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1. Introduction
In cities in developing countries, public
transport is often the only affordable way of
transportation for the majority of people. Only
a few cities in these countries operate a subway
system, and public transport most often relies
on buses. Even in Bangkok, for example, a city
with meanwhile two railbound urban public
transport systems (BTS and MRT), still over
90% of all public transport is handled by buses.
These buses, often old and fuel-intensive, are a
major contributor to the negative environmental
impacts in the urban areas, and due to their
age, operating costs (fuel consumption, main-
tenance) are high. A reduction of costs can be
reached by various measures, among them an
upgrade of the fleet to new and more fuel-effi-
cient vehicles, and/or by a change of the driving
style of the vehicles’ drivers.
However, the reduction of fuel costs is not the
only effect of an economical driving style. It
also means
 a reduction of variable costs (fuel, repairs,
maintenance, tyres),  specific fuel consumption, Fig. 1
 an increase of effectiveness (less down times  external factors affecting fuel consumption, Mongolia: Responsibility
due to repair work and maintenance), and efficiency starts by
such as weather conditions, road conditions learning beyond usual
 a decrease of negative environmental impacts, and traffic conditions, practice.
 increased road safety,  the vehicle and its fuel economy features, Photo: Anton Thomas,
DaimlerChrysler, 2005
 stress reduction for the driver and the  the driver’s influence on fuel consumption,
passengers.  general hazards (driver behaviour, vehicle,
The driver of a vehicle is directly responsible load, weather),
for a more economical driving style. But he is  stress, and
not the only one in the chain of actors involved  customer-oriented behaviour.
in transport to influence fuel consumption.
Manufacturers, legislators, driving schools and The second topic deals with the advantages of
vehicle holders – they all can influence the fuel economical driving for the operator, the driver
consumption of vehicles in various ways. and the environment.

This module mainly covers three topics:
 What does “driving defensively and economi-
cally” mean?
 What are the benefits of a more economical
and defensive driving style?
 How can this driving style be achieved?
The first topic “driving defensively and eco-
nomically” will cover the following subjects:
 cost savings to be achieved through driving
economically (see also section 3.1),
The third topic (how can this be achieved?)
deals with different options to convey this driv-
ing style to drivers and operators of commercial
vehicles.
The basic source of information for this module
is the course reference guide “Het Nieuwe
Rijden (A new approach to coach driving)”
published by the “Stichting Vakopleiding
Transport en Logistiek VTL” (The Netherlands
Institute for Professional Training in Transport
and Logistics).

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 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
2. What is EcoDriving?
Economical and defensive driving not only
depends on the habits of the driver (see section
2.3) but it is also dependent on various external
factors such as weather conditions, road condi-
tions, vehicle technology and traffic conditions.
Most of these factors can normally not be
influenced – but drivers can adjust their driving
style accordingly. Therefore, it is important to
be aware of these factors.
2.1 External factors
2.1.1 Traffic conditions
Traffic conditions obviously have a major influ-
ence on fuel consumption. In heavy traffic, e.g.
during the rush hour, the driver has to acceler-
ate, brake and change gear more often. This
significantly increases fuel consumption. As a
matter of fact, a single driver cannot change
these circumstances but planners and decision-
makers could change this situation, e.g. by in-
troducing bus lanes, bus priority at traffic lights
and other innovations. Examples are described
in Module 4e: Intelligent Transport Systems.
Fuel consumption is in part determined by
the degree of acceleration resistance. This oc-
curs when the speed of a vehicle is raised. To
put a vehicle into motion or to raise the speed
requires energy while at a constant road speed
the acceleration resistance is zero. The accelera-
tion resistance is dependent upon the increase
in speed and the total weight of the vehicle. A
gentle acceleration and, above all, the avoidance
of unnecessary acceleration and braking can
save an enormous amount of fuel.
Anticipating traffic is a major factor reducing
fuel consumption. But what is an anticipatory
driving style? First of all, the driver should learn
Table 1: Fuel consumption at different driving styles
Light bus (8.8 tons) Heavy bus (24.5 tons)
Driving style l/100 km indexed l/100 km indexed
A: aggressive 37.8 143 101.5 145
B: normal 26.5 100 69.9 100
C: gentle 21.0 79 54.5 78
Source: VTL 2002
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to predict what other participants in city traffic
are about to do and how to react accordingly.
Anticipatory driving is safe driving but also
economical driving.
Table 1 shows the relation between driving
styles and fuel consumption:
The different driving styles assumed in this
example are:
A: an aggressive driving behaviour: rapid accel-
eration, driving close to the vehicle in front and
heavy braking
B: a normal driving behaviour
C: a gentle driving behaviour, with gentle accel-
eration, anticipation and minimal braking
The figures in Table 1 are averages of bus jour-
neys along different routes:
 driving in urban traffic at an average speed of
30 km/h,
 driving on a secondary road at an average
speed of 60 km/h,
 driving on a highway at an average speed of
90 km/h.
Unsurprisingly, fuel consumption is much
higher when the driving style is more aggressive.
In this case fuel consumption is 45% higher
than the consumption of the “normal” driver.
On the other hand, a more gentle style of driv-
ing can reduce fuel costs significantly, in the
study the “gentle” driver saved 22% compared
to the normal driver.
2.1.2 Road conditions
Two aspects of the road conditions influence fuel
consumption: the surface and the inclination.
The road surface has an effect on the rolling
resistance. Relevant surface conditions include:
 metalled or unmetalled road,
 dry or wet road surface,
 smooth or rough, uneven road surface,
 clean or dirty road surface (including snow).
High rolling resistance increases fuel consump-
tion. As can be seen from the list above, rolling
resistance is influenced by weather conditions,
which is therefore determined by a combination
of different factors. But it is also affected by
other factors such as:
 the weight of a vehicle,
 tyre profile, speed is doubled air resistance increases by the
 tyre pressures, factor 4.
 wheel positions.
2.1.2.1 Gradient resistance
It is self-evident that a vehicle driving up a hill
requires more energy than a vehicle driving on
a flat road. This results from the gradient resist-
ance, which is dependent upon the percentage
gradient and the total weight of the vehicle. Fig. 3
Air resistance
Source: Evobus 2001

Other meteorological factors are temperature

(higher temperatures may lead to a slightly
lower fuel consumption unless air condition is
used inside the bus) and the precipitation (wet
and snowy surfaces increase the rolling resist-
ance and lead to higher fuel consumption).
In this section we have seen that fuel consump-
tion is influenced by a variety of external factors.
Fig. 2 These factors are determined by various resist-
Gradient resistance ances (air, rolling, gradient and acceleration
Source: VTL 2002
resistance). The value of these resistances is
determined by weather, road and traffic condi-
Although it is not possible to influence the gradi-
tions. The technical specifications and the
ent resistance, drivers can take account of it. An
equipment of vehicles also have an effect on
economical driving style on a hill consists of:
these resistances. These effects will be the sub-
 selection of the correct engine speed, ject of the next section.
 correct shifting technique (change gear as
little as possible when ascending), and 2.2 The vehicle
 use the increase in speed on a descent to
2.2.1 Tyres
mount the next rise.
2.2.1.1 Tyre tread
2.1.3 Weather conditions The tread of a tyre has the following purposes:
The influence of weather conditions on fuel con-  to transfer forces between the vehicle and the
sumption is mainly determined by three factors: road surface,
air resistance, temperature and precipitation.  to carry off water and contamination, and
The main meteorological influence on fuel con-  to cool the tyre.
sumption is air resistance (see Figure 3). Air is Tyre conditions are often neglected and only lit-
not touchable or viewable but it is present – and tle attention is paid to their maintenance. Legal
how strong this factor is can be felt when you requirements for minimum tread depths vary
hold your arm out of a moving vehicle and try from country to country, however, a sufficient
to push the arm forward, or when crosswinds depth should not only be seen as a legal require-
hit a vehicle and push it aside. The vehicle has ment but also as a factor that influences driving
to “cross” the air barrier and to do so it needs comfort, fuel consumption and – last but not
energy and consumes fuel. Air resistance is least – traffic safety.
dependent on the front shape of the vehicle,
i.e. buses with the relatively large and flat front 2.2.1.2 Tyre pressure
surface have a high air resistance. Air resistance Tyre pressure is the most significant factor in
increases raises in quadratic form, i.e. when the tyre wear. With low tyre pressure (Figure 4, left

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 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities
Figure 4: Tyre pressures
Pressure too low Pressure too high
• Tread is deformed • Poor contact with road surface • Driving, braking and
• Temperature soars • Risk of damage
• Carcase may fail • Springs and dampers are
overloaded
• Rapid and uneven wear
• Poor ride stability
Source: VTL 2002
part), the carcass of the tyre collapses and the
tyre shoulders wear rapidly. Deformation raises
the temperature to such levels that the tread
may be separated from the tyre. Low tyre pres-
sure also has a negative effect on ride stability.
Furthermore, when pressure is too low, tyres
do not maintain optimal contact with the road
which negatively affects rolling resistance.
If the tyre pressure is too high (Figure 4, middle
part), only the middle part of the tyre wears and
contact with the road is poor. This also leads to
an overload of springs and dampers and thus
affects driving comfort and safety.
Excessively low tyre pressures cause higher fuel
consumption than do high pressures. When the
pressure of all tyres of a vehicle is too low by
15-20% fuel consumption increases by 5-8%.
Besides tyre pressure and the depth of the tread,
other factors influence the wear of the tyre as
well:
Fig. 5  an aggressive driving style, e.g. heavy braking
Aerodynamic bus design and acceleration,
4
Correct pressure
lateral forces are optimally
transferred to the road surface
• Braking distance is at its
shortest
• Tyre durability is at the
maximum
 overloading, and
 inaccurate wheel alignment.
2.2.2 The engine
The engine is the heart of a motorized vehicle.
The diesel engine supplies power to drive the
vehicle and all its accessories. The performance
of the engine may be enhanced with the use of
a turbo compressor and intercooling without
increasing fuel consumption. Modern diesel
engines are far cleaner than it was the case in
the past, i.e. a modernization of the fleet with
new buses will decrease average fuel consump-
tion significantly and pay off in the long run.
Regular maintenance is important for all
engines – both old and new ones – in order to
ensure an economical operation. For example,
correct injection timing and the changing of
inlet air filters should be done according to the
recommendations of the engine manufacturer
as these recommendations result in the best
compromise between performance, emissions
and fuel consumption.
2.2.3 Aerodynamics
Air resistance has been introduced in sec-
tion 2.1.3. A streamlined bus can thus be a
contribution to reduced fuel consumption.
2.3 The driver Table 2: Fuel consumption when starting with a cold or a warm
engine
As we have seen, external factors can have a
huge influence on fuel consumption. But all Light bus (8.8 tons) Heavy bus (24.5 tons)
these measures can be worthless if the driver has
an aggressive, fuel consuming driving style. in l/100 km indexed in l/100 km indexed

In the next sections we will elaborate on the Cold 21.6 100 49.6 100
different measures that a driver can carry out Warm 18.5 86 42.8 86
before and during the journey to reduce fuel
Source: VTL 2002
consumption and to increase both the comfort
and the safety of the passengers and himself. has not yet expanded, the pistons and cylinders
do not fit together so well and extra wear results.
2.3.1 Trip preparation A VTL study showed that driving with a cold
Before the commence of the trip, the driver engine uses about 15% more fuel than with a
should check his vehicle carefully. Even though warm engine. Table 2 presents results from tests
most buses should be maintained by technicians at an average speed of 40 km/h.
on a regular base, the driver is also in charge When the vehicle is stationary, the engine
of regular basic checks. A proper check will warms up only very slowly. A gentle driving
include the following: style brings the engine to its operating tem-
 Fluids: perature much more rapidly. Depending on the
• engine oil specific circumstances, a vehicle must be driven
• coolant for about 30 km before its engine is properly
• screen wash warmed up. The driver should move off in the
 Tyres: first gear with few gas or – when driving a
• check for rips and stones newer model – without gas.
• tyre pressures If the driver has to stop and wait for a longer
• spare wheel time (e.g. at a railway crossing), it is wise to
 Braking system
switch off the engine. This is not only better for
• check pressure and pressure drop the environment but it also saves fuel. A rule
• bleed off condensation water of thumb is to switch off the engine when the
 Lighting and mirrors
vehicle has to stand still for more than a minute.
• check and clean as required Fig. 6
In more and more cities, the duration of the red
Bogotá: Bus driver at
2.3.2 During the trip phase at traffic lights is displayed on little moni- TransMilenio bus.
Though pre-trip checks can already save a certain tors next to the traffic lights. Photo: Lloyd Wright 2002
amount of fuel, the major part of fuel savings
can be realised by a reasonable driving style.
2.3.2.1 Starting and moving off
When starting the engine for the first time of
the day, the driver should allow the engine to
run at a moderate speed until the correct oil
pressure has built up. The cold (and therefore
thick) oil must reach the various lubrication
points in the engine before the driver can move
off without causing damage.
Once the oil pressure has built up, the driver
should move off gently. A cold engine wears
faster than a warm engine – particularly at high
engine speeds. This is due to the fact that pistons
and cylinders are designed to fit best with a
warm engine. When the engine is cold the metal

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 Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities

Fig. 7 suming than a constant speed of 40 km/h. The

Bogotá: To drive difference in fuel consumption at an average
consciously is a speed and at a constant speed may amount up
prerequisite for an
economic driving. to 20% (VTL 2002).
Photo courtesy of TransMilenio 2002
2.3.2.3 Anticipation
An anticipatory driving style involves matching
the driving behaviour to the road and traffic
conditions. Points to consider include:
 traffic in front of the own vehicle,
 traffic behind the own vehicle,
 oncoming traffic,
 traffic at intersections,
 overtaking, and
 reversing.

It also means, that the driver

2.3.2.2 Speed
To drive economically means to drive at a con-
stant road speed as often as possible (although
Fig. 8 this is difficult to realize in urban traffic). A
Argentina: After the constant speed is not the same as the average
theoretical driver speed. Driving an average speed of 40 km/h
training the acquired might consume much more fuel than a constant
knowledge and skills speed of 40 km/h as an average speed of 40
are checked in the
practice. km/h with an aggressive driving style and a lot
Photo: Julio Brizzi 2004 of acceleration and braking is far more fuel-con-
 looks as far ahead as possible,
 drives with concentration,
 brakes deliberately,
 looks out for the vehicle in front,
 keeps an adequate distance,
 drives smoothly at a constant speed,
 adapts in good time to changing conditions,
 uses his knowledge of the route,
 takes account of road damage and of possible
errors of other drivers.
2.3.2.4 Gear changing
To change the gear correctly is a fundamental
part of an economical driving style. Changing
up must be carried out in such a way that the
engine can deal with the new gear. In practice,
this means to allow the engine speed to pass
through the green zone on the rev meter and
then change. Conversely changing down should
be done when the rpm needle reaches the bot-
tom of the green zone.
Changing gears economically also means:
 it is not necessary to drive off in the lowest
gear,
 changes to a higher gear should be carried
out as soon as possible,
 it is sometimes possible to skip a gear.

2.3.2.5 Braking and coasting

The driver should avoid braking when it is pos-
sible to ease off the accelerator in good time and
he should allow the coach to coast. Coasting

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