Experiment 6 First Law of Thermodynamics – Lead Smashing

Experiment 6
First Law of Thermodynamics – Lead Smashing

Object
The object of this experiment is to verify the first law of thermodynamics by smashing a small
piece of lead and to simultaneously compute Joule's constant, J = 778.17 (ft lbf)/Btu.

Introduction
In this experiment the first law of thermodynamics is verified by smashing a small piece of lead
with two pendulums swinging from opposite directions. The deformed lead undergoes strain
plasticity or cold working, which causes a rise in lead temperature that is measured by an
imbedded thermocouple. Using the first law of thermodynamics the loss in gravitational
potential energy of the pendulums is equated to the rise in internal energy of the lead.
Furthermore, the ratio of these two energies gives Joule’s constant, whose published value is
J = 778.17 (ft lbf)/Btu. Using data provided from 10 runs you will plot gravitational potential
energy as a function of internal energy, compute J, and see how close the result comes to the
published value.

Historical Background
Mechanical work on a material that causes strain plasticity will result in a material temperature
rise. The convertibility of this mechanical work into material temperature rise, expressed as
internal energy, is given by Joule's constant. This phenomenon has been observed for some
time. Carnot [1], in an undated, unpublished manuscript from the 19th century noted:

If, for example, we take a cube of lead and strike it successively on each of its
faces, there will always be heat liberated . . .

Joule [2], in an 1847 lecture at St. Ann's Church Reading-Room in Manchester, England, stated:

By fifteen or twenty smart and quick strokes of a hammer on the end of an iron
rod of about a quarter of an inch in diameter placed upon an anvil an expert
blacksmith will render that end of the iron visibly red-hot.

Hirn [3], in 1865, carried out a lead-smashing experiment and found the convertibility of
mechanical work into internal energy to be equivalent to 774.68 (ft lbf)/Btu), a value only 0.4%
less than today's accepted Joule's constant value. Hirn's equipment appears in Figure 6.1.

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 Experiment 6 First Law of Thermodynamics – Lead Smashing

Figure 6.1 Sketch of Hirn's apparatus, after Hirn [3]. The lead calorimeter D contains
a cavity and is struck by the iron cylinder m, which swings as a pendulum. Backing up
the calorimeter is a massive wood block M. After impact both the iron cylinder and
wood block rebounded. The calorimeter was removed, filled with water and a
thermometer inserted. Hirn measured the iron cylinder fall, the calorimeter temperature
rise, and accounted for the wood and iron rebounds.

The Experiments
Hirn's design provided the impetus for the author's design shown and described in Figures 6.2,
6.3 and 6.4. In the current design there are two, identical, steel cylinders suspended by nylon
chords that allow the cylinders to swing as pendulums. The cylinders are released from an
elevated position and strike a small piece of lead at the same instant from opposing sides. The
lead is instrumented with a thermocouple and acts as a calorimeter. Hirn experienced a rebound
of his iron cylinder and wood block, but in this experiment there is almost no rebound of the
two steel cylinders.

Uniform temperature distribution within the lead calorimeter is assumed in the analysis that
follows. If the lead is uniformly deformed then there is uniform internal heat generation and a
uniform temperature at the end of the deformation. Thus the temperature measured by the
imbedded thermocouple at a single point can be considered representative of the temperature of
the entire piece of lead. For one run, a half-dozen thickness measurements were taken as a
check on uniform deformation.

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 Experiment 6 First Law of Thermodynamics – Lead Smashing

support frame made from PVC tubing overhead string is cut to release cylinders

steel cylinder lead calorimeter steel cylinder

Figure 6.2 Lead smashing apparatus. Nylon chords form four-bar linkages and suspend
the two steel cylinders (see also Fig. 6.3). These cylinders are shown in the slightly
elevated position, held in place by a common line that passes around two overhead
pulleys. The common line is cut at its center causing a release of the steel cylinders,
which swing as pendulums and simultaneously impact the lead calorimeter below. The
lead calorimeter is barely visible in this photo – see Figure 6.4 for a close-up of the lead
calorimeter.

z1

20 inches

1 1

2 2

Figure 6.3 The initial and final states (1 and 2, respectively) of the lead smashing
experiment.

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 Experiment 6 First Law of Thermodynamics – Lead Smashing

lead calorimeter before impact

lead calorimeter after impact thermocouple wires

Figure 6.4 The lead calorimeter is a small piece of lead (about 2 mm thick and 6 mm in
diameter), folded over a thermocouple. The thermocouple wires extend horizontally to
two vertical, sheet-metal screws mounted in a wood base. The wires wrap around the
screws holding the calorimeter in position. The thermocouple wires are connected to a
digital thermometer, which has a “record min/max” feature that records the minimum and
maximum temperatures for each run, corresponding to states 1 and 2.

Data
A series of runs were performed with different steel cylinders, different cylinder elevations and
different lead calorimeters. These data* are provided in “Experiment 6 Data.xls.”

_______________________

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 Experiment 6 First Law of Thermodynamics – Lead Smashing

*The word data is a plural noun but used with a plural or singular verb. However, for formal usage it is used
with a plural verb: These data are inconclusive. The word datum is singular.
Analysis
We take the system to be the entire apparatus (imagine drawing a control surface around the
entire apparatus) and we write the first law of thermodynamics for this closed system

1 1
Q1 2  ( U  mV 2  mgz )2  ( U  mV 2  mgz )1  W1 2
2 2
(6.1)

where Q1 2 is the heat transfer from the surroundings to the system, U is the internal energy
of the lead, V is the velocity of the cylinders, m is the mass of the cylinders, g is gravity, z is
elevation of the cylinders, and W1 2 is the work done by the system on the surroundings.

The initial and final states (1 and 2, respectively) are shown in Figure 6.3. The initial and final
velocities are both zero, there is no work or heat transfer exchange with the surroundings, and
U 2  U 1  Pb   m c (T2  T1 ) Pb , where c is specific heat, and T is temperature.
Therefore Equation 6.1 reduces to

m g (z 1  z 2 )  cyl   m c (T 2  T1 )  Pb
(6.2)
(1) (2)

where the subscripts cyl and Pb indicate steel cylinder and lead calorimeter, respectively. Term
1 represents the loss in gravitational potential energy of the steel cylinders and term 2 represents
the gain in internal energy of the lead calorimeter. The ratio of these two energies* directly
gives Joule’s constant, J.

Required

1. Construct a table with the following columns (from left-to-right): run, Dz, Pb mass , T1 ,
T2 , D T ,  m c ( T2  T1 ) Pb ,  m g ( z 1  z 2 ) cyl , and
J. Include the appropriate units for each column. For each run compute the gravitational
potential energy loss of the steel cylinders,  m g ( z1  z 2 )  cyl , in ft lbf, the internal
energy gain of the lead calorimeter,  m c (T2  T1 )  Pb , in Btu, and J.

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 Experiment 6 First Law of Thermodynamics – Lead Smashing

* English units are used to distinguish the gravitational potential energy (in ft lbf) from the internal energy (in Btu).
SI units would give Joules for both gravitational potential energy and internal energy and would require conversion
back to English units to obtain Joule’s constant.
2. Plot, using linear scales,  m c (T2  T1 )  Pb
on the abscissa and
 m g ( z1  z 2 )  cylon the ordinate. Compute the slope of this line, which is Joule’s
constant. Hint: the origin is a datum point because when Dz=0, D T = 0, so D U = 0.
Furthermore, this point is known with 100% certainty. Accordingly, in EXCEL using
TRENDLINE, force your line through the origin. Also in this graph plot the known J =
778.17 (ft lbf)/Btu. Find the percent deviation between your result and the published value.

3. As a check on uniform calorimeter temperature compute the mean thickness and standard
deviation thickness using “Run 1 26Jun95 calorimeter thickness measurements after impact”
given at the bottom of Table 2 in “Experiment 6 Data.xls.”. Comment on your results.

Notation
c specific heat, Btu / (lbm °R)
g gravity, 32.2 ft/s2
J Joule's constant, 778.17 (ft lbf) / Btu
m mass of cylinders or lead, g, kg, or lbm
Q heat transfer, Btu
T temperature, °F or °C
U internal energy, Btu
V velocity, ft/s
W work, ft lbf
z elevation, in or m
Subscripts
cyl cylinder
Pb lead calorimeter
1,2 state 1 or state 2

References
1. Carnot, S., "Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire," edited by E. Mendoza, Dover, New
York, 1960, p. 61.

2. Joule, J. P., "The Scientific Papers of James Prescott Joule," Vol. I, Taylor & Francis Ltd.,
London, 1884, pp. 256-276.

3. Hirn, G.-A., "Théorie Mécanique de la Chaleur," Seconde Édition, Gauthier-Villars, Paris,

1865, pp. 58-62.

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Experiment 6 First Law of Thermodynamics – Lead Smashing

\ © 2005 by Ronald S. Mullisen \ Physical Experiments in Thermodynamics \ Experiment 6 \

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