ES 3210 ECONOMIC MINERAL DEPOSITS

ORE MICROSCOPY
(aka REFLECTED LIGHT MICROSCOPY)

Stephen J. Piercey

Modified from original notes of Graham Layne

 ORE MICROSCOPY

• The microscopic study of ore minerals largely involves

the use of reflected light

• Many textbooks introduce reflected light microscopy as a

qualitative technique

• Don’t take this to heart!!

• Reflected light microscopy still involves careful

evaluation of mineral properties to enable identification
 MD Barton, ASU
`
Highly coloured copper sulfide minerals in plane polarized reflected light.
Bornite (Bn; Cu5FeS4; tetragonal) - peach to tan to bronze
Digenite (Dg; Cu9S5; cubic) - blue
Covellite (BbCv; CuS; hexagonal) - dk blue to red to gray (Covellite is spectacularly
bireflectant, colour depends heavily on orientation)
You can see some of the variation in covellite colors, due to variable orientation, in the central part
of the central veinlet.
 ORE MICROSCOPY

• Compared to the transmitted light microscopy you have

been using for thin section petrology, it can be somewhat
more equivocal in certain cases

• There are also some differences in the skill set involved

• As the term progresses, we will begin using both

transmitted and reflected light microscopy to study ore
deposits
ORE MICROSCOPY – RELEVANCE
AND APPLICATION

• Useful and accurate way of studying the reactions and

processes that form ore deposits ⇨ ES 3210

• Invaluable in the development of efficient means of

processing ores through the milling, separation and
refining required to produce a final raw metal product
(GEOMETALLURGY).
ORE MICROSCOPY – RELEVANCE
AND APPLICATION

• Essential pre-preparation for more sophisticated

instrumental assessment techniques:

• Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM/MLA)

• Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA)

• Laser Ablation Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)

• Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)

 ORE MICROSCOPY – COURSE
OBJECTIVE

• Central goal of the laboratory component of this course

is that you gain skill and experience in:

• Identifying both common and (important) trace ore

minerals with the microscope

• Recognizing and interpreting the textures and inter-

relationships of these minerals
Native Gold

Photo: JLM Visuals

Native Gold

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

 “Paragenesis”

Py2
Py1

Ccp

In what sequence did these mineral phases form?

 ORE MICROSCOPY – COURSE
OBJECTIVE

• These skills will allow you to develop and understand

paragenetic (time) sequences for the formation of ores in
a given deposit, and insight into the processes that
caused ore deposition.

• The only viable way to learn these skills is to spend time

looking at the wide variety of polished sections that will
be presented during the labs.

• Gladwell’s 10,000 hour concept - you won’t get good at

something without putting in the time.
Paragenetic sequence for the Tri-State MVT deposits

from Hagni and Grawe, 1964

 OPTICAL PROPERTIES IN
REFLECTED LIGHT

• Like a standard petrographic microscope, the reflected

light microscope contains a pair of polarizing filters.

• [In fact, our teaching scopes are equipped for both

transmitted/reflected light]
Typical Dual Illumination Petrographic Microscope

Nikon.ca – Microscopy U
 OPTICAL PROPERTIES IN
REFLECTED LIGHT

• These filters are referred to as the polarizer (incident light

path) and the analyzer (reflected light path) and are
(generally) set at exactly 90º to each other.

• [Some older texts (and old instructors) refer to the

polarizing filters as “nicols”]
 OPTICAL PROPERTIES IN
REFLECTED LIGHT

• Observations are made either with only the polarizer

inserted:

• “Plane Polarized Light”

• Or with both polarizer and analyzer inserted:

• “Crossed Polars” or “Cross Polarized Light”

 OPTICAL PROPERTIES IN
REFLECTED LIGHT

• Properties that are observed under plane polarized light:

• colour

• reflectance

• bireflectance

• reflection pleochroism
 OPTICAL PROPERTIES IN
REFLECTED LIGHT

• Properties that are observed under cross polarized light:

• anisotropism

• internal reflections
 COLOUR

• A small number of minerals are strongly and distinctively

coloured

• The following minerals are usually readily identifiable on

this basis:
 MINERALS WITH OBVIOUS COLOUR

COLOUR MINERAL OTHER PROPERTIES

Blue Covellite Intensely Pleochroic

Chalcocite, Digenite Weakly Anisotropic
Yellow Gold V. High Reflectance, V.
Chalcopyrite V. WeakSoft
Anisotropy
Millerite, Cubanite Strongly Anisotropic
(Red-)Brown Bornite Weakly Anisotropic
Copper High Reflectance, V. Soft

after Craig & Vaughan,

1994
Native Copper

Photo: JLM Visuals

Native Copper

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

Native Silver
Photo: JLM Visuals
Bornite

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

pp xp

Covellite

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

 COLOUR

• As a rule, however, most minerals are very weakly

coloured !!

• PRACTICE will enable you to recognize the many subtle

colour (aka colour tint) differences that help identify other
minerals.
pp xp

Pyrrhotite

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

FACTORS AFFECTING OBSERVED
COLOUR

• Observer perception (books, charts and instructors are

therefore a guide only)

• The specific microscope being used

• The settings of the microscope (lamp type, illumination

brightness, filters etc.)

• It is important to “get your eye in” when first using the ore
microscope, or when using a new microscope
FACTORS AFFECTING OBSERVED
COLOUR

• Apparent colour depends on surrounding minerals

(mutual colour interference)

• The good news is that the eye can detect relatively subtle
colour differences between different adjacent minerals.

• For example, gold and chalcopyrite…..

Native Gold

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

FACTORS AFFECTING OBSERVED
COLOUR

• Tarnishing can affect colour, e.g:

• Bright blue “peacock bloom” on chalcopyrite or

bornite can cause confusion with an actual coexisting
mineral like covellite
cpy

cc
cv

Bornite

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

Effect of Tarnish
 REFLECTANCE

• The percentage of light incident on the polished surface

of a mineral that is reflected back through the microscope
objective, to the observer.

• Without special metering attachments to the microscope,

we will deal with reflectance as it manifests as the relative
“brightness” of mineral phases.
 REFLECTANCE

• It is fairly easy to determine the RELATIVE reflectance of

the different minerals in a section

• These can be compared to the known reflectance of easily

identified minerals in the same section……………………..
 REFLECTANCE

• For example;

• Magnetite ~20%

• Galena ~43%

• Pyrite ~55%

• Mounting plastics (epoxies) and many (though not all)

gangue minerals have very low (dull) reflectance (~5%).
 FACTORS THAT MODIFY
REFLECTANCE

• For a given mineral, the absolute reflectance in a polished

section may be modified by:

• Colour (and the wavelength of incident light and/or

filters used)

• Polishing quality (poor quality reduces reflectance)

• Tarnish
BIREFLECTANCE AND REFLECTION
PLEOCHROISM

• Most non-cubic minerals show some change in

reflectance and/or colour when sections are rotated under
plane-polarized light

• These are termed BIREFLECTANCE and REFLECTION

PLEOCHROISM, respectively

• Cubic (isometric) minerals generally do not show these

properties
BIREFLECTANCE AND REFLECTION
PLEOCHROISM

• BIREFLECTANCE and/or REFLECTION PLEOCHROISM

may occur as very weak, weak, moderate, strong or very
strong properties in a given mineral.
pp xp

Covellite

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

 MINERALS THAT EXHIBIT
REFLECTION PLEOCHROISM
Mineral Colour Range (Darker : Lighter) Bireflectance Range
Graphite* Brownish Grey : Greyish Black 6-27
Covellite* Deep Blue : Bluish-White 6-24
Molybdenite* Whitish Grey : White 19-39
Stibnite* White : Greyish-White 31-48
Bismuthinite Whitish-Grey : Yellowish White 37-49
Pyrrhotite Pinkish Brown : Brownish Yellow 34-40
Niccolite Pinkish Brown : Bluish White 46-52
Cubanite Pinkish Brown : Clear Yellow 35-40
Valeriite Brownish Grey : Cream Yellow 10-21
Millerite Yellow : Light Yellow 50-57

after Craig & Vaughan, 1994

pp xp

Graphite

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

Pleochroism in Pyrrhotite w Asp
PPL, 0o PPL, 90o

PPL, 180o PPL, 270o

 STRONGLY BIREFLECTANT
MINERALS

• Graphite C Hexagonal

• Molybdenite MoS2 Hexagonal

• Covellite CuS Hexagonal

• Stibnite Sb2S3 Orthorhombic

 MODERATELY BIREFLECTANT
MINERALS

• Marcasite FeS2 Orthorhombic

• Hematite Fe2O3 Hexagonal

• Pyrrhotite Fe1-xS Hex/Mono

• Cubanite CuFe2S3 Orthorhombic

• Niccolite NiAs Hexagonal

 pp xp

Niccolite (NiAs)

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

Pleochroism in Pyrrhotite w
Arsenopyrite
WEAKLY BIREFLECTANT MINERALS

• Arsenopyrite FeAsS Monoclinic

• Ilmenite FeTiO3 Hexagonal

• Enargite Cu3AsS4 Orthorhombic

EFFECT OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
ORIENTATION

• Like PLEOCHROISM and BIREFRINGENCE in transmitted

light microscopy –

• BIREFLECTANCE and REFLECTION PLEOCHROISM are a

function of the crystallographic orientation of the grain
relative to the incident polarized light……………..
EFFECT OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
ORIENTATION

• Cubic minerals do not display these properties

• Neither do basal sections of tetragonal and hexagonal

(i.e., uniaxial) minerals

• Non-cubic minerals may display anywhere from their

maximum effect to no effect, depending on the grain
orientation
DETECTING BIREFLECTANCE AND
REFLECTION PLEOCHROISM

• Look at closely adjacent grains or grain aggregates of the

same mineral:

• These will have varying relative orientations

• In this manner you can detect very small differences

in behaviour as the stage is rotated

• A classic example of this is the identification of

pyrrhotite…………
 ANISOTROPISM

• A property evident under crossed polars

• Cubic minerals remain uniform in appearance when the

stage is rotated, although not necessarily completely dark

• An exception to this rule is the fairly common

observation of weak anomalous anisotropy in pyrite
Pleochroism in Pyrrhotite w Asp
 ANISOTROPISM

• Most orientations of non-cubic minerals will show some

variation in brightness and/or colour as the stage is
rotated

• As with BIREFLECTANCE/REFLECTION PLEOCHROISM

this effect can range from maximum to none, depending
on relative orientation.
Millerite (NiS)

Photo: JLM Visuals

pp xp

Millerite

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

 PPL XPL, 0o

XPL, 45o XPL, 90o

Stibnite -
changing anisotropism
with stage rotation

XPL, 135o
pp xp

Pyrrhotite

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

pp xp

Covellite

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004

 ANISOTROPISM

• Similarly it is often best detected at the junctions of grains

or grain aggregates of the same mineral.

• Restricting the field of view with a field aperture

diaphragm may also help.
 ANISOTROPISM

• The maxima and minima of these anisotropic effects will

each occur four times in a 360º rotation, offset 45º from
each other.

• The degree of anisotropism is also described as very

weak, weak, moderate, strong or very strong.
 PPL XPL, 0o

XPL, 45o XPL, 90o

Stibnite -
changing anisotropism
with stage rotation

XPL, 135o
 ANISOTROPISM

• The anisotropic colours themselves are sometimes

distinctive, e.g.:

• Deep blue/green/yellow displayed by marcasite.

• False anisotropy can be induced by fine parallel

scratches,

• These are especially common in very soft minerals

(e.g., Au and Ag)
pp xp

Native Silver

Photo: Marshall et al, 2004