PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 REVIEWER // LAZARO

RESEARCH IV. ANALYTICAL PHASE

- It is an investigation or H. DATA ANALYSIS
experimentation aimed at the I. CONCLUSION
discovery and interpretation of facts,
revision of an accepted body of V. DISSEMINATION PHASE
knowledge, or practical application J. COMMUNICATING AND
of such new or revised knowledge UTILIZING THE FINDINGS
- It is gathering of data, information
and facts to answer a question or to PARAMETERS
confirm an informed guess 1. IDENTIFIED TOPIC
- the dependent variable (D.V.)
PERFORMING RESEARCH SHOULD BE:
Specific 2. PARAMETER-LOCUS
Measurable - target of the research
Achievable
Relevant 3. PARAMETER-ARGUMENT
Time-bound - relationship, effect, difference

RESEARCH PROCESS 4. PARAMETER-VARIABLE

I. CONCEPTUALIZATION PHASE - Variables
(INTELLECTUALIZED IDEA)
A. TOPIC 5. PARAMETER-DESIGN
B. REVIEW OF LITERATURE - method
C. HYPOTHESIS /
PROPOSITION TYPES OF METHOD
DEVELOPMENT 1. HISTORICAL – retro (past)
- a major claim 2. DESCRIPTIVE – current (present)
D. FRAMEWORK 3. EXPERIMENTAL – prospective
E. OBJECTIVE FORMULATION (future)
- desired goal of your research
RESEARCH AS DEDUCTION
II. DESIGN PHASE
F. RESEARCH PLAN AND
THEORY

FORMULATION
- design, study site, HYPOTHESIS

selections/sample, instrumentation,
ethical consideration, data gathering
procedure, mode of analysis
OBSERVATION

III. EMPIRICAL PHASE CONFIRMATION

G. DATA GATHERING /
COLLECTION
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RESEARCH AS INDUCTION statistical significance is barely

meaningful.

QUALITATIVE
THEORY
- Qualitative research can provide
TENTATIVE
details about human behavior,
HYPOTHESIS
emotion, and personality
PATTERN
characteristics
- You cannot easily reduce these
OBSERVATION descriptions though you can achieve
this through an encoding process.
- While quantitative research requires
QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE the standardization of data collection
for statistical comparison, qualitative
research requires flexibility.
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
Deals with - Thus, qualitative research usually
Deals with takes the form of naturalistic
descriptions or
frequency observations.
meaning
Data can be - When it comes to identifying trends,
Data which can be researchers look for statements that
observed but not
measured
measured are identical across different
Impact or effect research participants.
Detailed description
towards a factor - Hearing a statement from just one
Design emerges as participant is an anecdote; from two,
Statistical model
the study unfolds a coincidence; and hearing it from
Researcher is the Carefully designed three makes it a trend.
data gathering before data is - A researcher must observe and
isntrument collected document behaviors, opinions,
Words (interviews),
Number and patterns, needs, and other types of
pictures (videos),
statistics information without yet fully
objects (artifacts)
understanding what data will be
More rich, time More efficient, able
consuming and less to test hypothesis, meaningful.
able to be but may miss
generalized contextual data RESEARCH BASED ON DATA
1. PRIMARY RESEARCH
QUANTITATIVE
- Use of directly gathered data from
- Statistical analysis derives important
survey or interview
facts from research data, including
preference trends, differences
2. SECONDARY RESEARCH
between groups, and demographics.
- Analyzing the data from published
- By increasing the sample size, you
research as their interpretation of
can increase a finding’s statistical
findings in the form of a review
power.
- However, it is possible to increase
sample sizes to a point where
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3. META-RESEARCH
- Systematic analysis of the research
method
TIPS:
1. NO OUTLIERS DAPAT!!
2. CONCEPTUAL TAGS: 3-2-∞ (3
paragraphs, 2 sentences each,
infinite citations).
CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Groundwork and baseline
2. Determining the current data
3. Preventing plagiarism
4. Novelty of Research
5. Testing the rigor of the researcher
6. Finding the evidences
7. Formulation of the hypotheses and
proposition
8. Finding the blind and blank spots
9. Supports topic intellectualization
10. Inhibits accidental plagiarism
DENDOGRAMING
- A tree diagram frequently used to
illustrate the arrangement of the
cluster produced by hierarchical
clustering.
CONCEPTUAL TAGS
- Thematizing of the limits (ordered
both by importance and by
controversies) of the research article
KEYWORD MAPPING
- A research writing technique
wherein the concept is placed at the
center then the researcher indicates
similar concepts, whether a more
general or a more specific concept in
generating keywords from the topic
for locating related research articles
MAPPING AND CLUSTERING

RESEARCH PROBLEM INDICATORS: Your subject or

subtopic
- Absence of information resulting in
the gap of knowledge (qualitative)
Part of topic or
- Fact exists and confirmation is subtopic

required (quantitative)
- Contradicting results (both) Answer to your Use of your Part of your Consequence of
- BLIND SPOT – contradicting topic topic/subtopic subtopic your topic

evidences
- BLANK SPOT – unknown phenomena
OID APPROACH
C-E APPROACH - Organizing the literature (gathering
CLAIM of the journals)
- It is the writer’s attempt to describe - Identifying the conceptual tags
in his own words and evaluation of (categorizing of the research
the situation at hand articles)
- Defining the conceptual tags (writing
EVIDENCE phase of the concepts)
- The published researchers’ proof
regarding the certain phenomenon TYPES OF DEFINITIONS
1. LEXICAL DEFINITIONS
- According to the source
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2. OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
- According to usage in the paper
3. STIPULATE
- Assigning new meaning to the word
S-A APPROACH
- For multiple papers
1. SYNOPTIC DIMENSION
- Defining the construct
- Stating what have been said about
the variable in terms of their
argument
2. ARGUMENTATIVE DIMENSION
- Building an argument on:
a) Sentence of problematizing
(SOP)
b) Need for the study (NFS)
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
- A theory is a set of proven
statements that indicates the
principles behind a phenomenon.
- A theoretical framework helps the
researcher understand the process
behind their selected phenomenon
upon identifying their topic
HOW TO WRITE:
1. State the theory.
- Ex. “This paper is anchored to…”,
“The theory of ___ underpins…”
2. Explain the theory.
3. Conceptualize the theory.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
(Quantitative only)
- Delivers the relationships of the
variables included in the study
- Variables should be based on the
related lit
- Provides the simplistic working visual
model for quantitative study
- Qualitative studies don’t have a
conceptual framework since the CT
indicates the meaning behind the
phenomenon. While a qualitative
paper still needs to find the meaning
behind it.
CHAPTER 3 – METHODS SECTION
1. Method Section
2. Design
3. Sampling Size/Selection
4. Study Site
5. Instrumentation
6. Ethical Considerations
7. Data Gathering Procedure
8. Mode of Analysis
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
- Tests an identified problem in using
statistical techniques.
- Determines the generalization of a
theory
DESCRIPTIVE DESIGNS
1. STATUS AND SURVEY
- Examines the characteristics,
attitudes, behaviors, and intention of
a group of people by asking
individuals through questionnaires
2. CROSS-SECTIONAL
- Involves the collection of data from
representatives from a population
with a different variable of interest
at one point in time
3. LONGITUDINAL
- Involves the collection of data at two
or more points in time. It also
involves the study of trends,
changes, or development over time
4. ANALYTIC
- Examines the various aspects of a
given event by describing the
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variables that play in a current
phenomenon
5. EVALUATIVE
- Involves the collection and analysis
of information relating to the
effectiveness and functioning of a
program or procedure
6. COMPARATIVE
- Involves the collection and analysis
of information relating to how views,
practices, procedures differ and
compare
7. CAUSAL COMPARATIVE OR EX-
POST FACTO
- Examines the relationships among
variables. It attempts to determine
the cause or reason for pre-existing
differences in groups or individuals.
POPULATION
- A population is any complete group
with at least one characteristic in
common.
- Clearly identify the population being
studied to understand the included
in the data.
WHAT OR WHO IS THE TARGET
POPULATION?
Population
Define the Population
WILL THE DATA BE COLLECTED FROM
ALL OR PART OF THE POPULATION?
TWO TYPES:
1. CENSUS – biased, forced,
unethical, impractical,
inaccurate
2. SAMPLE – predetermined
number of observations
representing a larger
population based on the type
of analysis
HOW WILL THE DATA BE SOURCED?
TWO TYPES:
1. PRIMARY DATA - survey
2. SECONDARY DATA –
administrative data source
SAMPLING
- A predetermined number of
observations representing a larger
population based on the type of
analysis.
THE SAMPLE
- Set of correspondents (people)
selected from a larger population for
the survey.
THE SAMPLE SIZE
- Sample size is important; must be
large enough
- Too big sample increases costs, too
small sample causes insufficient of
data to reach any meaningful
conclusions
SAMPLING METHODS
TYPES OF SAMPLING
I. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
(RANDOM)
- Everyone can be chosen, by equal
chance, as a participant in the study.
- Probability or random sampling gives
all members of the population a
known chance of being selected for
inclusion in the sample and this does
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not depend upon previous events in
the selection process.
A. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
- This is the ideal choice as it is a
perfect random method
- Individuals are randomly selected
from a list of the population and
every single individual has an equal
chance of selection.
- This method is ideal, but if it cannot
be adopted, one of the following
alternatives may be chosen if any
shortfall in accuracy.
B. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
- When performing systematic
sampling, every element from the
list is selected (referred as the
SAMPLE INTERVAL) from a randomly
selected starting point.
- This sampling method concerns the
arrangement of elements in the list.
C. STRATIFIED SAMPLING
- Used when there are many distinct
subgroups, within each of which it is
required that there is full
representation.
- Constructed by classifying the
population in sub-populations
(STRATA), based on some well-
known characteristics of the
population, such as age, gender or
socio-economic status.
- The selection of elements is then
made separately from within each
stratum, usually by random or
systematic sampling methods.
D. CLUSTER AND MULTI-STAGE
SAMPLING
- This form of sampling is conducted
by randomly selecting subgroups of
the population
- CLUSTER = treated as the sampling
unit so sampling is done on a
population of clusters
- The sample is generally done by first
sampling at the higher level(s) until
the final stage is reached, at which
point the sampling is done in a
simple random manner
- The ‘levels’ in question are defined
by subgroups into which it is
appropriate to subdivide your
population.
II. NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
- Only a select few can be used as a
participant in the study.
STATISTICAL MODE OF ANALYSIS
STATISTICAL TOOLS
1. T-TEST
- Used to determine two (2) variable
means which differ significantly or to
test the significant difference
between 2 variable means
2. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
(ANOVA)
- Used to find out if the frequency of
two or more variables in the study
differ significantly or test the
significant difference among several
groups
3. MULTIPLE CORRELATION
- Used to test if the independent
variables have influence on the
dependent variables
4. MULTIPLE REGRESSION
- Used to predict, individually or in
combination, from among the
independent variables the
dependent variables
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QUALITATIVE APPROACH
- Form of social inquiry that focuses
on the way people interpret and
make sense of their experiences and
the world.
- Clarification of meaning which
cannot be answered by quantitative
research
- Qualitative research answer
questions on:
➢ Why people behave the way they
do?
➢ How opinions and attitudes are
formed?
➢ How people are affected by the
events that go on around them?
➢ How and why cultures have
developed?
➢ The difference between social
groups?
DESIGNS
1. PHENOMENOLOGY
- Describes something that exist as
part of the world (Husserl, 1964)
- The isolation of the essence of the
shared human lived experiences
from a phenomenon described by
the respondents
2. CASE STUDY
- In-depth analysis of a single or small
number of units that have
similarities. (Yin, 1984)
- It typically focuses on the
surrounding issues within that
phenomenon.
3. ETHNOGRAPHY
- The term means “portrait of people”
- Describes the people inside a
culture/society from immersion and
interviews
4. NARRATIVE STUDY
- A story-oriented design that uses the
spoken or written words of the
source in determining the life as told
by the source themselves
5. GROUNDED THEORY
- Development of a new theory
through the reflexive collection and
constant comparative analysis of
data the data about a phenomenon
- The explanation is genuinely new
knowledge and mostly process-
based
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
1. Direct interaction with individuals
(Interview)
2. Focus Group Discussion
3. Observation
4. Documents and other media
INTERVIEWS
A. STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
- Same questions in same away
(Limited range of responses)
B. SEMI STRUCTURED
INTERVIEWS
- Series of open ended questions –
(Provide opportunities to discuss
certain topics in more details)
C. UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
- Discussing a single topic that will
eventually result to different
questions (Phrase questions in the
interviewee’s previous response)
FGD (FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION)
- Characteristics of a focus group
➢ Group size: usually 6-10 people
➢ Members of each group should
have something in common
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➢ Requires certain skills of
facilitation, moderating, listening,
observing and analyzing
- FGD can be used when:
➢ Resources are limited
➢ Identify many individuals who
share a common factor
➢ It is desirable to collect the views
of several people within the
population sub group
➢ Group interaction among
participants can develop other
insights
OBSERVATION
- Observation can serve verifying or
nullifying information collected from
other methods
- Observation of people VS.
observation of environment
- Observers are suggested to record
(via tools) since there are instances
that they can be missed
- Tools (such as videos) may become
problematic in obtaining answers
DOCUMENTS AND AUDIO-VISUAL
MATERIALS
A. AUDIO-VISUAL
- Photographs, Video tapes, Art
Materials, Messages, Sounds, Film
B. DOCUMENTATION
- Policy document, annual reports,
minutes of meeting, codes of
conduct, notice boards etc.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
METHODS
- Non-probability sampling procedures
are much less desirable, due to
sampling biases.
A. ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING
- Convenient time/place of selecting
the respondent.
B. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
- The presence of a specific
characteristic and objective from the
respondents
➢ CRITERION SAMPLING –
modality of req.
➢ EXPERT SAMPLING – known
people
➢ QUOTA SAMPLING –
proportionality
➢ DEVIANT SAMPLING – Difference
➢ SNOWBALL SAMPLING – referral
system
➢ HETEROGENEITY SAMPLING -
diversity
THEMATIC ANALYSIS
- Performs the coding process to
formulate themes from patterns
- A theme minimally describes your
data set to the research question
- It represents some level of
patterned response
TEXTUAL ANALYSIS
- Used to interpret the characteristics,
content, structure, and functions of
recorded or visual messages
contained in a text
- Uses the perspective of the writer to
interpret the data
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
- Analyzing the language as a
communication tool in manifesting
hierarchy, the ideologies, and
hegemony involved in a discourse
- It is highly connected to social
theories involved in linguistics
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SEMIOTIC ANALYSIS
- Phenomena and culture are studied
as signs
- Signs are forms of messages that
represent things apart from
themselves
- Explores the content, meaning,
structure, interaction between signs,
and formation of sign systems
DATA VERIFICATION
1. Triangulation of methods
2. Member checking
3. Validation by an external expert
4. Validation by correspondence
5. Clarification of biases
6. Use of rich and thick descriptions
7. Repeated observation
8. Triangulated designs
TRIANGULATED DESIGN
1. SEQUENTIAL EXPLANATORY
- Collection and analysis of
quantitative data followed by a
collection and analysis of qualitative
data.
- Uses qualitative results to assist in
explaining and interpreting the
findings of a quantitative study.
- An initial phase of qualitative data
collection and analysis followed by a
phase of quantitative data collection
and analysis.
- This strategy may also be useful
when developing and testing a new
instrument
2. CONCURRENT TRIANGULATION
- Two or more methods used to
confirm, cross-validate, or verify
findings within a study. Data
collection is simultaneous.
- Generally, both methods are used to
overcome a weakness in using one
method with the strengths of
another.
3. SEQUENTIAL TRANSFORMATIVE
- Collection and analysis of either
quantitative or qualitative data first.
The results are integrated in the
interpretation phase.
- Employs the methods that best
serve a theoretical perspective.
4. CONCURRENT NESTED
- A nested approach that gives priority
to one of the methods and guides
the project, while another is
embedded or “nested.”
- Addresses a different question than
the dominant or to seek information
from different levels.
5. CONCURRENT
TRANSFORMATIVE
- The use of a theoretical perspective
reflected in the purpose or research
questions of the study to guide all
methodological choices.
- Evaluates a theoretical perspective
at different levels of analysis.
CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION
- The introduction part is sometimes
prepared at a latter part so that the
researchers can obtain the general
knowledge about the phenomenon
(what has been done and what
needs to be done) through the
related literature and flexibility of the
research question from the method
section
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1. TRENDS
- status quo of the phenomenon
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2. ISSUES
- the problems surrounding the
phenomenon
NOTE: Chapter 1 should not be longer than
Chapter 2.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
- Clear presentation to address the
issues and problems
- Identification of the probable user of
the research
- Contribution of the study
HOW TO WRITE IT:
1. INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH = 2
sentences. First, “why is it
important?”. Second, “this research
will provide…. *insert 4 bullets for
beneficiaries*”
2. With a lot of citations!!
3. Should have one sentence that
would describe what would the
beneficiaries get
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
- General Problem; central problem
and will dictate the whole paper (for
qualitative)
- Specific Problems; distinct (for
quantitative)
HOW TO WRITE IT:
1. Use your topic then shorten it.
2. Not processed-based but meaning.
3. Get the specific layer of experience.
4. 2 sentences only. First, sentence of
problematizing (SOP) “how/why is it
problematic?”. Second, in
interrogative form, italicized and
bold, “This research will answer the
question…”
5. Put citations in the first sentence!!
RESEARCH IMPEDIMENTS
1. SCOPE
- the coverage of the study
2. LIMITATIONS
- the things that will not be included
in the study
A. TOPIC-BASED – put this one in the
scope
B. RESEARCHER-BASED – this one
should be found on limitations
HOW TO WRITE IT:
1. Two paragraphs with 2 sentences.
2. BUDBURAN MO NG CITATIONS
PARANG AWA MO NA!!
ABSTRACT
- Brief statement of the essential
content of the original document
- An indication of the characteristics of
the whole document
- Aims to draw attention to the
information contained in the original
and provide a sufficient basis for the
reader to judge whether he wants to
read the whole document
A. INDICATIVE/DESCRIPTIVE
ABSTRACT
- A brief description of the general
nature of the document
- Used for documents which cannot be
realistically summarized yet
- An abstract used for documents
without any findings
- Typically, has up to 100 words.
CONTENT:
50% - METHODS
30% - RELATED LITERATURE
20% - INTRODUCTION
FORMAT: RL -> METHODS ->
SIGNIFICANCE
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B. INFORMATIVE ABSTRACT
- This type of abstract is suitable for
journals, reports, research papers
- It is a type of abstract that is used
for research papers that showcase
findings.

CONTENT:
50% - FINDINGS
30% - METHODS
20% - RELATED LIT./INTRODUCTION
LAST SENTENCE: Recommendations