ELECTROMAGNETISM, MAGNETO ELECTRICITY, THERMOELECTRICITY, NO. 313 WASHINGTON STREETS, BO
1850

A vibrating electrotome and double helix complete in walnut box measuring 10" x 7"x 7" with purple backed label with gold letteri
The electromagnetic instrument measures 4-1/2" x 6-1/2" rosewood base, the green painted circular battery is 4-1/4" (d) and 6" (h). Ac
shock handle; an electromagnetic glass eye-cup and a natural sponge.
 VIBRATING MAGNETIC MACHINE
signed "H.H. Sherwood, M.D."
1840's

Pictured and described in the Manual for Magnetizing with the Rotary and Vibrating Magnetic Machine in the Duodynamic Treatm
Sherwood, M.D. (9th Ed), New York, 1847 on page 31.

BOX OF EARLY ROSEWOOD-HANDLED ELECTROMAGNETIC MEDICAL ACCESSORIES

American.
1840's - 1850's

Pictured and described in Illustrated Catalog of ElectroMedical Instruments Manufactured and sold by Thomas Hall, Boston, 1864 o
neatly in a mahogany box measuring 13-1/2" x 6-1/2" x 2-1/2" are six fine rosewood and brass electromagnetic medical accessories
rosewood eye cups. A very rare and unusual set, likely earlier than the one pictured in the above catalog.

S.B. SMITH “PREMIUM’’ ELECTROMAGNETIC MEDICAL MACHINE

1850’s
 ELECTROMAGNETIC MEDICAL DEVICE
Benjamin Pike, Jr.
1848

In box with shock handles, box with extensive instructions and labels from Benjamin Pike on inside cover, fig 472, pg 52 of Pike’s Cat

Rhumko
Griffin & George Rhumkorff Coil c. 19

Laboratory Ind
Rhumkorff Coil
190
c. 1870
Unmarked Induction Coil

Small Lab Induction Coil

Spark Coils
The spark coil formed the heart of the earliest radio transmitters. Marconi used a Rhumkorff coil similar to t
interrupter's contacts are wired in series between the battery and the coil and are closed in its resting state
field relaxes its hold, the contacts close, and the entire cycle repeats.

The rising and falling magnetic field of the primary coil induces a high voltage across the secondary. When

The output of a spark gap transmitter is turned on and off by the operator using a special kind of telegraph

Simple Spark Gap Transmitter

Early Sullivan Wireless Rhumkorff Coil

(With 01A for scale)
c. 1895

Interrupter for Wireless Induction

Coil

Wireless Spark Coil

 c. 1880

Small Weitzmann Rhumkorff Coil

c. 1900

Weitzmann Rhumkorff Coil

c. 1900

E.I. Co.
1" Spark Coil E.I. Co.
1914 1.5" Spark Coil
1914 "Bull Dog" 1/2" Spark Coil
E.I. Co, 1914

Splitdorf Spark Coil

Patent Date: 1898 Queen & Co.
Early Dow Spark Coil Induction Coil

Bing Spark Transmitter

with Rigi Spark Gap
W. Watson & Sons Rhumkorff Coil (German)
(British) c. 1905
APPS Induction Coil c. 1895
1891
Grenet Batteries were single-element battery source with flasks of varying volumetric capacity, from 1/3 liter

Thomas Edison in 1888 after seventy-two hours of

Grenet Cell Battery work on his phonograph. Note the Grenet Cell in
1888 the left of the photo.

Source: Thomas Alva Edison by Margaret Cousins, Random

House 1993
Spark Gaps

These stand al

Zin
 Central Scie

Radio Detectors

A detector i
were used o
such detect

By the early
were also p

Marconi Ma
Known as the

Branly Coherer
(Replica)
 Epochet Ball Coherer
4th qtr 19th century
(German)

Adams Morgan
Crystal Detector
Unknown Early Crystal Detector
Approx. 1916
Lowenstein SE 183-A c. 1915
Triple Detector
1917

Adams Morgan CR 1235

Lowenstein SE 184-A
Si/An Detector
Galena Detector
1919 Westinghouse DB Dual
1918 Detector
1921

Kilborne & Clark

Krows Electric Co. Krows Electric Co.
 Galena Detector Galena Detector Galena Detector
Seattle, WA Seattle, WA Seattle, WA

A.W. Bowman Galena Detector Unmarked Early Crystal Detector Electro Galena Detector
1914
Sold in 1917 by Sears, Roebuck & Co. as the
"Universal Detector Stand."

Marconi Coherer
1895-1905

One of the first devices used

by Marconi to detect RF
signals. Click here for more
information
Wireless Specialty Perikon Detector
Wireless Specialty Pyron Detector

DeForest Tubular Audion

1916
Click here for more informaton

DeForest Spherical Audion

c. 1914

Early Unidentified Crystal Detector

Fleming Valve
(British)
1910
The Fleming valve is considered to be the
grandfather of all thermionic vacuum
 tubes. Click here for more information.

Thanks to Craig Smith for the following background on the "SE" designation: The Bureau of Steam
equipment and for maintaining them." Prior to 1910 the Navy had used a mostly civilian Wireless B
items designed by the Bureau carried the "SE" prefix. Other items, like the CR1235 detector were

The Collins Wireless Telephone

Early Wireless Receivers

Glass cove

Glass cove
 Klickknick Coherer Receiver
c. 1900

AWA P1 Wireless Receiver

1919
Click Click here to see the entire AWA spark gap receiver and transmitter
Detector features an electrolytic detector utilizing platinum wire in a 20% sulfuric acid solution. Paper tag reads: "SN 1702 from U
The large lever is an antenna switch, used to disconnect the receiver from the antenna when the transitter (not shown) is operating
Photo of the International Telegraph Construction Co. re
 2-coil Syntonizer
The Radio Company (De Forest)
c. 1906

Also known as the United Wireless Type A tuner, this very rare device was designed by the great wireles

Type E Tuner
United Wireless Telegraph Co.
c. 1912

Wireless Specialty Apparatus Co.

SE-1220 Receiver
c. 1918

The SE-1220 is the military version of the IP-500 radio receiver.

National Electrical Supply Company
CN-240
c. 1917

Western Electric Co.

SCR-68
c. 1918
 Western Electric SCR 59
1917
Another very early Signal Corp receiver, designed for use in WWI aircraft.
Click on the image to see a larger version

Westinghouse SCR 70
1917
Rare early Signal Corp communication receiver designed by Frank Conrad. Conrad is considered by many to be the
 National Electrical Supply
SE 1387 RF Driver

International Radio & Telegraph Co.

Vacuum Tube Tuner

Early Wireless Transmitters

sig
ae

A
fro
ca
I
Early Spark Gap Apparatus
Max Kohl Spark Transmitter (Bose design) and Coherer
~1900
(German)
1900
 AWA "Jigger" Leyden Jars from Spark Gap Transmitter
Helical Transformer ~1910
1919

Westinghouse GN4 Avionics Alternator

Signal Corps type SCR73
~1918
This unit was mounted under the wing of the aircraft so that
 Partially dismantled damped wave airplane radio telegraph transmitting set with synchronous rotary spark gap. F
transformer are integrally mounted and enclosed by the micarta streamline casing seen at the right. Extra rotary electr
Corps set type SCR73.

Connecticut T&E
U.S. Army BC-15A
1918 Homebrew Spark Gap Transmitter
First transmitter (spark gap) designed for aircraft,
designed for use in aircraft. Used in WWI.

Rotary Spark Gap

 This rare device consists of a primitive carbon microphone, an in
because the sounds came from a flat condenser made of sheets of t
discharge of the condenser produces a changing of density of the air
the production o

Thordarson Flexible 1KW Spark Transformer

1915
Marconi Wireless Apparatus

B
in
si
T
T
by
co
tr
an
im
an
re
w
ch
T
There was major scientific interest in electricity throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
theories attempting to explain the results. but in 1800, the invention of the battery by Allesandro V

Faraday was the first to propose the concept of an electromagnetic field - lines of force which sprea

It was James Clerk Maxwell, however, who built the theoretical bridge from electricity to radio. Int
opposite was also true, and that changing magnetic and electric fields in space produced electroma
volume books entitled "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism."

Little progress toward radio was made until 6 years later when the Prussian Academy of science of
College in Karlsruhe, Germany, named Heinrich Hertz picked up the challenge and began a series

Two pieces similar to the apparatus Hertz used are shown in Figures 1 and 2 below. The Spark gap
small spark appeared in the resonator. Since the resonator had no physical connection to the induct

Hertz thus confirmed Maxwell's theory. Through a series of ingenious experiments he went on to c
calculate their wavelength and frequency.
Hertz's discovery led to a groundswell of interest by many people, including a young Italian named

Fig. 1 Early experimental Hertz transmitting apparatus

c. 1890
For more information about Heinrich Hertz and his discovery of radio wav
This test bench was adapted from an optical bench of the time and designed for use as a tool to investiga

Parabolic Transmitter and Receiver

Utilizing Righi spark gap and Branly Coherer

I believe this is to be a replica made in the 1920's of a very early Marconi experiment

Bing Coherer/Decoherer (receiver) with Rhumkorff Transmit

 1906

Nimelior Coherer Transmitter and Receiver

c. 1900

Meiser & Mertig Coherer Receiver

(German)
c. 1900
 Early Spark Gap Apparatus
c. 1900

This piece isn't really related to the "b

Each letter of the alphabet is printed around the top edge, and has a c

This device is one of a generation of telegraph devices invented before the development of Morse code. The response
Th
This
focu
ligh

De M

The
con
of s
Ele
The
bega
com
Will
Whe
 I
p
c
se

In
of

co
co

If t
rig
ear
tw
Bré

ph
r

F
htt
 N

ex

Th
In 1
the e
Karl
atten
and
in
 M

Th
In 1
ocea
held
busi
 Electric Machines
(Electrostatic Electricity Generators)

An electric machine consists of the

The first devices for producing e

tubes and other objects. By the ti
rubbed either with a dry hand or

There are two major categories of

machines, on the other hand, hav

All through the 18th and 19th cen

invention of the induction coil in

Rotating the wheel created a stati

History of the Electrical Machin

Go to the next page for a detailed

Below are some examples of the e

Joseph Priestley Static Machine

Reproduction
Click for more information
This impress
ten 32" disk
for medical
 Otto von Guericke conceived the idea of making a machine of a ball o
charge on the sulphur. The experimenter then lifted the sphere by it
substitution of a glass globe.

In 1740 von Bose, a professor of physics at Wittemberg, substituted g

cylinder. This method of collecting is shown in Figure 2. This form of

Fig. 1:
von Guericke’s
sulphur electrical machine

From that time the electrical machine evolved rapidly. First, the shape of the rubbed body was mo
instead of cylinders or globes. This allowed a larger surface area to be rubbed, and increased the spe

Another improvement, suggested by Winckler of Erfurt, consisted of using cushions of wool or le

w

In the early machines the electricity passed to the conductors as sparks, chains, or by strips joining
at a distance. Wilson was the first to use points in the way that Franklin had just discovered. The p
towards it (see fig. 3).
One of the earliest and certainly classic friction machines is the Ramsden machine, as shown in fig. 4

Construction
A large circular plate of glass1 is mounted vertically on a metal axle, about which it can easily be t
become electrified positively on both faces. The negative charge of the pads is neutralized by being
zinc, bismuth, or tin. Attached to the pads are silk cases which enclose the glass plate nearly as far a

Once the electrical differential has been produced by the action of the pads on the glass, the charg
cylinders are connected to one another (at the opposite end from the plate) by a metal rod. The ends

Operation
When the handle of the machine is turned the glass plate is charged positively by friction against the

The negative charge sets up an "electric wind" at the points of the combs, producing a continual dis
conductor.

An electroscope may be placed on one of the conductors in order to show the increase of the charge

To insure the proper working of the machine it is always necessary to have the room warm and dry
In 1772 Le Roy, a French physicist, constructed a glass plate machine with only one pair of pads; h
charge. Winter, an Austrian, slightly modified Le Roy's machine to a form shown in Fig. 5. The co
negatively. Winter's machine does not give a large quantity of electricity at each discharge, on accou

Nairne's machine (Fig. 6) is also arranged to give both kinds of charges. One of the conductors, attac
pad passing over it to prevent loss. It is, however, found best not to collect both kinds of charge, but

Van Marum2 designed an electric machine

 If mercury is shaken up in a dry glass tube in the dark, a glow is seen, proving the production of

This method was not used, however, until, in 1840, an accident showed an easy method of produ
produces high pressure steam that escapes through a row of jets after being partly condensed by pa
made of the same wood, as shown in Fig. 9. Electri
latter charge an insulated conductor is used, which is furnished with a series of points held opposi
forty-six jets, and which gave sparks two feet long, and one at the Sorbonne, in Paris, has eighty jets

1Machines have been constructed with plates of sulphur. M. Richer has a note on this subject in the Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 1865. Th

bottle glass, cobalt blue glass, and flint glass, are equally good for this purpose. Whatever is the nature of the plate, it is necessary to clean it at times w

2Thesame physicist made a machine celebrated in the history of the science ; it was shown among the Dutch historical. collection of apparatus at the Internatio
made some curious experiments with this machine, especially on sparks and brushes, which he obtained up to 60 centimeters (24 inches) in length.

3The discovery of the principles upon which this machine is constructed were made by chance. "A mechanic was busy repairing a steam-engine near Newcastle

The term electroscope is given to instruments which serve two primary purposes: 1) to determine if a
of the charge.*

Fig. 1
 Cavallo Pocket Electroscope16 The first electroscope was a device c
would be attracted to charged bodie

A simple hanging thread - called a "Pendulous thread" by Stephen Gray, (1666-1736) was introduce
upper ends of the threads were fastened inside a wooden box. When placed in the presence of a cha

In 1770, William Henley developed the first portable quadrant electrometer. The date is sometimes
light rod or straw extended from the center of the arc, terminating in a pith ball which hung touchin

In 1779 Tiberius Cavallo (1749-1809) designed

enclosing the strings and corks inside a glass

The first true electrometer came from Horac

angle between the balls could be measured. I
square" relationship would be left for Charle
Henley Electrometer
Abraham Bennet (1750 - 1799) discovered tha

*I should point out that these distinctions are a modern construction; the 18th century authors refer
Henley Electrometer
c. 18th century While not technically an electroscope, th

Max Kohl
(German)
c. 1900
 Harris Projecting Electroscope with Grenet Cell
British
c. 1900

The Leyden jar originated about 1746 through the work of Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbro

A Leyden jar consists of a glass jar with an outer and inner metal coating covering the bottom and s
the external knob, positive and negative charges accumulate from the two metal coatings respective
store electricity in experiments, and later as a condenser in early wireless equipment.
 Leyden Jar with
Lane's Discharging Electrometer
1890

A Lane apparatus is a Leyden Jar fitted with a calibrated spark gap. They were used primarily in medical applications, in order to regulate the amount of
voltage applied to the patient.

Leyden Jars from Spark Gap Transmitter

c. 1910
 Early American Leyden Jars Likely Daniel Davis
1840's

The thriving curiosity with electricity in the late 1700's to early 1800's resulted in many u
 Electrostatic Bells
18th and 19th Century

Electrical Orrery 1850 - 1860

Representations of the sun, earth and moon in painted w

1848 Catalog Vol I. fig 316, pg 282; also pictured and des
 Electrical Aurora Tube
Likely American
1840's

Used to create spark and light effect with electro-static generator.

Scintillating Glass Globe

Italian
1820's

With a silver dotted foil spiral conductor which carries electrostatic sparks continuously down th
display.
Dancing Images - 1840's

From the objects in the collection constructed by J.M. Wightman. See

Experiments in Natural Philosophy by Joseph M. Wightman and illustrate
trade catalogs as well. Made of walnut and has an adjustable metallic pla
paper figures are put between the plates, and the top plate is connected t
electrostatic machine; the images will then begin to "dance" around. Missin
 Volta "Multi-Pistol"

Six Volta cannons arranged on a spinning disk. The cannons fire in sequence as each cannon's
electrode touches the static machine.

Volta Cannon

Air Cannon
c. 1900
 Very Early Voltas Cannister - 1820's Electrostatic Weapon
In 1777 Allesandro Volta
be put in after the pistol
The elegant flask shape is 5" at it's highest
If the gas were flammab
point. Provenance, design, and detailing of
brass suggest that this objects dates from
Long after its scientific u
the first quarter of the Nineteenth Century
and was very likely contemporary with These devices was hardl
Allessandro Volta. Italian, Very fine
condition. Circa 1820's

Volta Pistol
 Early Volta Cannon
1787

Inscribed cannon base

"Pistola du Volta 1787"

Group of Volta Canisters - Late 19th Century

From right to left: 1 Volta Canister with Bullseye made of polychro

height; 3) Philosophical Instrument made of same painted tin and m
or German, late 19th century.
Electrical Sportsmen - Last Qtr, 18th Century
Three figures (left to right) made of hand painted tin with lead weigh
5-1/4" and 6-3/8" high. They are beautifully painted, noting considera
pg. 283, fig 318 of Pike's Catalog Vol I. French; likely last quarter of th

Box Containing Electrostatic Philosophica

Includes: 1) Thunder House made of mahogany,
Public and Private Science: The King George III C
figure 296 in Pike's Catalog. When exposed to the
Pail made of tin, 2-3/8" diameter at top. See pg. 28
(in various compartments) measuring 12-14/" x 1
Cylinder for Dancing Pith Balls - 1840

Made of mahogany, boxwood, brass, metal foil and glass. When the prime conductor
placed in the cylinder will dance up and down carrying the electricity from the upper
in diameter and the apparatus is 8-7/8" at highest point. See Pike's Catalog Vol. I pg. 2

Glass-legged Stool - 1884

Used in early electrical experiments and electro-therapy to insulat

Pair of Insulating Stools - 1st Qtr 19th Century

Made of wood and varnished glass legs. They measure 1

Collection Fine condition. English First Quarter of the 19
 Kelvin Water Electrostatic Machine
4th Qtr 19th Century

The Thunder House

In the late 1770's there was a h
terminate in a point; his experi
liked due to his support of the

It is reported that Dr. James Li

apparatus proves nothing. On

"Thunder Facade"
4th quarter 18th century

The Electrophorus
Invented by Alessandro Volta in 1775, the electrophorus is a simple device
static electricity. The glass rod is held in one hand while the metal disk is ru
fur. An electrostatic charge builds up on the disk which can then be transfe
jar, etc.
 Aepinus Condenser - 1880

This is an early device used to experiment with the properties o

device is constructed so that the space between the plates can be

Dischargers

Dischargers were used with early friction electrostatic machines to transfer electricity from the mach
 Large Discharger
Henley's Universal Discharger 1860

Upright Discharger
1880 Large I

Glass-handle Dischargers
1884
 Phillip Harris Company
Riess Distributing Apparatus
Insulated Conductor
1885
1885

Max Kohl Field Demonstration Apparatus

This apparatus was used to demonstrate distribu
insulated handles. As the screen is brought toget

Field Demonstration Apparatus

1900

Early Lightning Rod Ligh

 (Italian)

Lightning Rods
Invented by Benjamin Franklin, lightning rods w

Count Alessandro Volta,(1745-1827), Italian physicist, is known for his pione

In 1800 Volta developed the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery. Th
could operate for decades.
 In the beginning of the 19th century, the abbot Zamboni, an Italian physicist, develop

Batteries of such a high voltage created an electrostatic charge on their terminals. Taking advantage of this , Z
alternatively attracting a pendulum situated between them. The mechanism formed the basis for the first elect

Some say these "perpetual motion" machines worked non-stop for more than 100 years. The piles are by n
rare pieces formed the earliest research on very high voltage batteries and today only a few examples survive
 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Development of the Electromagnet

In 1819, Hans Oersted (1777-1851) found that an electrical current, when passed through a straight
the needle on a compass. He published his findings in a small pamphlet in 1820, probably one of t
discoveries to be published entirely in Latin.

His discovery showed there was a connection between electricity and magnetism and
prompted a whirlwind of further investigation by others. In 1825 William Sturgeon
developed the first practical electromagnet by loosely winding a coil of un-insulated wire
around a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron. To prevent the wire from shorting Sturgeon
coated the iron in varnish. The seven-ounce magnet was able to support nine pounds of
iron using the current from a single cell.

In 1830, Joseph Henry dramatically improved on Sturgeon's electromagnet by using cotton insulat
first time this was done) and winding hundreds of turns around an iron core. With other mod
constructed 21-pound "experimental magnet" able to support 750 pounds.

Magnetic/Electromagnetic Apparatus from the collectio

 1900

A coil of wire mounted to a commutator rotated so as t

cut the lines of force of the earth's magnetic field, thereb
generating a potential difference. This apparatus was
used to demonstrate the earth's magnetic field.

GROUP OF COMPASSES
English
Last Quarter, 18th Century.

From left to right: (1) Pocket compass - mahogany box

measures 2" x 2" with primitive triangular shaped hinges;
in very fine condition: See pg 443. Public and Private
Science; The King George III Collection, fig. E68; (2)
Pocket Compass - signed "Benjn Pike, Optician and
Philosophical Instrument Maker, 12 Wall St. New York"
Same as above except measures 2-5/8 " square and is
painted/waxed red on top of box enclosure. Benjamin
Pike Sr., was at this business address from 1804 to 1831; it
is very rare to find instruments signed by Benjamin Pike,
Sr. (3) Pocket Compass - same as above except measures
4" x 4" and has square hinges.
Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Development of the Electromagnet

 Leopoldo Nobili (1784 - 1855) was professor of physics at the
Royal Museum. He is best known for the invention of a
number of instruments that he used to demonstrate various
principles of physics.

Around 1832 Nobili and the director of the museum

were inspired to develop the sparking magnet after reading
Nobili Sparker a description of an experiment by Michael Faraday where he
(Italian) was able to obtain a spark from an electromagnet.
2nd qtr, 19th Century
This device is operated by rapidly swinging the magnet through the magnetic field produced by the
horseshoe magnet. The resulting induced current in the coil produces a spark when the ends of the
coil come into contact with the magnet. These devices where used in demonstrations sometimes to
ignite a Volta Hydrogen Lamp.

Groves Earth Coil

Tuning Fork Audio Oscillator (English)
Max Kohl 1900
(German)
1900
A coil of wire mounted to a commutator rotated so as t
cut the lines of force of the earth's magnetic field, thereb
generating a potential difference. This apparatus was
used to demonstrate the earth's magnetic field.

GROUP OF COMPASSES
The Development of the Electric Motor

As is so often the case with invention, the credit for development of the electric motor belongs to more than one individual. It
Marie Ampere, Michael Faraday, Thomas Davenport and a few others.

Using a broad definition of "motor" as meaning any apparatus that converts electrical energy into motion, most sources cite F
is about all, and most people wouldn't recognize them as anything resembling a modern electric motor. There are several Farad

The motors were constructed of a metal wire suspended in a cup of mercury (See illustration a
attached to the bottom with a piece of thread and left free to move, while the metal wire was im

When current from a Volta pile was applied to the wire, the circuit was completed via the merc
field. The electromagnetic field interacted with the existing magnetic field from the permanent

Barlow's Wheels

The Barlow wheel (also known as the Faraday wheel) was first built in 1822 by the English ma

Faraday Motor from the collection

Mercury is poured into the trough located on the base of the apparatus. The wheel is lowered u
1830's

Barlow's Spur-Wheel
Benjamin Pike
1848
 Barlow's Wheel
1890

Rotating Magnet Motors

Very primitive electromagnetic motor invented by Rev. W

Page's Rotating Motor electromagnet," in 1833 (The Development of Electrical Tec
Charles Page Washington; D.C. 1962).
1840

William Sturgeon Mercury Interrupter

English
1838

Described in "Annals of Electricity, Magnetism and Chemistry" Vol. III, De La Rive's Apparatus for S
London 1838 pgs 31-34, Plate Il figs. 15 and 16.
 Also known as De La Rive's Floating Battery. Primitive ele
in A Popular Sketch of Electromagnetism or Electro-Dynam
78. These are also described in Treatises on Electricity, Gal
and illustrated in Palmer's Trade Catalog of Electro-Magne

Apparatus to Exhibit the Deflection and Rotation of an Electrified Wire about the
Pole of a Fixed Horizontal Magnet
English
1840's

Contracting Helix
Daniel Davis
1848

When a current is appli

electromagnetic field causes
attract one another, lifting th
the mercury pool. This br
connection, the coil rela
connection is re-made, and
repeats. A very simple form
motor.

Single Ampere's Rotating

American
1848

Apparatus to Exhibit the Def

Rotation of an Electrified Wir
Pole of a fixed Horizontal
Watkins and Hill
1830's
Simple Armature Motors

Revolving A
1

Unusual E
En
1
Other Early Motors

Magnetic Beam Engine

Pike and Son
1840

Unusual Electric Motor

English
1860

Magnetic Motor
French
 1860's

DEMONSTRATION ELECTRO-MOTOR TRAIN

French, circa 1850-1860

Made of brass, steel, copper and wood, measures 5-1/2" length. Early example of an electromotive train. Has two electromagnets, a 10 p
main axle. The other axle free to pivot, and designed to ride on a 2-1/2" gauge track.

Electromagnetic Engine
Gustav Froment
1848

Charles Page Reciprocating Electromagnetic Engine

1840's
Close-up of Edison Electric Fan
Kent Electric Co. electric fan
ca. 1898
One of the first products made and sold by Atwater Kent,
who would later become the world's largest manufacturer of radio receivers.

Geissler Tube Rotators and Similar Motors

Magnetic Motor
French Magnetic M
French
1870 1870

Magnetic Moto
Magnetic Motor Manufacture Francaise, Armes
French 1870
1870
 Magnetic M
Magnetic Motor French
French 1870
1860's

The rotator is unusual in that the poles are shaped as small iron cylinders measuring 1-
1/2" in length.

Magnetic Motor with Four Electromagnets Magnetic M

French French
1850's 1850's

Four vertically positioned electromagnets angled on a 10░ slant toward each other power
a 5-pole large rotator. 6-1/2" in total height. Very unusual design for an electromagnetic
engine.
Dynamos & Related Electromagnetic Apparatus

Waltenhofen's
Electromagnetic Pendulum

This apparatus is used to demonstrate Lenz's law, which st

direction as to oppose the change that produced it. The law

The device consists of a pendulum, with a pendulum bob o

thats is set swinging between the poles of an electromagne
Waltenhofen's Electromagnetic Pendulum
by Max Kohl
(German)
1900

Electric Motor
The M. Cornwell Co. Syracuse, New York, USA".
1890

Magnetic Motor
Wooley Magnetic Engine Co.
1885
 Tesla Motor
This is a model of an early three phase motor designed by Nicko

``In our dynamo machines, it is well known, we generate alternate currents w

in the motor, but must - again by means of a similar unreliable device - be rec
current machines, the currents appearing as continuous only in the external c
would only be justified if we had dynamos which would primarily generate,

Adopted from T.C. Martin, "The Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla

Magneto-Electric Therapy Machines

& Other "Quack" Medical Devices

IMPROVED MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE

 Daniel Davis
1848

Also contained are two rosewood handle accessories for medical-electric use. Described in Manual of Magnetism
ed).

IMPROVED MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE

W. C and J. Neff,
1870

Signed "W. C and J. Neff, Philadelphia. 11-3/4" x 5" mahogany box; with one green painted horseshoe magnet
electromagnets. Neff was at this address in the 1860's and 1870's.
 MAGNETO-ELECTRIC MACHINE
Signed "Davis'
ca. 1850

Improved and Compound Magneto-Electric Machine for Medical Purposes, Ashael Davis, Lowell, Mass, Box 509"
"Davis and Kidder's" machine but with gold and purple label on inner lid of box which measures 10" x 4-1/2" (h
predates Davis and Kiddler and was patented by Daniel Davis' brother. Very fine condition, circa 1

Early Telegraph Apparatus

This page is still under construction. Background information on wired telegraphy will be added here.

A full size replica of first Samuel F.B. Morse's demonstration model of 1837. This is a copy of the apparatus built from a serie

Morse "Port rule" transmitter. This is the first transmitter developed by Morse and Vail. It is a
 A few pieces of moveable type from the Port-rule a

Port Rule moveable type

The idea of using a key for transmission didn't occur until later, when, during tests of the Baltimore-Washington line, Vail beg
telegraph key, called the "Finger key:"

Vail Finger Key

Reproduction of original version

Not long after he developed the finger key, Vail designed an improved version called the "Lever Correspondent." The key wa
commonly known today.

Vail Lever Correspondent

Replica of 1844 version

Below is a "camelback" key from the mid 19th century. Named for their characteristic "hump", camelback keys were among t
European Camelback Key
Mid 19th Century

Pair of Two-Needle Railway Block Telegraphs

Co
 Hughes Telegraph
Dumoulin - Froment a Paris
Mid 19th Century

Operated on the Paris - Milan line

Alphabet Dial Telegraphs

Breguet-Style Dial Telegraph
French
1870

Alphabet Dial Telegraph

Loiseau
French
1850-1860
 Breguet Dial (ABC) Telegraph Transmitter
(French)
1850 -1870

Dial Telegraph Kit

French
1870

In green covered paperboard box, with instructions, 2 spools of silk-covered green wire and battery. Box measures 12"
x 9"x 3-3/4". Sending and receiving dial telegraph apparatus used to demonstrate Wheatstone's alphabet dial
telegraph invention.

Early Telegraph Registers

 Very Early S.F.B. Morse Design
Weight Driven
Telegraph Register
J.W. Norton
1851

Norton was the first telegraph manufacturer in New York City and worked at this address in 1851. He was also on the first board of dir
Telegraph company in 1846. In Samuel F.B. Morse, His Life and Letters (edited by Morse's son Edward Lind Morse), the frontispiece ph
S.F.B. Morse holding this exact Norton register in his hand. Original hand made chain is also present on this registe

Demonstration Telegraph Register

Daniel Davis
1840's

This apparatus was part of the collection of J.M. Wightman objects found together. It was likely sold by Wightman whose 1842 catalog
edition of the Davis Manual of Magnetism.
 Early S.F.B. Morse Design
Weight Driven Telegraph Register
James Clark
1860

James Clark was a maker of early electromagnetic telegraph instruments and was in business from 1847 - 1861. It is very rare to find inst

Early S.F.B. Morse Design

Weight Driven Telegraph Register
unsigned
1850

Provenance: from the Charles Came collection of philosophical and telegraph instruments - see Rittenhouse Vol. 5, No. 4 1991 pgs. 118
electromagnet and binding posts, as well as the provenance suggests manufacture date circa 1850.
 Early S.F.B. Morse Design
Weight Driven Telegraph Register
C. Williams, Jr., Boston.
1850's

Fancier and more elaborate design American telegraph register by very famous maker. Elaborately turned and cut brass, with lar
electromagnetic coils.

Very Early S.F.B. Morse Design

Weight Driven Telegraph Register
Unsigned
1850

Telegraph Keys and Sounders

 Apparatus from an Inventor's Attic
American
1850

Found in Cambridge, Massachusetts; from left to right: (1) unusual telegraph sounder on walnut base measuring 5-3/4" x 2-3/4"; (2) ele
connect to microphone on walnut base measuring 6-2/4" x 3-1/4" and (3) unusual telegraph key on tin box base measuring 5-3/4" x 3". Th
the binding posts, hand cut nuts and electrical coils all suggest that these instruments are circa 1850.

Camelback Key and Sounder on Board

Charles Williams Jr. Boston
1860's

Camelback Key and Sounder on Board

Cooperative Mfg. Company, Philad, PA
1860's
 Telegraph Sounder
C. Williams, Jr., Boston
1855-1860.

Demonstration Telegraph Key

T. Hall, Boston
1860

Thomas Hall was the successor to Daniel Davis.

Telegraph Key and Sounder on Board

L.G. Tillotson and Co. New York
1865-1870
 Victor Telegraph Key and Sounder on Board
L.G. Tillotson
1882

Telegraph Alarm Bell

Charles Williams, Jr., Boston, Mass
1870's

Used as fire-alarm or burglar alarm.

Telegraph Relays
 Very Early Telegraph Relay
Caton Ottawa, Ill.
Early 1850's

Same manufacturer and provenance as the Caton register described above.

Early Telegraph Relay

L.C.T. and Co. 8 Dey St., N.Y
Late 1860's to early 1870's

Telegraph Relay
likely by Charles Williams, Jr.
1870
 Self-Adjusting Relays
American
Patented October 7, 1879

Peter S. Bates, No. 220, 333" signed as above on U.S. Patent Office tags. Walnut base measures 4-1/4" x 2-3/4". See The Art of

Other Telegraphy Apparatus

 Telegraphy Statue

Bunnell Telegraph Relay

1895

Each letter of the alphabet is printed around the top edge, and has a correspon
character is being sent.

This device is one of a generation of telegraph devices invented before the dev
or 26 wires in all. "Needles" to say, (sorry) these early telegraphs were not ve
Early Telephone Apparatus

This page is under construction. Background information on telephony will be added later.
 Hughes Microphone
ca. 1900
(French)
Unsigned but likely Pericaud or Radiguet

In 1878, the carbon microphone was invented by David Edward Hughes. Hughes's microphone was the early model for the various carbon microphon
the resistance of a carbon rod will vary as it is vibrated by sound.

This apparatus was manufactured to be used for physics experiments in schools and universities.
Bell Liquid Telephone Transmitter and Receiver
Replica of 1876 Invention

Bell "Centennial" Telephone

Replica of 1876 model
Desk Telephones

Ericss
 Tapered Shaft Oil-Can Candlestick
Stromberg Carlson
1900

Nickel plated, tapered shaft, aka "oil can" desk set. This rare set is known as the oil can because of the way it looks upside down. It is equipped with the
hard to find "brass bottomed" receiver. Tapered shaft upright desk sets were the second form of "shaped" candlesticks.
 Non-dial Candlestick
Stromberg Carlson
1908

This upright desk telephone was Stromberg Carlson's first straight shaft candlestick telephone.
Chicago Genuine Straight Shaft Non-Dial Oil-Can Candlestick
Chicago Telephone Supply Company
1915
 Gray Telephone Pay Station
ca. 1911

Model 102 Round Base

Western Electric
1924

The Western Electric model 102 was the bell system's first handset telephone. This desk set is equipped with the early seamless "spit-cup" E1 handset.
 Model 202 Oval base
Western Electric
1930

The Western Electric model 202 was the bell system's second handset telephone. This desk set is equipped with the early seamles

Societe Industrielle des Telephones desk telephone

(French)
ca. 1919
Thompson Houston Desk Telephone
(French)
ca. 1910

Model 302
Northern Electric Mfg. Co.
1945
Cabinet Desk Phone
Western Electric
ca. 1890's
Also referred to as a "Vanity Phone"

Wall Telephones

Strom
With "A
1 Ron Christianson, http://www.museumphones.com/
Electric Lighting

This page is under construction.

Artificial Light Before Electricity

Platinum Sponge Lighter
ca. 1830

Oil lamps were the predominant source of artificial light in the the early 19th century. Lighting them was difficult, however, u
sponge lighter, utilized a small piece of platinum similar to steel wool suspended in a glass enclosure. When hydrogen gas wa
from this flame. Once the alcohol lamp was burning, the hydrogen fire was extinguished. The alcohol lamp could then be carr

Unfortunately the apparatus was tricky to operate, and the wrong mix of hydrogen and air would result in an explosion. Perhap
Serrin Electric Arc Lamp
Breguet
ca. 1857

What you see here is the only known example of the first self-starting and self-regulating arc lamp invented by Victor Serrin o
electromagnetic regulators to maintain the arc as the carbon electrodes burnt down. However, in order to start the arc, the carb
if it went out once it had been started. Serrin's design proved popular and was soon adopted as the main choice for French ligh
Welsbach "Arc" Lamp

Invention of the Dynamo

Oneco Bipolar Dynamo
Circa 1890's

Edison 1/2 KW Bipolar Dynamo

Circa 1880's
 Very early Dynamo Regulator. Signed “US Electric Lighting Co. NY” (stamped onto the ad
field circuit, and by turning the handle the dynamo may be adjusted to run any number of lights from

The United States Electric Lighting company (USEL) was an early competitor to Edison, formed by W

Mahogany frame is covered with coarse metal screen on sides and back, and is supported by four roun

Beautiful example of an early and very rare dynamo regulator. American, circa 1881

Early attempts at Incandescent Lighting

Edison's Invention: A Practical Incandescent Lamp

 Rarest

Edison

The Arc Lamp

Early Fixtures and Hardware

Early Examples of Incandescent Lamps

1879 - 1888
Edison s
"P
 Ed
John
 Edison lamp - Very rare
1885-6
This is the very first lamp using
Edison's carbon paste clamps
instead of the heavy copper
plated clamps used earlier. Note
the base is the very early short
threaded form with the large
brass contact button.

Evolution of the Stem Press

Early round seal stem (called the "pantaloon" because of it's shape) with long platinum press leads twisted & soldered to outer leads. S
1879

Early round stem with no glass tubes, "Smooth" press, screw clamps connect inner leads to filam
1880
Flat seal stem, copper plated clamps connect platinum press leads to filament.
1881

Similar to previous, but without plaster ring

1884

Flat seal stem, platinum press leads reduced further

1888
 Flat seal stem, platinum reduced to a minimum.
1890

Other Unusual and Early Stems, Clamps, and Presses

Weston
 Perkins

Perkins

Edison Lamps with Non-Edison bases

(All date from the 1890's)
 New Type Edison with Bru

New-Type Edison Cranberry with

 New-Type Edison with E

New-Type Edison Frosted with Th

New-Type Edison with combo West

New-Type Gilmore with E

New-Type Edison Color Lamps
(1890's)

Other Early Lamps

Perkins-Mather hairpin
carbonized paper filamen
& Platinum clamps
1880's
The three Perkins-Mather

New-Type Edison R
 Swan, no b

Shelby tipless cranbe

1900
One of the first tip
Westinghouse sto
removable
1892

Tamadine Filame
1885
Woodhouse &
or Stanle
w/ wood b
early 188

Miller paten
1900
Maxim w/Swa

Sterling sp
1900
Heissler w/ unu
1890

Brush -Sw
1885
 Swan w/ hooke
1880's
(Socket for screwing in

Shelby Mushroom w/ W
 1900

Westinghouse cran
w/ Westinghou
early 189

Sterling spiral w/ Tho

white porcela
 1900

More Lamps

Rare Early Ediso

(from Edison Historic Site, W
Early Photographic flash bulb using
1931

Osram Minia
Ediswan Tunga
Champion Tungsten
 Sylvania "Egg Crate

Early Power Meters

The Edison Chemical Meter

Edison set up his first power station in New York City at Pearl Street. The station began operation on September 4, 1882. In or
 It was a crude device based on the principle of electroplating, developed by Michael Farada
plates were suspended in a solution of copper sulphate. The cover of the cell was arranged so
copper to be transferred from it to the other plate via electrolysis. An Edison employee woul

While the concept worked well in theory, in practice it was inconvenient and not especially a
order, and very few can be found today.

Chemical Meter
Edison Gas & Electric Co.
ca. 1883
 Edi

Wes
The fir
Early Electric Seismometer
4th qtr, 19th Century

This is a very early and unusual electric seismometer, produced by the famous Italian company
between 1850 and 1880.

The device consists of a heavy brass sphere suspended by a wire, with a needed attached to the
sphere. The needle is centered in an adjustable contact mounted in the wooden base. In the pre
earthquake the sphere would move, causing the needle to touch the contact, and thus closing a c
bell. The apparatus in enclosed in a glass bell which prevents false alarms from the movement o

This is probably one of the earliest electric seismometers and is an excellent example of the use
broad range of applications that took place during the last half of the 19th century.

Lippman Caplillary Galvanoscope

Max Kohl
(German)
1st quarter, 20th century

Used for measuring electric charge. A small drop of mercury in the horizontal capillary tube moves under the influence of an electric field applied to
amount of charge is indicated by the distance the drop moves.
 Edison
Thomas E

This mach
are very r
all remain

Early American Orrery - c. 1855

Unsigned, but by Holbrook. Tabletop orrery stands 16-1/2"" tall on turned walnut 8"" diameter base. Atop the
turned pillar is a 4"" diameter gearbox with cut brass gearing and crank. Wire arms support the eight planets,
the longest being 20"" in length. Sun is solid wood, mustard in color. Restoration included the replacement of
some planets and their moons.

Early American Orrery - c. 1840

Unsigned, but by Benjamin Pike of N.Y.; standing 21-1/2" high overall, it has a fine turned mahogany base, pil
bound gearbox with an applied printed zodiacal/calendar/directional ring (some missing). The seven planets m
longest 18") to brass hubs, with independently geared motions via hand crank and the internal hand-cut brass ge
are fine replacements; all else is in original, complete and fine condition, including the 33/4" diameter gilded wo
orrery described in Benjamin Pike's 1848 Catalog Vol I pg. 113; fig 123; also see Tesseract Catalog
Van de Graaff Generator - c. 1950
Early Electrical Experiment kits

(Closed)

Meiser & Mertig Electrical Experiment Kit

(German)
c. 1905
 Stahl Electricity Kit

Edison 50th
Anniversary Bulb Declinator and Inclinator
1929 Early Selenium Cell
1904

Quack Medical Apparatus

 "I need hardly recall to mind, that until quite rece
- Herbert Tibbets, M.D., A handbook of medical and surg

Medical applications of electricity have never be

devices in my collection:

Phrenology Chart
d
 Medic

ELECT

Quack medical de
gutta purcha, brass
Bordeaux" and sta
handle is 4-1/2" in len
(3-5/8 " length) which
numerous br
 Bonetti Influence Machine
1884
Electric Meters used in Wireless Equipment
Weston Mo

Weston Mo

Norto
 Also known as
during the "tee
stationary and
secondary coil
switch points in

Loose couplers
attached to an
connected to a
information.)

By the early 20's the loose coupler had lost favor as a tuning element to variometers and variocouplers,
with their advantage of smaller size and panel mounting. Below are some examples of loose couplers
in my collection:

C
N
 Boyer Lowe Wav
(British)

Kilborne & Clark W

c. 1920

Clapp Eastham BQ
Wavemeter
1921
 General Rad
Type 566-A Wave

Murdock Tuning Co
1914

Murdock Tuning Co
Approx. 191

AWA High Voltage Con

1919
 Western Electric D
Aircraft Microp
1918
Used with WE SCR68

Tuning Inducta
Collins Wireless Tele
ca. 1906

Wireless Telegra
Franks

These were given to e

of the wireless compa
 in lieu of payment for
transmissions. They
essentially a "wireles
stamp."

Milestones of Discovery:
The Most Important Publications in the History of Radio and Electricity

Science by its nature is a collaborative enterprise where new pioneers build on the discoveries of those who cam
are more often the result of accident than the creation of a truly new idea. That said, there are certainly brilliant
electromagnetic waves are but two examples.

Despite the thousands of contributions, discoveries, developments and improvements, there is a handful that c

"Discovery co

Below are the publications from my collection that I believe represent the major contributions toward the deve

(A c

1560 1600
The Distinction between Static Electricity and Magnetism The First Book of Electricity and Magnetism
Girolamo Cardano William Gilbert
 (1501 - 1576) (1544 - 1603)

1680 1709
The Foundation of Chemistry First Glass-Globe Electrical Machine
Robert Boyle Francis Hauksbee
(1627 - 1691) (1666-1713)

1746 1746
The Electric "Circuit" The Leyden Jar
Pieter Van Musschenbroek
William Watson (1692 - 1761)
(1715 - 1787)

1784 1791
The Inverse Square Law The Discovery of Current Electricity
Charles Coulomb Luigi Galvani
(1736 - 1806) (1737 - 1798)

1825 1826
Discovery of the Electromagnet The Foundations of Induction
William Sturgeon Joseph Henry
(1783 - 1850) (1797 - 1878)

1873 1888
The Mathematical Prediction of Radio Waves The Discovery of Radio Waves
James Clerk Maxwell Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
(1831-1879) (1857-1894)

1900
Marconi's 7777 Wireless Patent
Guglielmo Marconi
(1874 - 1937)
 The Distinction Between the Amber Effect and Lodestone - 1560
Girolamo Cardano (1501 - 1576)

Girolamo Cardano was a doctor, astrologer, mathematician, and n

Leonardo da Vinci. He completed his university studies in Padua
topics including cosmology, construction of machines, the usefuln
lodestone (magnetic) phenomena, including14:

1) amber draws many kinds of bodies, the lodestone only iron

Girolamo Cardano 2) the attraction between lodestone and iron is mutual, the amber
(1501 - 1576) 3) the lodestone, unlike amber, acts across interposed objects
4) the magnet pulls only toward its poles, amber everywhere
5) amber's force is improved by gentle heat and friction, which do not affect the magnet's

It was these qualities that influenced William Gilbert's De Magnete (see following page.) Gilbert accepted Carda

De Subtilitate liber XXI

Girlolamo Cardano
1560
6th Edition
The First Book of Electricity and Magnetism - 1600
William Gilbert (1544 - 1603)

De Magnete is recognized as the worlds first published work on th

Father of the Scientific Method of Investigation. His book influenc

In this book, William Gilbert, physician to Queen Elizabeth and to

electrified and some cannot. He coined the term "electric" for any
Franklin.
William Gilbert
(1544 - 1603)

De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure; Physio

William Gilbe
1600
Electric Repulsion - 1629
Nicolo Cabeo (1585-1650)

This is the first edition of the first

discovery of electrical repulsion "t

The author, a learned Jesuit and p

sometimes recoiled to a distance o
said quality extending from the influ
changes in it, but they do not sensibl

Cabeo follows Gilbert closely, alth

telegraphy, and gives diagrams of
magnetic attraction.
Philisophia Magnetica
Nicolo Cabeo
1629 Rare, especially with the Ferrara i
sought after "
4

*Poggendorff I, 355; Mottelay, Bibl. Hist. of Electricity, pp. 109-10.

Electro-Magnetism - 1641
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680)

This work contains all that was known in his day on the subject of
theories of magnetism and Kepler's work in astronomy, but does n

Kircher's Magnes is filled with curiosities, both profound and frivo

attraction and repulsion in animals and plants; and the magnetic a
Athanasius Kircher
epilogue Kircher moves from the practical to the metaphysical (an
(1602-1680)

Magnes sive de arte magnetica opus tripartitum

Athanasius Kircher
1641
10048-49.6; Thorndike, VII, p. 269;
 First edition of one of the greatest books in the history of experimental physics. In Experimenta Nova, Gue
the air evacuated, and two teams of horses set to pull them apart, which

He also constructed the first electrical generator and demonstrated electrostatic attraction and re

The experimental discoveries were in fact the consequence of Gu

Otto von Guericke
(1602 - 1686)

Experimenta Nova (ut vocantur) Mag

Otto von Guer
1672

Dibner 55; Dibner Ten founding fathers of the electrical science pp. 11-14; E
 Born in Ireland, Robert Boyle was the best-known British scientist of his day and the greatest e

Robert Boyle
(1627 - 1691)

Nova Experimenta roughly translates as New Experiments physico-mechanical, touching the air. Originally published in 16
published in the second edition of Spring of the Air. It was his defense against "the attac
 T

Little is known of Francis Hauksbee's life, even the dates of his birth and death are not well documented in most sc

Hauksbee was appointed to the post of Cu

Hauksbee's first apparatus for spinning a glass vial, c.1706. While it i

This book is the Italian translation of Hauksbee's important work: "Physico-Mechanical Experiments on Various Subj
Esperienze fisico-meccaniche sopra vari soggetti contenenti un racconto di diversi stupendi fenomeni intorno alla luce e l'elettricità p
Francis H
17
Conduction, Insulation and Electric Current - 1729
Stephen Gray (1666-1736)

The Discovery of Electrical Conduction and Insulation

(UNDER CONSTRUCTION)

Stephen Gray was born in Canterbury, Kent, England December 26th 1666. His family were carpenters and dyers.
believe led to Newton (then president of the Royal Society) blocking the publishing of several of Gray's papers on e

His electrical interests first appear in a letter of 1708 to Hans Sloane, in which he described the use of down feather
released from the tube is giving way in his thoughts to ideas of a virtue, something akin to gravitational attraction

While a Pensioner of the Charterhouse he carried out, in his sixties, his experiments on electricity.
 These are excerpts from letters sent from Steph
farther account of his experiments concerning e

I am presenting the step-by-step details of Gray

Note: Printing type of the period us

Gray's Apparatus
For his experiments, Gray used a simple 3.5 foo
Excerpt from Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society # 37, 1731 - 32.
less expensive and than the large "electrical ma

The Experiments
Gray begins with some background on his reason for conducting these experiments (Fig. 2); he tells how he becam
charged objects (bodies). This question came up as a result of hi

He describes how he keeps both ends of the tube corked so as "t

(Fig. 3). From this he concludes that the "attractive virtue" is pas
attaches an ivory ball to a four inch piece of wood and inserts th
on the cork.

The first use of metal wire

Gray proceeds to try other materials between the tube and the i
thread in place of the wire, and inserts a loop to absorb the vibra

Fig 3: Gray notices attraction is passed on

Fig 4: First use of metal wire as an electric conductor

Then I made use of first iron, and then brass wire, to fix the ball on, inserting the other end of the wire in the cork, as before, and found that the attract
In Figure 5 we find Stephen Gray searching around his house for any object that might be suitable for a test. He foc
found all of them to be conductive. Next he searched out what non-metal objects he could find, including several t

Over the next several days, Gray continued to experiment by ex

with the ivory ball at the bottom and the glass tube at the top.. I
effluvia needed to run downhill. In any case, he extended his ap

A horizontal run
Since he had reached the upper limits of the house The next logi
beam and the other end looped over the tube. This time when h
Fig. 6: On the balcony
beam; i.e. the 'electrical vertue" is passing into the beam rather t

At this point he decided to give up on the horizontal approach and perform more experiments with a vertical cond
packing up his apparatus, Gray was planning his next experiment: A vertical drop from the top of the cupola of St.

Before heading to London, Gray visited Otterden-Place and his young friend Granville Wheler, who lived in a larg
Wheler suggested they try a horizontal span (see fig. 8).

Gray explained that his previous attempt had failed, and his the
thread. Gray agreed this was worth a try, thinking that less of th

On July 2, 1729, they assembled the experiment shown in Fig. 9,

Fig. 8: Another try at a horizontal run

Fig. 9: Gray's conduction experiment

Two Kinds of Electrical Fluid: Vitreous and Resinous - 1733
Charles François de Cisternay DuFay (1698 - 1739)

Charles François de Cisternay DuFay, French scientist and superintendent of the Jardin du Roi of Paris, made the i
replaced with positive and negative - coined independently by William Watson and Benjamin Franklin.3 This dis
Royal Society in the following year (see excerpt below).

Excer

Dufay's work clarified many of the unexplained phenomena associated with electricity. His outstanding contribut

1) All bodies can be electrically charged by heating and rubbing, except metals and soft /liquid bodies.
2) All bodies, including metal and liquid, can be charged by influence (induction).
3) The electrical properties of an object unique to color are affected by the dye, not the color itself.
4) Glass is as satisfactory as silk as an insulator.
5) Thread conducts better wet than dry.
6) There are two states of electrification, Vitreous and Resinous.
7) Bodies electrified (charged) with vitreous electricity attract bodies electrified with resinous electricity and repel o
 The Magazine that Sparked Benjamin Franklin's
Interest in Electricity - 1745
Sylvanus Urban

Benjamin Franklin first became interested in electricity after his friend Peter Collinson

The issue contains a short article on "Discoveries concerning electricity - some very su

The Gentleman's Magazine

Sylvanus Urban
April, 1745
 Pieter Van Musschenbroek, a professor of physics and mathematics at the university of Leyden, an
effects of the jar, but it was Musschenbroek (a

Musschenbroek announced the discovery in January, 1746. However, A letter dated February 4
date. There is still some controversy about this but the generally held opinion is: "Trembley, the ed
year on March 25 so that, roughly speaking, their dates were a year behind continental ones for the
Pieter Van Musschenbroek esp
(1692 - 1761)
Trembley's letter is fascinating as it is one of the earliest first-hand accounts of this ne

Essai de Physique... Vol I.

Title Page and Frontispiece
First Illustration of a Leyden Jar
From J.H. Winkler, 1746
"Experiments and Observations tending to illustrate the Nature and Properties of Electricity", and "In order to discover whethe

but due to the demands of an eager and wider audience, many were published in pamphlet form in advance of the periodical's
noteworthy occasion were iron filings and shee

His experiments to determine the velocity of electricity are of particular interest. The general belief at that time was that ele
London, laid out a line of wire supported by dry sticks and silk which ran for 12,276 feet. Even at this length the 'Velocity of
'we observed again, that although the electrical compositions were very severe to those who held the wires, the report of th
decided not to pursue his electrical experiments concentrating instead upon his medical career, but he co

This copy was previously owned by Herbert McLean Evans, the discoverer of V
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Experiments and Observations is recognized as the premiere scientific work of the great Be

"Make a cross with two light strips of cedar, the arms so long as to reach

of a kite which, being properly accommodated with a tail, loop and string, will rise in the air
Benjamin Franklin be fixed a very sharp-pointed wire, rising a foot or more above the wood. In the end of the t
(1706 - 1790)

be coming on, and the person who holds the string

door o

Illustration demonstrating how to safely draw electricity from the kite string
 and the kite with all the twine will be electrified, and the loose filaments of the twine will stand out eve
freely, you will find it stream out plentifully from the key on the approach of your knuckle. At this ke
experiments be performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass glo

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 Jean Antione Nollet was born in 1700 near Oise, France. Although he was head of a monastery, he spent a gr
continuous flow of electrical matter between charged bodies. Nollet’s theory at first gained wide acceptance
debate about the nature of electricity, with Franklin supporting action at a distance and two qua

Nollet is said to be responsible for one of the most impressive and spectacular demonstrations of electricity up
King was both impressed and amused as the soldiers all jumped simultaneously when the circuit was complete
l'Abbe Nollet
(1700 - 1770)
 Nollet's Recherches (above left) provide one of the earliest detailed treatise on electricity. His Lettres sur l Electricite (abov
containing a wealth of counterexamples which drew their strength from Franklin's occas

This is the first extensive

Joseph Priestley
(1733 - 1804)
 The History of Electricity was easily the largest book on the subject up to that time, and "supplies an excellent account of
Coulomb in the important suggestion that the law of electric attraction is that of the inverse square, deducing this from an an
glass are conductors; and satisfactorily explained the formation of rings (since known as Priestley's rings) when a discharge ta
measuring what is now called 'impedan