CHAPTER 8

OSCILLATORS

An oscillator is a signal source giving a sinusoidal waveform at its output terminals.

Strictly speaking, any signal generator whose output is periodic can be called an
oscillator although most frequently the word oscillator is reserved for a sinusoidal
source. The need for an oscillator arises in many contexts e.g. as a signal source in
bridge measurements, as a carrier generator in communication systems, as a source in
mixer in a receiver, as a high power source in industrial applications like dielectric
heating or induction heating and as a signal source for frequency response
measurement of systems. The choice of an oscillator for a particular application
doponds on the requirements of frequency range, frequency stability, purity of the
sinewave, amplitude range and amplitude stability. In most of general applications
the important requirements are ability to change the frequency over a given range and
a reasonable amount of purity of the sinewave, typically with distortion not more
then 1%. Wherever high power is needed it is a common practice to use a power
amplifier is conjunction with a low-power oscillator.

8.1 Condition For Oscillation

Any oscillator has the general structure shown in Fig. 8.1.1. The input to the
amplifier is generated by feeding back a signal proportional to the amplifier output
through a passive feedback network. It will be shown that non-zero voltages V1 and
V2 having sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency can be sustained in the circuit
by a proper choice of the feedback network. Under this condition, as all voltages and
currents in the network are sinusoidal waveforms having the same frequency,
phasor methods can be used for the analysis of the circuit.

An oscillator is classified as an R-C oscillator if the feedback network consists only

of resistors and capacitors, while an oscillator using only inductors and capacitors is
called an L-C oscillator. Besides these two common choices of the feedback
network, piezo-electric crystals are also used to obtain highly stable frequency of
oscillation, such oscillators being known as crystal oscillators.
For any given choice of the feedback network, it is a straightforward procedure to
write down the network equations in terms of the phasors V1 and V2 corresponding to
the voltages v1 and v2. As no signal source is connected anywhere in the network, the
condition for oscillation is simply that these complex algebraic equations have
bounded nonzero solutions, which in turn requires that the determinant of the
network equations vanish for one and only one value of frequency.
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It should be noted that though the analysis of oscillator circuit is invariably carried
out using the sinusoidal steady-state technique, the amplifier can never be exactly
linear as the values of the voltages can never be uniquely determined in such a
circuit, even though the network determinant vanishes and as such the existence of
nonzero solutions is established. All practical oscillators employ amplifiers which
have certain types of nonlinear behaviour, which ensures that sinusoidal solutions
satisfy the network equations only for particular amplitudes of v1 and v2; lower
amplitudes cause the oscillations to grow exponentially, while higher amplitudes
cause their exponential decay, until the amplitudes attain the desired levels.

8.2 Methodology for Choosing the Feedback Network Configuration

While the approach outlined above is quite adequate and convenient for the analysis
of a given oscillator configuration, it fails to provide any insight into the
methodology for designing the feedback network. This methodology is based on the
foremost consideration in oscillator design that, as far as possible, the frequency of
oscillation should be determined by the values of the passive components comprising
the feedback network, and not by the values of the amplifier parameters. This
requirement arises out of the fact that an active device, and hence an amplifier, is
prone to unpredictable and significantly large perturbations, while resistors,
capacitors and inductors can, in that order, be chosen to have high precisions as
desired. A necessary condition that follows is that for a given range for the frequency
of oscillation, the amplifier must be designed so as to have real and constant values
of its parameters over that range of frequency. The next logical step is to attempt a
clear separation of the roles of the amplifier and the feedback network in satisfying
the condition for oscillation. This could be attempted in terms of the voltage gain Av
of the amplifier and the voltage feedback factor FV of the feedback network. As the
amplifier forces V2 = AvV1 for a given V1, and the feedback network forces V1 =
FvV2 for a given V2, it follows that

V2 = Av Fv V2 ,

which can be satisfied either if V2 = 0, which is a trivial solution, or if

Av Fv = 1. (8.2.1)

Av and Fv are both complex functions of frequency in general, and V1 and V2 will be
sinusoidal voltages having finite non-zero amplitudes only if Eq. 8.2.1 is satisfied for
a single value of frequency. For applying Eq. 8.2.1 in any practical situation, one has
to keep in mind that Av depends on the input impedance of the feedback network and
Fv in turn depends on the input impedance of the amplifier, and hence there is no
clear separation between the amplifier and the feedback network.

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The desired goal can be achieved by representing the amplifier by one of the its
models developed in section 4.3 and then treating the oscillator to consist of an ideal
amplifier (i.e. a pure controlled source) and an augmented feedback network, which
includes the input and output impedances (assumed to be real) of the amplifier as
shown in Fig. 8.2.1. Depending on the choice of the amplifier model, the controlled
source would be different and appropriate feedback factors would have to be defined
for the different augmented feedback networks as follows (the additional subscript
‘a’ indicating ‘augmented’), corresponding to the different parts of Fig. 8.2.1:
V2'
(a) VCVS model : Fva = , where V1' = Avo V1 and V1 = V2'
V1'

V2'
(b) VCCS model : Zfa = , where I1' = - Yms V1 and V1 = V2'
I1'

I2'
(c) CCCS model : Fia = , where I1' = - Ais I1 and I1 = - I2'
I1'

I2'
(d) CCVS model : Yfa = , where V1' = - Zmo I1 and I1 = - I2'
V1'

The condition of oscillation would then be given in the four different cases by the
following equations respectively;
(a) Avo Fva =1, (b) Yms Zfa = -1,
(8.2.2)
(c) Ais Fia = 1 and (d) Zmo Yfa = -1.
Eq. 8.2.2 forms the basis for the selection of different oscillator configurations, and
its implications must be carefully understood before proceeding further.
As the control parameter (Avo / Yms / Ais / Zmo) of the controlled source in the
amplifier will have to be real and independent of frequency over the frequency range
of interest, the appropriate feedback factor (Fva / Zfa / Fia / Yfa) of the augmented
feedback network must also have a real value (positive or negative) at the frequency
of oscillation. Hence any passive network with a transfer function which has a real
value only at a single frequency determined by the values of the passive components
is a potential candidate for use in an oscillator. The magnitude and sign of the value
of the feedback factor at the frequency of oscillation then decide the gain requirement
of the amplifier. Furthermore, the frequency of oscillation should not be significantly
dependent on the values of Ri and Ro, which now form part of the augmented
feedback network. It is this consideration which requires the feedback factor to be
defined separately for different models of the amplifier, so that as the amplifier

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approaches an ideal amplifier, the relevant feedback factor becomes independent of
R1 and Ro as given in Table 8.2.1 where Zif and Zof denote the input and output
impedances of the feedback network (not the augmented feedback network) at the
frequency of oscillation.
Table 8.2.1 Requirements on Feedback Network

Relevant
Amplifier Amplifier
Value of Requirement on Feedback
Model Requirement
Factor

Ri Ro Zif Zof

VCVS High Low Zif >> Ro Zof << Ri Fva Avo Fva =1

VCCS High High Zif << Ro Zof << Ri Zfa Yms Zfo = -1

CCCS Low High Zif << Ro Zof >> Ri Fia Ais Fia = 1

CCVS Low Low Zif >> Ro Zof >> Ri Yfa Zmo Yfa = -1

The requirements on Zif and Zof given in table 8.2.1 merely express the condition
under which the augmented feedback network is practically the same is the (actual)
feedback network; e.g. for a VCCS model, Ro and Ri, added in shunt respectively
with the input and output, of the feedback network to form the augmented feedback
network, can be left out if Zif << Ro and Zof << Ri.
In the following sections different oscillator configurations will be evolved by
following the methodology outlined above. In each case, the starting point would be
one of the amplifier models. The configuration of the feedback network would then
be evolved so as to satisfy Eq. 8.2.2.
8.3 RC Oscillators

RC oscillators are used most widely for the generation of audio-frequency signals.
They can be designed for frequencies from a few Hz to a few MHz. The lower limit
on their useful frequency is imposed by the values of the necessary capacitances,
which become prohibitively large for frequencies less than a Hz. The upper limit on
frequency is due to the fact that for frequencies higher than a MHz, the stray
inductances present in the resistors as well as in the connection wires become
significant in deciding the frequency of oscillation, and hence the feedback network
would have to be treated at an RLC network.
Amplifiers suitable for use over the low-frequency range mentioned above are most
conveniently designed using opamps. In fact the non-inverting amplifier gives one a
nearly perfect VCVS, as shown in section 6.2. Configurations of RC oscillators are

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therefore based on the VCVS model of the amplifier. The structure of the augmented
feedback network is therefore as shown in Fig. 8.3.1. It should be noted that,
although Ri and Ro would eventually be neglected, it must be ascertained that their
presence does not lead to any qualitative change in the dependence of the feedback
factor (Fva in the present case) on frequency. This can be ensured by using a feedback
network having the structure shown in Fig. 8.3.2, and choosing R1 and R2 so that R1
>> Ro and R2 << Ri, which would guarantee that the requirements given in Table
8.2.1 are satisfied at all frequencies. It is easy to prove that the feedback factor of any
RC network with a single capacitor cannot be real at any finite non-zero frequency,
and hence the simplest feedback network having the general structure of Fig. 8.3.2 is
as shown in Fig. 8.3.3. Neglecting Ri and Ro, the voltage feedback factor of this
network is given by
1
Fv = , (8.3.1)
1+ Z1Y2

1
Where Z1 = R1 +
jω C 1

1
And Y2 = + jω C 2
R2

So that Z1Y2 =
R1 C2
(
+ + j ωC2 R1 -
R2 C1
1
ωC1R2
) (8.3.2)

For Fv to be real, the product Z1Y2 has to be real at the frequency of oscillation, i.e.

1
ωoC2R1 = ,
ωoC1R2

where ωo is the frequency of oscillation, given therefore by

1
ωo = (8.3.3)
C1C2R1R2

At this frequency, Eq. 8.3.2 gives

R 1 C2
Z1Y2 = + (8.3.4)
R2 C 1

The gain requirement of the amplifier can now be found by referring back to table
8.2.1 and using Eq. 8.3.1.
1
Avo = = 1 + Z1Y 2
Fv

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By virtue of Eq. 8.3.4, therefore
R1 C2
Avo = 1+ + (8.3.5)
R2 C1

The required voltage gain is thus positive and greater than unity, so that a non-

inverting amplifier can be used to obtain the RC oscillator configuration shown in

Fig. 8.3.4, where the voltage gain of the amplifier is given by

Avo = 1+ K ,
R 1 C2
so that K = + . (8.3.6)
R2 C 1
This circuit is known as the Wien-bridge oscillator, and is by far the most commonly
used RC oscillator. The Wien bridge, shown in Fig. 8.3.5, is used for the
measurement of capacitance, using standard resistors for R’ and KR’, and a standard
capacitance cither as C1 or as C2, the other capacitance along with its associated
resistance (C2-R2 parallel combination or C1-R1 series combination) representing the
unknown capacitor. The balance condition for the Wien bridge is clearly the same as
Eq. 8.3.6, and hence the name given to this oscillator circuit.
One normally chooses R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, so that Eqs. 8.3.6 and 8.3.3 are
reduced to
K=2 (8.3.7)
1
And ωo = (8.3.6)
RC
This permits the use of a ganged potentiometer for the continuous variation of R1 and
R2 while keeping their values equal. Alternatively, a ganged capacitor can also be
used to vary C1 and C2 continuously, keeping their values equal. Choosing R1 = R2 =
R and C1 = C2 = C also helps in reducing fluctuations in the oscillation frequency due
to variations in the values of R and C caused by environmental changes, e.g.
temperature, humidity etc., as two identical components would track each other much
better than two unequal components when they vary due to environmental changes.

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8.4 LC (or Tuned) Oscillators

Over the entire range of frequencies extending from a few hundred kHz to a few
hundred MHz, commonly referred to as radio frequencies because of their
applications in radio communication, LC oscillators are widely used for the
generation of the necessary sinusoidal signals. Various configurations of LC
oscillators have been invented by pioneers in radio and electronic engineering and are
named after their inventors, e.g. Hartley oscillator, Colpitts oscillator, Clapp
oscillator, Pierce oscillator etc. Although these circuits have been invented
independently, there is a basic similarity in their structures: they can all be
represented by the general configuration shown in Fig. 8.4.1 where Z1, Z2 and Z3 are
the impedances of three two-terminal LC networks constituting the feedback
network, and the amplifier is a VCCS with an input impedance Ri and output
impedance Ro and a short-circuit transconductance Gms. The reason for the use of the
VCCS model is the fact that LC oscillator configurations had evolved at a time when
active devices were much more expensive than passive components, and the design
of oscillators was based on the use of a single active device, e.g. a single transistor.
As such active devices inherently approximate a VCCS, though by no means an ideal
one, the VCCS model formed the basis for the choice of the feedback network. The
particular configuration of the feedback network shown in Fig. 8.4.1 is also a direct
consequence of the VCCS model of the amplifier.
It is clear that, if the amplifier is an ideal VCCS, any impedance element placed in
series with the input of the amplifier has no role to play, as no current flows through
such an impedance element by virtue of the fact that Ri→ ∞ . Similarly, as Ro→ ∞ in
an ideal VCCS, any impedance element placed in series with the output of the
amplifier is of no use in the design of the circuit, as the current I1 through such an
element would be independent of the element. It follows, therefore, that the feedback
network must have an impedance element in shunt with its input port as well as with
its output port. The simplest structure of the feedback network thus emerges to be the
same as shown in Fig. 8.4.1. Of course, one could have considered a feedback
network consisting only of an impedance element in shunt, which is merely a special
ease of the structure of Fig. 8.4.1 with Z3 = 0.
For analysing the general LC oscillator circuit for obtaining the conditions for
oscillation, it is convenient to redraw the circuit in the form shown in Fig. 8.4.2 and
write the node equations in terms of V1 and V2, rather than finding the relevant
feedback factor and using Eq. 8.2.2. Moreover, this method of analysis would also

9
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illustrate the general approach for determining the conditions for oscillation of a
given oscillator circuit, as stated in section 8.1.
The node equations are as follows.

( R1 + Z1 + Z1 )V
i 1 3
1 -
1
Z3
V2 = 0 (8.4.1)

1 1 1 1
and (Gms −  ) V1 + (  +  +  ) V2 = 0. (8.4.2)
Z3 Ro Z2 Z3
The value of V1 and V2 can therefore be nonzero if and only if the determinant of this
pair of simultaneous equations vanishes,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(Gms −  )  + (  +  +  ) (  +  +  ) = 0. (8.4.3)
Z3 Z3 Ri Z1 Z3 Ro Z2 Z3
As Z1, Z2 and Z3 are impedances of an LC network,
Z1 = j X1, Z2 = j X2 and Z3 = j X3,
where X1, X2 and X3 are the reactances of the three networks. Substituting these in
Eq. 8.4.3 and equating the real and imaginary parts separately to zero, one obtains
1 1 1 1
+ + = (8.4.4).
X1X2 X2X3 X3X1 RiRo

1 1 1 1 1
and (Gms +  +  )  + (  +  ) = 0. (8.4.5)
Ri Ro X3 RiX2 RoX1

In order that the frequency of oscillation is determined essentially by the passive

elements constituting the feedback network, and is practically unaffected by the
uncertainties in the values of the amplifier parameters Ri and Ro, the reactance X1
shunting the amplifier input and the reactance X2 shunting the amplifier output must
satisfy the inequalities: X1 << Ri and X2 << Ro. Under this condition, Eq. 8.4.4 can
be rewritten in the form

X1 X2 X1X2
1+ + = ≈ 0. (8.4.6)
X3 X3 RiRo

or X1 + X2 + X3 = 0 (8.4.7)

Using Eq. 8.4.7, Eq. 8.4.5 can be rewritten as

X1 X2
Gms =  +  (8.4.8)
X2Ri X1Ro

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As Gms, Ri and Ro are positive and independent of frequency, Eq. 8.4.8 implies that
X1 and X2 must be reactances having exactly the same dependence on frequency, so
that the ratio X1/X2 is independent of frequency. Eq. 8.4.7. is readily interpreted as
the condition for resonance of the loop consisting of the impedances Z1, Z2 and Z3 in
series.

As already pointed out, Eq. 8.4.8 requires that X1 and X2 be similar reactances. X1
and X2 thus have the same sign, and hence Eq. 8.4.7 requires X3 to have a sign
opposite to that X1 and X2 at the frequency of oscillation. Two basic LC oscillator
circuits, resulting from the simplest possible choices of X1, X2 and X3 as listed in
Table 8.4.1, are shown in Fig. 8.4.3. The Hartley oscillator uses two inductors as the
impedance elements across the input and output of the amplifier, with a capacitor
connecting the input to the output. As two such inductors would always have some
mutual inductance M between them, apart from their self-inductances L1 and L2, the
reactances X1 and X2 include both the self- and mutual inductances. In the Colpitts
oscillator, X1 and X2 consist of capacitances, with a single inductance used for X3.

Oscillator
X1 X2 X3
Type
1
Hartley ω(L1 + M) ω(L2 + M) -
ωC

1 1
Colpitts - - ωL3
ωC1 ωC2

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