ONE THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRASTRINGED INSTRUMENTS yinootr the compatiely brie history of orehesteation the I string grovp—volins, vols, ‘clk, and double-bassee—has ranted is the symphony orchestra: Countless scores frum all periods beat evidence that their ded wondbind a Such an atticude i partly jusifible bes strings in 90 many important repects. Sti ae ofthe superar of the ‘really any kind of musi, They havea greater dynamic range than wind instruments and far more expressive eapacicy, The tone o Of the string group i fairly amogeneaus fom top to bottom, vai tions in he di sbxing mich more ul han in dhe wid Ac the same time, singed instruments ar them x veratlein produc ing diferent kinds of sound. As sing tone is cch in overtones all manner of else and open spacing x practical. One docs not tire of hes ing srg tone as som as one ies of wind tone; in Fae, there xis 2 sable incrture of composition written for sting orchescra without wind instrament “The string section ofa typi symphony orchestra of sisten firs violins, fourteen second violoncells, and eight double bases. Vis may be found, reflecting the predilections of individual conduc pethaps determined by some sich circumstance a the sae of thINSTRUMENTS “The four strings of ech of these instruments are tuned as follows, Inthe ese ofthe doube-bass the actual sound isan octave lower than the weiten notes. The pitch of a vibrating string can be expresed in terms of the frequency, or rapidity. cf is vibrations, For instance, the upper sting of che vis sounds the A which in present-day raning has a frequency ff 4go vibrations per second. Arched suing es be varied in piteh by varying the tension Sernged nsieuments ave sued by turing the roning pegs to which the stings are attached, Tightening a sein increases the frequency (of is vibration; hence rss its pitch Tae weight ofthe string hasan important influence onthe Frequency ig vibration. Thos the four serngs on the same instrument ay be identical in length but may ier widely in pitch becnse they are nade eo differ n weight Furchermore by making we of this principle, the ssngy ean be tuned t thei varios pitches without the necesty fof too grea a differen: in chet tensions. The lowe pitched strings tre no only thicker, ut hey arermade sil heavier by winding the gut tr steel with ine wie of copper sive, alumina, or other metals. Variation in the length ofthe string produces proportional variation in pitch A longer tring ibrates more slowly than a shorter one, other condition Being equal. tis oad, for example, tha halsing the cing Tength doubles the frequency and raises the pitch an octave “The ation ofthe lefhand agers stopping the string frmly against the fingerboard shorters the sounding length of the string, thereby raising he pitch STRINGED INSTRUMENTS s In the diagram, nce thatthe sounding length of the string in motion by the bow, i the between the stopping Grger and che bg. The renminder of the sting will of course be sien. Since having the string length rae the pitch an octave, the point ax which a string i stopped resound the octave above its open, oF un topped, pitch wil be exactly one-half che tance fom nut co bridge If we with to rae the pitch another octave sve will ind te pot stopping ove half che distance fom this mile point ro the ridge, oF thse fourths the real sing ength from the nt Bes principe demensraed is chat fingering a given imerval does notimply covering fixed length of ting buts lenge tha diminishes tthe hand snoves toward the bridge. When plying a suceesson of taal intervals on one string, the fingers mesure of noe equal divisions of sring length but proportional dvsions. For example, on the vila 4 major second above an open string means a dicance of about 134 inches, wheres che same inteval in avery high position measures les than ' inch. A major second above an open string on the ion mea tres about 114 inches, on the ‘cello about 2% inches, and on the bas howe 4% inches ‘Another characteristic of ring Bingerng is that when the hand iin ‘given positon on one sringthe Sngers can readily stop tones on any of the four strings, without the necessity of moving the hand. Each‘ INSTRUMENTS postion i idensfed by a number derived from the number of dstonie rep beeen the fis ager andthe open string. In string technique, and also nthe fingering of wind istrumens, the index finger, not the ham seal ee inge. Fig ¢ Detsled dessiprion ef the fingering syste of the several stringed insrumenes willbe given in succeeding chapters Teis posible to stop nites on rw adjacent strings in such away that the bow ean sound both notes at once. This i called double stopping. Triples and quadeuplestops (chords) are ako feasble, alchough te vill presently be sen ght the sinultaneoussound of three or four notes texnmot be prolonged by the bow oe ma Figs In the orchestra, double notes are eustomarily divided berween the revo players reading from the same desk. The part should be marked Ui, Ulan for divided (Fe aise; Gee, geet), most often ab- teviated to div. The righthand player at each desk takes the upper rote. When the part retro singe nots should be marked unin Fr, ice geet) usally abbreviated si Wf double nots sre writen and che compuser wishes each player to play al the nots, sary mom di. (in German fe sed only when there ting doublestops, he writes prec scares usally Doppelrif). Ths indica ismore tan one note prevent dividing STRINGED INSTRUMENTS , A division ofa section into more than ewo parts would be marked dion 3 (Pe dio d 33 Gen, drifacb get indications fn the individual players muse to show which par each i to pay Sometimes the divided parts ae given separate Hines inthe seor, for Tegiblity If the parts ate complex, eter results may be obtained by ving by desks (Ie da og Fr par pies; Get ple) th ‘odd-numbered desks taking the upper par. TE only half the members ofa secron are to play, the partis marked bol (Its le mets Fr la mvt Ger, de Halfe). The players on the Jefe ar each desk will hen remain slene unc given the indication all (ert; Fe, tous Ge. ale In che playing of stringed instruments the tone is given life and warnth trough the ose of vileato ofthe let hand, This is a combi ‘on of impolses involving the muscles of the hand, west, and arm, and insefece tthe fingertip isan ost ipercepible oscillation in pitch lof the note, The vibrato i employed on all stopped tones excep those ff shore daration and needs no indication for Ws use. However, there fr times when one prefers the peculie tone quality obtainable only by suppressing the vibrato, in which ease the direction senza eibrato shouldbe given Fig. 6 Vilin Bove The bow stick i of fine, ght wood, generally Peranbuco, which isremarkablef ry. The stick i eurved inward towand the har, and, when the hat tightened by means ofthe serew atthe heel ofthe bow, the resulting tension brings ito play the reence of the sick, an important factor inthe varius bow strokes. The hari horsehair, although ia recent times other material uch a nylon, have. INSTRUMENTS been tried. There ate overa hundred haisin a woin bow. leis the habit cfatzing players to rubaspecially prepared resin onthe bow hrs 0 help in scearing the rghtamount of fscion on the strings “The bow ished Gel, yer Bighely, berween the fingers and thumb of the right hand, a shown in Fig 6. The fie finger i ina position to exere varying presure on che bovestic, while the ll fi ised mainly to balnce the bow, acoeding cits postion on the ering. (The so-called German syle of bowing forthe double-biss will be eseribed later) The bow is drawn at ight angles tothe string, ordinarily at apace about halfway betwen the br Toudee and moe bilan tone, and forthe normal prodvetion of high ‘notes, the bow plied nearer the bridge. Fr softer rones iis moved ro dhe Bagerboard The hair may be placed Aa, so tha all the fairs ae in contact with the strings but usualy the bow is turned on ‘cig, that only prt of the ht engaged. This enables the player rol the amount o hiring used. For the violin and viola the ties sway from the player; for the lo and bass the opposite more thd theend ofthe fingerboard. For The part ofthe bow near the pint i called the upper pare ofthe ‘bs that neater the hel the lower part. Whe the bow is drawn star ingat the lower part and proceeding toward he point, straightening he clo jot the Bow are more clearly expressed by the French (drawn) for dove Up-bow. The signs mn (dowen-bow) rake §elled down-bow. The opposite is up-bow. bows, and pousé (pushed) and v (op-bow) ain iver use. Ino sues ae marked, each note cll foe a change in the direction ofthe bow STRINGED INSTRUMENTS ° ex. 1. Franck—Syupbony peryeed. Bulenburg ‘hese changes inthe direction ofthe bow are made by a good player swith pracilly no brea in the continuity ofthe tone, by virte of {hupple wrist anda sllfol e»eiaaion of all muscular movements ‘When slur are marked, all notes under one sur are to be played "in one bow”, that, with no change in direct the bow x. 2 SchubereSymphony me. 5 p. rgd. Eulenburg A siolinist would instinctively begin the phrase shown above with an up-bow. The up-bow,insting syle, s sociated with the up-beat, fr anacrini, whereas the down-bet, 8 in Ex. 1, suguests a down-bow to the player. [cis impasse, and often inadvisable 0 apply chs rincple to every upbeat cr downbeat, but the principle i con finally in evidence in good towing. Fora vigorous attack ona ng noe to bef cord or accent, itis well t begin down-bos, changing immediaely fo up-bow. This change of bow will not be perceived by the ear if propery pecformed, nd wil permit the use of the mare energetic fboven-bow for bch techs. lowed by a down-bow» INSTRUMENTS x3. Becthoven-—Coridanur Overtre pt, ed. Philharmonia There isanatural tendency towards crercendo inthe up-bowe, duc to 1 increming leverage of the length of bow co the left ofthe string, dnd Hewes endeney cowards dinuendo in he down-boss. Whale these endencies a recognize them when plating the bowing ofa pas ded against by the players i is advisable co Teas evklen tha the bow must move up 3 auch as moves down Bocif the up and down motions are of unequal rime vale i rpeans that the bow muse move at anuncven speed, cus making dcule wo mai tain an even dynamic kve. The bowsng indicated in Fig. 7 will in tvtably case the hid nd sath beats to sound louder than the other, Since the sae length of bow mus be used ro play two sxtoenth notes in up-bow as war wed to pay four sstenths in down-bow “= mathe, ~ fe ES rer |A mote even tone wil be achieved by a owing which restores the balance of up and down, beth in quansey and ae of m Ina legato phrase the shangesin direction ofthe bow are d by combined factors of intensity, dynamic level, tempo, che length of the bow, fingering, ete. Any melody can be bowed effectively in many different ways and icisno wonder that concertmaster often dbagree STRINGED INSTRUMEN IS 0 sstoshe best way to bow a given pease and are seen even now matic ing changes in the bowing of such well-established elisis as che Beethoven symphonies x, 4 Becthoven—Symmpony 90.4 pated. Kals Pethaps the commonest bow stoke stat which changes direction foreach nore, As mentioned shove, the change ean be made without breakin he tne, Bur this stoke, known by the French term détach, is usually performed so that ane hears che articulation of the bow changes The notre nts detached fi tne thatthe eee foul be called staccato, The détacé ean be described as noslegao ‘Ordinarily ics payed inthe mide or upper tied ofehe bow. 57d Philharmonia This sol rotake advantage of its exe lightness there, ad atthe heel forthe he someimeswied a the point of ake weight ocesionaly wastedActhe x6. Ba Asthe INSTRUMENTS pine (El pote; pote sdk-—Concerto for Orchestra pe 7d. Booey & Hawkes dom; le a allo; Get am Frosch): sus —Don Quote ps ed: Philharmonia STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. n of sees a series of down-bows canbe wsed near the eel ofthe Bow the bow being up-bow motion between the rte. Tifed with a wife 18, Stravisky—Le Saere de Printemps pried. Ruse A combination of legato 8 lesown a lor. This i nicted by a dish over each note, with slurs to show the bow changes. The fst inger regulates the rather gents tree she continuity of the tone by controlling the peesure onthe stick, aided by a subtle slowing ofthe bow withthe wrist,x. 9, Sibelius Symphony no. 2 Sraceato bowing is of wo typer—“olf the string” and “on the string." In moderate tempo ands dyna level fom pismo to meszo don che sting with sort of semicirelar forte, the bow isd ‘motion atthe middle ofthe bow. The bow rebounds, although i s par lifted by the writ, The Ieaan word és 2 (detached) i Applied by sting players co bowing tha makes wie ofa springing or bouncing ofthe bowie. Ie isalso called saltando (jamping), There is much disagreement ove the exact application of these tems. Bot fortnately the composer or orchestrator isnt ealed upon to indicate hee with dymamie more precisely than by doe over the nots, signs and tempo masks, she quality of music that means to 8 sting Player epiccat,saltendo,or off the-sting se STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 1s x, 10 Besthoven—Symipbony no. + .38,ed- Kalas Serene Seaceao playing in fase tempo doesnot call for ating ofthe bow, be the shore, quik dovsne anc up-bows made by che wrist alone, ia the dl ofthe bow, ease th the hiro spring off the string vith ech stoke eto bounce, a this in rar cases 14.18, Rosini—Ocerture to Wiliam Tell Passed. Kalas Another typeof bouncing bw usally elle by the French jeré (thrown). eis played near the pong, and the bow i ne thrown but the sting wih aight down-bowr motion, and allowed {Groups of ewoto sx notes can be played on being doss under a sur, sometimes with the mile sure ofthe bouncing eet dropped to bounce of irs own word ali6 INSTRUMENTS. ex 12, Rinshy-Korskofl—Capriccio Espagnol. 73,64. Kalu The bowing sed) isan on the-string xe ‘ato (Fr, marelé). The bow is noe permieed and the aoke is very swift, with abrupe star and st the not, whether in pmo or fort, might be imagined inthe shape of an ‘oblong block wich square ends. Although is usually played with che Upper part ofthe bore, the arelao stoke may be sed at the heel, fore the added weight ofthe bow contributes 0 the vigor of the p. The sound Jenee—Sympony v0.9 p.r42sed Philharmonia When several notes under aslur are marked with dors, the intended may be aceomplahed with a bouncing tow, usually up-bow 4s in Ex. 14, or with che bow held firmly on the sting sharp stops being made by the wri asin Ex. r. The later bowing is known 2s slurred sacesto x. ig. Mahler—Sympony mo. 4 P. sed. Philharmonia" INSTRUMENTS ex. 15, Stravinsky Orpheus eae. Boosey & Hawkes SSS aS “The rhythm of doted eighth and sstenth, in fase tempo, is mo “often played a alurred saat even when not so marked. This bow ing is india by slr with don te sintecnth note. Kes the fs note that is shortened, however. The same bowing is used forthe (qarter note followed by an eighth in siceight tine x. 16, Besion Fanti Symphony p-s5.68. Bslenborg For igh, crip effet this may be done at the pone of the bow swith up-bow on the bes STRINGED INSTRUMENTS ” ex. 17. Weber—Eurynthe Overtire p29, Phiharmonia “The various bow strokes described ar tobe found in countess com bination. True knowledge oftheir appropriate ue comes from long seudy and experience in playing cing instrument, to which must be added real understanding ofthe music. The student of orchestration should begin early the practice of marking the bowing of sing par Whenever he this of piste for sings he most always Smagine hove it would bese be bowed, within the linits of his knowledge ‘Through til and olwervation much ean be learned abou this most igs marked in pri ein performance, Composer are seldom exre- always leraly fll fal indicate all bowngs, ad ome markings are the result of editing ‘What the composer actually wore i evidence of his wishes, and this boas for study by conductor and concermaster 35 t0 the best way to realize the compene" intentions. Here sa all maces of a there plenty’ of room for diferences of opinion and iterpeta- forms the Accents are ade principally withthe bow, bu an accent may alo be impared by the left hand by means of «siden quickening ofthe vibrato by a more foreefal Birger stoke, ot by both. Fe depends on whether the accented note sade by iting the finger (Fig 98) or by Aropping ic onthe sting (Fg. 9b). This e-hand accents nearly al ways combined withthe bow acsentin vigorous and rhythmic passages.Accents are of course relative tothe general nuance ofa particular one whether sofcor loud. Thereare diferent kinds of accents xeated by diferen modes of attack. The following figure atemprs to show graphically the shape ofthe tone inthe mest importan of these forms y a Fig. 10 ‘Composers in general sem to have been indifferent o these dsine- tions one reason being perhaps tha they are impossible to produce on the pianoforte, Therefore ic becomes a responsibility of the conduc tor to decide which type of accent i meant by the compose’ sign, and tse that eis properly executed To obrsin atone of very sft lating quality the strings may be dinecred eo play on the ngerboaed (Fe. se le touche; I, sl taters or sul ato; Gee, am Grifbret). The bow is placed so far from the ‘ridge tae its arly over the upper pat ofthe fingerboard, where theres greater amplitude in the vibration ofthe string 1 1M Debussy —Kondes de Printemps -38ed. Dorand STRINGED INSTRUMENTS a In this bowing are mast be taken chat to much pressure isnot pt upon the bows, lt i strike more than one sting. Playing over the Fingerboard is impractical on the E-sring ofthe violin, since the curve of the body ofthe instrument interferes with the proper placing of the bow. Is often indicated, neverthees, for pasags eanaig up toh positions onthe E-strings although the directive canaot be follow Titra, serves ro suggest the tone quality desired. Playing with the bow very close tothe bridge, ar even upon ic (Fr. au chevalet; Ks ponticelio; Ge. am Steg), proces special kind ‘of sound, due tothe bringing out of upper partials nor usualy head “The sound hasbeen eae glassy and metal, This effect generally combined with the bowed tremolo bx 9, Stesuss Symphonia Domesice p-67.ed. Asociaed Music Publishers eet oh om [oe omb | whl ple gpg When sua easier or sl ponticelo smo longer waned, the paris marked modo ordinaria, ox naturale “The bow may be turned over so the the strings ae struck with the wood instead ofthe hae (I, ol legno). This ia bowing used fr dry staccato effects, che bow-sick tapping with a kind of of-thestring2 INSTRUMENTS ex. 20, Brsten—Pantaagi from Peter Grime .16ed. Boosey & Hawkes 7 emp one ‘Obviously, one can expect litle sound to come from drawing the swond across he string since the amount of fieton i wey sal. There aenevertheles some imancesin sta bowing ol egno Ie isierestig that Gustav Mahler elit necesary to add fooxnore in the score of his Fist Syrphony to explain that the indica tion col legno and the bowing marked were no error. eof tremolo and x.21,Mahler—Syopomy no. 1 p-oted, Univeral em STRINGED INSTRUMENTS » i to be drawn across the string. The reten to normal bowing after ol egno indicated by arco “Thesvings are Fequenty plucked instead of bowed, The dizetion piszicato (abbreviated giza.) indicates tat this manner of playing sto be continued unt che word arco signifies that playing withthe bow i tobe ressmed, “Te right fist finger plucks the string, over the fingerboard, and che locher thie fingers hold the bow aginst che palm of the hand. The thumb may rst onthe edge ofthe fingerboard to steady’ the hand, a though this postion i noe always necessary or practical. The playing peston of “lo and bass permits pazicato also withthe thumb e pecaly for chords arpeggited frm the boom noe upward Changing from seco ‘ime, varying according tothe positon ofthe bow at the stant. A larger ierval must be allowedif the pizzicato follows a down-bow at the pong, whereas afer an up-bow at the heel ce change can be proctialyinstuntaneous, = unt of Prscato requires an apprecable an site| om os “These effecs although na common, are much better knowa today. ‘Some composers write ol legno Baruto (Get, geschlagon) forthe ap- ping, and ol lego tra (Get. gestrichen) to indicate that che wood “The reuen to aco after piasicato is slightly more inconvenient, a, it involves the quick adjusimen: ofthe bow int playing potion. Ac Siig lie than the following example isnot uncorsmon, however.» INSTRUMENTS x35. Berlioe—Haroldin lly prtgssed Bolenburg es a The pisieto is by ts nature a form of staceato. The sound dis way quite prompay, Differences are to he noted inthis respect be fheeen smal and large instruments, violin and double-bass, for instance. "The Longer and heavier rings wstain the tone much better than the shorter anes Open stags are more tesoant than thes topped by the finger. The sound ofthe fingered noes can be prolonged a Tile by vibrato, The quality of tone in pizicato canbe varied by plucking at di ferent points on the sing, and by the manner of plucking, from a gene stroking with the shy pat ofthe fingertip co a cwanging of fvch violence thar the string strikes against the fgerboard. There is Tccoring tothe postion of the left hand. ln higher also a difere STRINGED INSTRUMENTS Fa pstons the string isso shor tha che piaziato is far dry quality ‘hich at times may be sed to adeantage xg. RavelDaplitet Chloe p.132,0d.Darand by the Aiiuley of continued plackingby one finger. The eck of aerating firs and second fgets in fst psiato,aequeed by some players, by no means universal, Facorsfecing the practicability of fst pz zHesto playing include the ze c che instrument, the dynamic level of theme the amount of continnouspzzieato demanded, and the com plications in the passage fom the stadpoir of changes from one string fo another. The following san ample of succesful pizzieao writing at arapid tempo.6 INSTRUMENTS x. 25. Dukas—L’Appremi-Sorcer p-styed. Kalas Piazicato may also be performed with the fingers ofthe left hand wen the notes are so arningd that a fingers free ro pluck the sing, ‘when a finger so placed thait cn pluck asis ase after stopping 4 noe, Left-hand pieico i indieated by a exos over or under the STRINGED INSTRUMENTS ” poaned Schott 2x. 26, Seravinsky Symphony in oar notin pirrieato are arpeginted fom the up, unless ocherwite marked, A series of quickly repeated chords may be more effectively played by alerting back-and-forth ‘ovement, using one or several fingers. The direction of Imay beshows by perpendicular arrows, ot by the unl signs for op and down-bow mes qa guitar i aed Ravel Enfant e 38.08, Durand The arpegiated effect canbe held co a minimum by a sharp, sud den finger stoke, Two aotes cx be plucked simultaneovsly with wo Fingors. A scsght bracket tthe accepted indiation For this* INSTRUMENTS x28 Straviasky-—Ragtons pesved Chester Although poasibiesof nes sounds ro be obtained by prziato have not been explored by composers general, me new effets have been se pizecao sl pomicello and sul ast; pizicsto harmonics, ted, se picking with the Ginger the fingerboard, The lan is indicated by the sign 6 ear the nu, and snapping the string against 8.39. Baedk—Violin Concerto sted. Boosey & Fawkes SURINGED INSTRUMENTS » “The vibetion of a sr siouleaneous vibrations, ehone frequeccs vary ia the ai 12 5 4 cet These ibrationsarerepescted in che following diagrams, Points ‘marked wae called nodes. is composce of 2 number of separte, Lec usassume thestring to be the G-string of a violin. Fig. e+ could Ie wl be nord th th ifthe dvs of he sting showa in fig. he tne hot ofthe frequencies sown a Fg { “hee stand prsncins dog on se eed harmonise: Number one ithe fat omen ofc ne Te ees a ed ‘cond, third, fury snd Sith hamoncy, cur, ee pr | Hite teonenic tea ewe psn sn mii srength "Te umber an compare seo the mone ming tp 2 toe gets one ao tne, ning st sghthe sound of a catne from tha of aeelo plying the same note. We doo hear this comisation of harmonics aa chord The fundamental tone iso mich sronger than ite upper pasil that we ae regularly Azceved ine suing that ialone is what we hear a vibr ly atone ofthe diving nodes shown in Fig. 11 it wil be prevented mental bt i will cecinu to vibrate a inthe diagram, according the node chosen, andi wil snd the corresponding note shown by Fig. 12, For example the Gearing i touched lightly ata poine one third ofits length feom the nt, wile maintained in vibration by the bose The enie string vibrates as inno. jo Fig. x The note sounded isthat shown ano. sf Fig. 12, The stm result abiained by touch the other node 6 the same number, ewo-thrde of the way from nut to bridge. Tons Fe, son 1e is quite diferen: from normal stopped rones, since only those jaedinhismanner at called by string players harmonics monique I arom; Ger, F me). Thee paras are sounding that have s node a the pont touched, They are Indicated in nocation by (a) placing snl etek over the noe in tended to sound ara harmonic, oF (8) writing a diamond-shaped note atthe pith where she node producing the desired noe i found on the string. Fey The indication sul means that all sro be played on the G-string (Ger, G-Sute). Avcther meane of designating the string tobe wet preferred hy the French, i that of Roman numerals the highest sting bing always (eg, 1V* corde), (On the violin and viol ti posible to stop a tone with the fret Singer and athe same ime touch a node wich the fourth Finger. This STRINGED INSTRUMENTS Hn can alo be done on the ‘ello, wing the thumb and third finger. The rode which has been found the swont dependable ie that ofthe Fourth harmonic, one-fourth the new sting lngch, a poe represen rotation by the interval of a perfec fourth above the nate stopped by the fine finger. The ruling tone i therefore rwo octaves above the stopped rane. These harmorice are called artifical harmonics, as ‘ilferentiaced from nacutl acronis, which have open strings 3 fn. Ahameneal tones, Arial harmonies are indicated in oration by (a) placing asl ice above the yore to be heard as a harmonic, or (4) terting the fundamental eo be sapped by the fie niger ae» noemal rote and the node a fourth sbove aa dismond-rhaped note (Fig. #4) “The accu pitch ofthe tone intended i often added above, a (6). Fey otation (2) forall harmonies, leaving Composers frequently set the method of production to the player whether a artificial tural harmonics. The notation (8) i sometimes used when the lower tone isan open string. This is inoreec bu ely understood. “Till are pesformed by the motion of one finger, since the finger stopping the lower of the two tone held dowa throughout. Both tmajor and minor tills are good in al anges, che only exception being those on the lsest note of te instrument, where the alteration of open string and stopped nace dice not pr reas effective a rl at those on sopped notes. Trshould be remembered that sing eli the orchestra means a trill played simultaneously by 1 whole section, Snten first voins will ot key agre on the shythnie quantities fa eill on long note, and the elec wil not have the clear articulation ofthe same el given fay tothe ist He, played by asingle player,INSTRUMENTS A cil witha armonisinterval larger chan a major second i fin gered tremolo. I areal reno tf rwo notesata stipulated sped (sometimes called measured remo). itis advisable to write tne values fase enough o insie a rel eremolo, ortoadd the word tema, o tremolando, Shas are necessary to show fs ntended rather than an alteration the legato movement af heb x. yo.DebusyE*Aprsmidi dm Fnmme p38, Kas STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 3 tone string, the wo notes are held 36a double-stop; and che tremolo ‘effect has toe made by an undlating motion ofthe touching the ewo strings. Thi type of teemolo isnot the sme a & tue fingered tremolo, since ic licks the clear articulation of the finger srokes sex 31. Brahins Symphony me. p-tos,ed. Kalas “The division ofthe Sint vols inthe fst measure of Ex. 30 would cm on frst glance to be only theoretical, bi 3 way of making ‘re that both notes of the interval sound a exch change of bow ‘When he interval exceeds the limi of extension of che fi In the preceding example sane of the measure canbe played ingered tenolo (measured), while ethers require rv rings, ike those nthe fist aiesure. On the other hand. allare possible at double stops with undulating bow ‘The bowed temolo mae with quick up- and down-bow stokes, the lefehind holding the note or notes. Ii characteristic chest elec, capable of great dynamic range and variety of accentvaton, vupings, such as Violin* INSTRUMENTS x. 32, Debusy Ea or 18, ed, Durind Equally idiomatic in orchestral writings the continued repeition of bow strokes, zach ona series of notes, to give more energy and volume to the sting tone ex. 33: Morare—Symplomy, K. 543 8 ed, Philharmonia fea STRINGED INSTRUMENTS as ‘The mote isa three pronged device made of wood, met, bone, oF other materia, which cam be Be absorbing some ofthe brat resonating body ofthe instrament. The tone quality of muted stings i dificult of description, bu, once hear, its characteristic sound i cenily remembered. While one ofthe results of muting ito reduce the dynamic power ofthe body of scrings, the rac chan Js far more imporant. Mating shoul noe be regarded atthe primary means of gern w play sfly. A fine pier can be tetieved without mutes and urthermore, the special effec of forte with med strings may sommes be just what is wanted, “Time mast be allowed for putting on and taking off mts, a least ‘couple of measures in madete tempo. The more tine the beter, void confusion and lsturbarce. Numerous inventions to facia a ‘ick change have apes Jonto the bridge fo the purpose of d,sich as maces with sping elip, of money permanently insaled om the srings back ofthe brid ‘up against the bridge for mating, Te canoe be si that any ofthese Ihave met with complete acceptance by string AA gradual change to mote tone can be managed by dreeting the players to put on mutes one by one, or by desks marking the poine at Which alae o be meted ‘The indication to put onthe mut the Italian com sording, ot com serdino—plural tordine, of snd (Er, avee sourdines; Ger mit Dimpferyor gedomeft) “To all for removal ofthe mutes, the pssige is marked rsa sordini (Be, sans rourdnes; Ger ore Diaper), or via ordi (Bt dts ler sourdines; Ger, Dioupfer o be pushed ‘A change from the normal tng ofthe strings i called scordatara This has been employed to ecend the downward senge of bases and “eal on rare occasions. In Don Quixote tras asks the solo viel to tune the Cstring cB, and a snilar change asked of the ‘cells in Case's Paria fr Piano and Orchestra, The strings donot give heir6 INSTRUMENTS bese tone when altered more than a minoe second, and the inconven during performance seem to ence and disturbance cased by rtuni fverbalance the slight abaneage gained The we of teardatera fora change of tone colori another mate cuapreR two In Maher's Fourth Syinghony the slo violin in the second movement = fsa four stings tuned pa whole tone, to make isound "ikea cheap Fiddle” The eonceronater prepares 2 second instrument to we for this movernea, otha tunings avoid, | iy Fe, won Uy sions Ger, ¥ ue overall length of violin 23% inches. Minor vaisions I in proportions and ze are found in diferent models The body is rg inches long, the neck alle under 54 inches, and the sounding length of the aringy—that i from nu ro bridges slightly over 13% inches. Thelength ofthe bow i 29 inches “The top of belly, of she inarument is wally of pine ors Ick of imple in one or two pieces. Ebony’ wsed fr ee tee, fingerboard, nur nd ring pes Inside the body, the arched belly reinforced by a rip of woo! ealled the bas-bar, glued beneth# | Gesring edge ofthe fingerboard. A wooden sound poss held in plce by tendon bersween cop and back ata carefully chown spor nea the | sing side of rhe bridge, having the double function of suppor and communication of vibrations The f-holes ae characteristic openings of traditional shupe ac ithersdeof the (Plate on page 38) “The violin is supported between the chin and the lft shoulder. A chin rest atached a the lef ofthe epics helps hol che instrument so that ee lef hand i free tommove up and down the fingerboard. The neck ofthe violin is bet wet the thumb and the pal ofthe let hand, and the left elbow i eld far tothe right, enabling the Fngees to fal almost perpendicularly upon the stingstremely light and eee mx y4.5¢The following diagram gives the locition of the Fingers forall the ratural notes in the Fst potion fs drawn back close to the nat for Fo the [Estring, the interval beng minor second, stead of 3 major second as onthe other strings, The diagram ‘hips involving ore than one string. Lie sued ako for relation example, mm first finger on ‘one string to second finger on the nest higher sting i a eninor sith {om frst ager on one sig vo fourth ager onthe nec higher sing isan cctave, from second finger on one sting to third finger onthe next lower sring sa perfect fourth, ot, Perfect ifths le acros he a ight angles, Dopliaton by the forth finger ofthe open string notes A, D, and E isan advantage pecular tothe fist poston. There i, however, 3 marked difference intone quality berween the opcn string tes and those sapped by the Fingers. The former sound clearer and richer in| overtones, because the sting vibrates betwen the bridge and the hard ‘wood ofthe nue rather tan the flesh ofthe ingerip. But without the control ofthe finger the open tone is suscepcible ro litle modification by the bow, andi tend to sound with endive prominence. Further- org titchcannos be xjuned while plying (eonsidrthe note A a subdominant of F, and tena leading tone of Ba). These discrepancies, of ionaton are generaly tolerated asa necesary evil notably in the tse of naar harmonics, whose pitch is dependent on tha of the open string fundamental and slo in enksemoniclly notated pasiage. In THE VIOLIN Ex, 36, open G is assumed tobe a sitisfactory equivalent of F x. 56. Wagner—Tanhinsr: Bachan p.0,ed. Kelas a (Open string tones are wusly avoided in expreive melodie phrase, bbc they are regularly employed in fast scales and figures, Thel sound ischarcter of einglintraments and may even be expe as foah (bs 37. BeahnsSpomphomy mo. 4 p.tsgsed: Kelas A note affected yan acetal splayed withthe stm finger as the natural note On the G-string, he fs Finger plays Ab, As and Ag ‘Also the fit finger ust play the sharped open sting nore Gz. The Srudent shold make dager similar to that in Fig. 16, machin the locaton of the Bigerson the arngs forthe plying ofthe following passageNSTRUMENTS Fig 7 ‘Two notes in chromatic step telaionship ae by tradition played withthe mame finger This requires a more or les fad shift of the fn- nc, with a legato bowing, a certin anouac of fer on the si poramento i unavoidible Musiily, the ference berwcen (a) and (B), in Fig. 18 sone of tonality. The fragment (a iv understandable inthe key of G,and (6) in the key of Ap, 0 nention two possble interpretations. The un techodox fingering shown inc) is emily feasible, and the principle tt asin a sepaate finges for cach chromate step has in pate par Silly superseded the time-honored one, aby chs means a more dsnet tvculation is obtained, without sliding or poramenro. There can be no doubt ofthe superiority of fingering (e) for rapid pages, but i should be recognized that ata slower tempo the dif- ferentiation in harmonic isning suggested by (a) and (B) may be saciiced, not ro meation the elimination of eetain ies firmly estab ished in what we know as "iain syle.” Ici ru that harmonie de- telopments inthe twextith cenrry often demand complete accept hod ofthe harronie notation ofthe tmpered ale, bu the choice ‘ffngerng should be governed by mascal uber than by mechanical ‘considerations. "These ewo alternative fingerings ave shown inthe following sel CObwiousy the sound othe nger slides is eliminated fa déaché bow ing sured, but the lower older fingering remaies awkward even then Fig. 9 sin wih al nsrurentlsy wi 2 wel cing players Tr ot eabpolte bt elave value however. Observation an experiments these coded sant Pythagorean, js or earns oration Nor docs he player accep thetoreshe proce by xngthe prope ingerng jpeg the to constant contol and corres through the ear (> peat coue, inthe exe of nruent ike the Far or the pana ‘whos itch conn be aljsed whe playing) Tecan bed that lend. Ingres and chtomaicllyrsed nots at play sharp and ve ee tothc melodie dona wheres fa a the pounds of ther instruc The peel viraney noite inthe tone of 4 playing in union isdn put the mite ferences nich ha sof pitch, such as equal temperament sted notes are played lew oup of sings ‘As the hand is moved to higher potions new groups of notes lie lund he Singers“ INSTRUMENTS “The series may be continved upward, vith the quslifeaion that on the lower strings high tes ate incresingly dieu of production be tain of the shornes ofthe string in proportion ea is thickness. Oa the E-serng, ones can te plyed up tothe end of the fingerboard, and ven beyond, where digonie intervals bocome sale chan the thick- rest of the fingertips. The Ge writen by Straus in the fol imple is in the thitsath postion, and has 2 Of a File more than an inch and three-quarter ‘ess of violins doublec atthe unison by pce fare, Hp lazinet, and two other desk anding rin Tei payed by ewo atthe ‘octave lone by x 98, Stause—Aleo Syrach Zara THE VIOLIN Fingering athe top ofthe fngeshoard ie difcule ot only because ‘ofthe smallnes ofthe intervals and the extended poston of the hand, bot ao because the stings are paced fat ar the nut, to faiiate bowing The E two octaves above she open E-tring may be recommended as 4 good practical upper limir, exclusive of harmonies, for orchestral violin pars, ne apa atthe bre than “The hand is si tobe in af postion when the fist Fag sa half stop fom the nut andthe second fingerplays notes wally played by the fies finger, Certain combinations of notes are more conveniently fingered in thi eather erumped position (Ex. 39) sex 9, Stravnsky—Apoon Masagite p18 ed. Boosey & Hawkes In the fist position the lf and i eapable ofa stretch of an au rented fourth, an even a perfect fh, fom 8 Figher postion, extension ofthe f finger beyond the range of the postion is common procure (Fig.“ INSTRUMENTS In changing fom one postion to another, asliding finger acts 282 guide to the interval ef change. The hand may move to any of the Peastions but the comaonest shift i tha fom Fifth posion, ete, invlving a slid of a third, wally for the Bist finger (Fig, hid, third to Fy The guiding finger notnece postion. Fig. 35 (2) isa charac Slies from Tt 0D, bt the fourth fi The slide can be made so quickly a 1 be inaudible, buc ic often permited to sound for expresive iaensfcaion, Orher shifts ate Shown in (B)s (eds ane sly the sopping finger inthe new sition shit. The Sst fing ier stops G befoce D is hear When tte andthe syle of the musi allow, the finger chat is t0 play the second nore nay ake a slighe portent on the ting just Feiore reaching the mae. In a descending shift, the portamento on quitting the upper nore is kept toa minimum, ehe thumb accing as 2 fide co the lower poston The sling suns can be laced to near imperceptibly, oF they canbe chminated altogether, by skilfl manipulation of ehe bow and finger, However, hey are iomati in sing playing, and sometimes a particular fingering “hat will produce them is deliberately chose, THE VIOLIN ° le would exe Suppression ofthe portamento inthe fllowing exam tainly be inapproprine x qo.Strause—Der Rovenkscalir_p. 330, ed. Boosey & Hawkes Aue gland is bot and when i i properly exseuted all intervening stages of pte are sounded between the indisaed lini. vith one finger, on one string, wth legato x. 41. Ravel—Daplmni ot Coe 297, ed. Durnd “This plsando is scored ssunison and acres for first and second violins, vols, hall the “ellos and basics, ll om thei open A-Steings, tlding up and down two ocavesin fast tempo.INSTRUMENTS In Ex. 43, G-string sands writen could notbe ude on any other strings. and Acstting are desgnaed, although the gl ex. BartkDance Suite p.8,ed- Philharmonia Ieiseviden that composes fil to daingith berween portamcto and glisondo, and itis unnecessary that a pedantic dition should Isa, Portmento set ipl le tone, and oe thinks of» glisando as covering 2 fairly wide ier, tut these conditions are not muwalyexelsive. Cae should be taken in the notation roshow as accurately 36 posible the exter effect intended. “A sraight line from ene note to another comumonly used 36 sign of portamento although there is often doubt as ro how complete a Sle is wanted In Ex 4) areal glisando with one finger could be made where the lines are marked, bit, on the other Randy the Hines may be ‘Skea simply suggesting a musical tye in which more than usual Emphasis given to Ge porementor sociated with postion shifts Ex. qaismore problematical. A complete portamento from the C down to ihe Eis ot of the question, sine the Upper note coo high to take nthe Gutring, The mst the performer czn do ro make a smal slide nner of connecting tr the beginning and en ofthe descent. x3. MalecSyrplony mo. p18 ed, Philharmonia xa Mahler—Symphony 00.4 p-119.ed Philharmonia Likewise the glinando in the nce ple cannor be Frrally exe cated. After the open E is ceahed, something Uke rapidly fingered chromate sa tuted arta glsindo onthe Tower srings must be sub x. 45: Ravel La Vale ps9. ed Durand “To judge the degree of iiculy i fingering wide leaps one con sides the strings involved and the position displacement necesary. The ship of two octavesand amajorsnth in Ex. 4 pases from the G-string tothe E-tring, and thehand must move from fs position (hid finger (©) to seventh postion (fourth Enger A). This is equivalent to aside from C upto B for the third ger an interval of a major seventh 08 x 46. Brahms—Spmpbony ma. 3 p.4g,ed. Kalmus0 INSTRUMENTS Sinilaly, so crossover two stringsin thenext example, brit happens that the let hand does not have to ehunge poston 0 ply the to lower noes onthe G-string. All are i the sith poston, Except thatthe inital Bis beter played on the more brane E-sering in third posiion, ex. g7-Holst—Te Plante poagied, Boosey & Hawkes Skipemadeon one sting are ape co demand more displacement ofthe hand. nthe following empl, theleap of stent Fom Fe to A means shift rom fs co seventh postion, just forthe mach greater interval in Ex 46 xg Mahler—Symplony mo.g _p.at8yed. Boosey & Haw Ifthe two notes are 1 be sree, the interval mast be seranged 0 that either a single string, oF two adjacent scings, ean be employed since the bow could not play legato and a the sme time jump over imervening stings. x. 4p. Reger—A Romentic Suite, op. 125.48; Boe & Bock A shilfal player can give a fairly good impresion of a legato skip actos intervening sings by lightening and slowing the bow atthe THE VIOLIN, ” ight instant, Ie mst be sdmited, however, that heen eats are no de caved x 50. Berg—Lyre Sure Psd. Univers ‘Open strings may tke parcin passages in which the hand remains a athigh postion x. $1. Hindemith—Syompbony in EF 126. Schort Ses “More than one fingering ispasile for any succession of notes, and the oe selected isnot alae chat which s most convenient for the fingers. Sinplication of bowing, by climiaating sting changes, sometimes «predominant cosideration. Often a fingering with more position shifts is adopted in erder to preserve the aniky of fd special quality of a singe string, to give a partcuae expressive tum toa melody, ‘The student's attention i called to the importance of developing an appreciation ofthese ferences inthe sounds pro- dhced by stringed inseramens In recent years one noes strong tendeney toward a iberation of violin fingering technique frm the traditional system of postions. Ie feannot be denied that many ‘oreed snd unnatural finger postions are the esl of “correct” Fingering, and that these produce bad intonation, ‘Accomplished and experienced players ind that hey prefer to discover Singerings most sited othe sape ofthe hand, of thei owa individual hand, without reference to ccavenional patterns and positions, so chat the notes tobe played le caneniendly under the Fingers that are ro2 INSTRUMENTS ply chem. Doubts thee principles will one day be incorporated into the teaching of violin paying While here is much more unity of timbre i a seringed instrument than ina woodwing, tere extsin his rexpece sihin the homogeneity ofthe violin a eking verry and even contrat of colors and dynamic range. This is largely because four strings. Since the pitch ranges ofthe strings overlap, che posi forvarery are ile and we cannot deugnate characterises of Tow, medium and high registers as we do for wind instrument The Esring smu sel, The radical change to thismatera from gt in the interests of greater bilhance and dabiity, occurred in the fise quarter ofthe present cenary and ws fle by many to bea disaster because of the los of a certain silky and mellow quality stings are of guts although some orchestra players now use a metal A. The D-string ether of gr or gut wound with sluninu wire. The Gscing isalwaysa wound string slver or copper wie over gu being the contmonest materia D- and Gestings entirely of metal are ao sed The ning pegs to whic the strings ae stsched are held in postion by the friction ofa good fi. A knot ora loop attaches che ater end of| the striag tothe tipece, Metal stings cequire a special screw device fon dhe tlpoce for tuning ine diferencs. “The E-sring has the mor cazrying power. Forceful and even sti dent at ties, also capable of an ethereal quality, luminous and clear, when played softly (Es. 52). ofthe dlfrencsin sound between th 1x. 52 Milhaud Second Symphonie Suite p- 69,ed. Durand “The Acsting i sey strong inthe fs Tance and power the string Fecomes shore in upper postions. Foe 4 oft expresive phrase in that range, genealy prefer tp the Arsing rather chan pas ove to the E (EX. $3) x 5. Brahms Symphony no.3 -y.ed- Kalmus “The lene powerful string isthe Destring. Ic has a quiet, subdued gualty in coneast to the G, and is especially suited to certain calm types of expression (Ex. 5). Bx 54. Beethoven—Piamo Conertano.¢ payed. Philharmonia let for bon neds ring rh othe event or ehh prton, Aihogh has endency to Fuses inte etree igh tones, A Cau infor lois on he Ging woud be an ova and fourth above te open sing x59)