MUSLIM UNIVERSITY OF MOROGORO

FACULTY OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES

ED 350: PRINCIPLES OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

Concepts of Guidance and Counselling: Meaning and their differences
The Meaning of Guidance

The term “Guidance” has been defined in various ways by different scholars.

Literally guidance means ‗to direct‘, ‗to point out‘, to show the path‘.

Therefore, in a layman definition Guidance simply means showing or pointing the way to be

followed.

It is the assistance or help rendered by a more experienced person to a less experiences person to

solve certain major problems. i.e. educational, vocational, personal etc.

Guidance is a service designed to help one individual or group of individuals in making

necessary adjustment to environment whether that be within the school or outside it.

"Guidance is the process of assisting the individual to choose, to prepare, to enter upon and

progress in course of action pertaining to the educational, vocational, recreational and

community services.

Guidance is a process of helping individuals through their own efforts to discover and develop their

potentialities both for personal happiness and social usefulness.

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According to Patterson (1973) guidance refers to a broad area of educational activities and

services aimed at assisting individuals in making and carrying out adequate plans and achieving

satisfactory adjustment.

Generally; Guidance: Is the process of helping an individual to gain self-understanding, self-

direction, and to adjust maximally to the environment (Biswalo, 1996). This help is designed to

assist people in deciding where they want to go, what they want to do, how to get to their

destination, and how to solve problems arising in their life.

Guidance is an umbrella term embracing counselling services, appraisal services, information

services, referral services, research and evaluation services, all of which help an individual to

grow in self-understanding and consequently in making wise decisions for best adjustment,

Sima (2006).

Guidance as a concept as well as a process

According t o Arbuckle et al. (1966) Guidance is a concept as well as a process.

As a concept guidance is concerned with the optimal development of the individual.

As a process guidance helps the individual in self understanding (understanding one‘s strengths

& limitations) and in self-direction (ability to solve problems, make choices and decision on

one‘s own).

The Meaning of Counselling

Despite the fact that the terms guidance and counselling are used interchangeably, but both terms

have different meaning. In a family, parents counsel their children, doctors counsel patients,

lawyers to clients and teachers to students.

 Counselling is a mutual relationship between a counsellor who is a professionally trained

helper, and a client who is a consumer of counselling services.

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  Counselling is a professional relationship between a counsellor who is professionally

trained and a client (counsellee) who is seeking help to resolve a problem. (Okech and

Ngumba 1991)

 Counselling is a face-face relationship between a client and a counsellor in a confidential

setting.

Counselling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who approach

a mutually defined problem, with mutual consideration of each other to the end that the

younger or less mature or more troubled of the two is aided to a self determined

resolution to his problem

Counselling constitutes three activities like: I - Informing A- Advising and C - Counselling

Informing: Here the role of the counselor is to give appropriate and correct information to the

clients.

Advising: The counselor suggests appropriate courses of action. Here the counselor offers

several options and recommends one according to your aim or interest.

Counselling: The counselor helps the students to clarify his needs, feelings or motivations so

that he can make the appropriate decision for himself.

So you can think of these three activities as a continuous spectrum of areas which merge into

each other.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELLING:

According to the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP) 2002, the

definition of Counselling emphasizes many features of counselling such as:

 Counselling takes place in the confidential environment

 Counselling is a two way process.

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  Counselling is the private relationship

 There is a mutual relationship between the two individuals. mutual respect between the two
 Counselling is a professional relationship i.e. one of the two must be trained to assist the

other

 Counselling does not involve giving advice

 Counselling is non-hierarchical relationship

Basic Principles of Guidance and Counselling

Principles of Guidance

Guidance is based upon the following principles.

i. Holistic development of individual: Guidance needs to be provided in the context of total

development of personality. Guidance deals with the development of the whole person. It

does not only focus on the learner’s academic achievement. But should also focus on

different aspects such as social and physical aspects (Thungu et. al. (2010).

ii. Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each individual is different from every

other individual. Each individual is the combination of characteristics which provides

uniqueness to each person. The dignity of the individual is supreme. The respect for

others should come naturally and should not be affected by titles, sex, age or appearance.

iii. Guidance is Concerned With Individual Behavioural Processes. It helps the individual

gain better control over his/her own behaviour such as likes, dislikes, tendencies and

weaknesses. In this principle the guidance worker uses tools such as: personal interviews,

counselling relationship, test interpretation sessions.

iv. Guidance Relies on Cooperation, Not on Compulsion (Force). Client should not be

forced. The client should consent by either explicitly asking for help or implicitly hinting,

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 suggesting or signifying that he needs help. Forced guidance may lead to stubbornness or

lack of cooperation.

v. Guidance is a Continuous and a Sequential Educational Process.

 Guidance is a lifelong process; begins at home goes on to school and into the society.

(Parents → Teachers → Community). Parents, teachers, and community have a role to

play in guiding the individual to acquire the right behaviour and values.

 Guidance should be oriented towards a single goal. Guidance given at home should be in

harmony with what the teachers and society provide. If parents advocate obedience at

home, then teachers should advocate obedience at school as well.

Principles of Counselling

i. Human Beings are Basically Self-Determining Creatures. Human beings have an

innate desire for independence and autonomy. They have the ability to control their

own destiny and to be fully responsible for their actions.

ii. A Client Should Move Towards a Greater Level of Self-Acceptance and Self-

Understanding. Aim to excel more.

iii. A Client Should Develop a Greater Level of Honesty in Respect to Himself. Client’s

real self should resemble the ideal self (one would like to be). Self-Concept (the way

individuals perceive themselves) should be congruent with their experiences.

iv. Objectives Should be Based on the Clint’s Need and Not the Counsellor’s. Guidance

is a client centred. It helps an individual to make a wise and informed decision.

Similarities of Guidance and Counselling

 Both are helping services

 Both aim at solving problems

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  Both are principled activities

Differences between Guidance and Counselling

Guidance Counselling
It is a continuous Process (a life-long process) Not necessarily continuous process
from cradle to death through early childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, and even in old age.
Guidance begins at home goes on to school
and into the society. (Parents → Teachers →
Community)
Involves giving advice and direction Don’t involve advice and direction
Maintain hierarchical relationship (top-down Maintain the mutual relationship i.e.
relationship) e.g. teacher/students, two-way traffic relationship
doctor/patient, parent/child
Can be done in public or confidential settings Done in confidential settings
Voluntary or Involuntary Process Voluntary Process. Relies on
Cooperation, Not on Compulsion
(Force).
It is both generalized and specialized service. Specialized service
Generalized service because everyone-
teachers, tutors, advisers, deans, parents- play
part in the programme. A service meant for
everyone.
It is a specialized service because qualified
personnel such as counselors, psychiatrists,
psychologists join hands to help the individual
to get out of his/her problem
Have ready-made solutions No ready-made solutions. The client
knows what is best for him and the
counselor is the catalyst in the process
of growth
It is broader than Counselling. It is a generic It is a specified service.
term which embraces counselling, information
services, appraisal services etc
Guidance is a proactive service or preventive Counselling is a reactive service. It
services assumes that the problems already exist.
Time immemorial Latter half of the 20th as the result of
social mobility and consumerism

Circumstances that may dictate the counselor to breach confidentiality

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 It is unethical to reveal client’s information except in certain situations where the counselor can

be forced to breach confidentiality. Circumstances that dictate the counselor to breach

confidential information about the client may include:

i.On the client’s consent

ii.When the client’s intention may cause/result harm to self or others

iii.When the client’s intention may endanger the life of the society

iv. When the client needs hospitalization

v.When the law requires doing so. When the client has committed crime e.g. raping, or when the

client under 16 years presenting to you a case of rape (because it is illegal action).

Development of Counselling in Tanzania and other places

Guidance and counselling, in one way or another, have been used by different people such as

parents, teachers, friends and elders since the beginning of human civilization.

The concept of guidance is deeply seated in the minds of mankind since the days of Adam and

Eve whereby human beings have been keenly alive to the necessity of helping and guiding one

another.

The guidance programme of the ancient Greeks and Romans, apprenticeship in the middle ages,

discipleship among the Muslims and Hindus, all suggest that guidance is not at all recent in

origin.

The history of guidance and counselling as a discipline in the world can be traced back from the

ancient Greece and Rome with philosophical teachings of Plato and Aristotle. There is also

evidence to argue that some of the techniques and skills of modern-day guidance Counsellors
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were practised by the Catholic Priests in the middle Ages as can be seen from the derivation of

the concept of confidentiality from within the context of the confession.

Formal guidance and counselling programme in schools using specialised textbooks is also by no

means a new phenomenon. The genesis of guidance and counselling movement as practiced

today began in the United States of America (USA at the close of the nineteenth. The services

gained momentum in the twentieth century to assist students with their educational development

and career aspirations.

Pioneers of Counselling

Three persons credited as pioneers in Counselling. Frank Parsons, Jesse B. Davis and Clifford

Beers. These three persons identified themselves as teachers and social reformer.

Their focus was on helping children and young adults to learn about themselves and others, and

the world of work. Their work was built on the idea of moral instruction, (on being good and

doing right) as well as dealing intrapersonal and interpersonal relations. These were turbulant

times to help and take steps to do something.

FRANK PARSONS (1854-1908)

At the beginning of the guidance movement, the focus was on the provision of vocational

guidance services. A seminal work in the history of career decision making and counselling is

widely accepted to be that of Frank Parsons. He is the most highly recognized individual in

vocational counselling. He is often hailed as the “the father of Guidance„. Parsons was

characterized as a broad scholar, a persuasive writer, a tireless activist and a great intellectual.

Similarly In 1908, the Vocation Bureau of Boston was established, a major step in the

insititutionalization of vocational guidance to assist young men in making vocational choices

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based on vocational aptitudes and interest. He introduced the term vocational guidance. Parsons

wrote his first book on “Choosing a Vocation” between 1905 and 1908 during the guidance

movement in the USA which was published in 1909 (one year after his death). He developed a

framework to help individuals decide on a career.

Frank Parsons’ Steps for Choosing a Career

1. The person should have a clear understanding of his or her aptitudes, abilities, interests

and limitations (Self-Assessment).

2. The person should be aware of available job opportunities, the requirements and demands

of the work, the compasantions given and prospects of the job (Study of Options)

3. To match or establish the relationship between these two bodies of information i.e. the

abilities of the person and characteristics of the job (Careful Reasoning)

According to Parsons, an ideal career choice should base on matching personal traits such as

abilities and personality with job characteristics such as wages, requirements, prospects, etc.

Through true reasoning. This is more likely to enusure vocational success.

His framework later became the popular “ Trait-Factor Theory“ in career guidance which is still

used today.

JESSE B. DAVIS

School counselling was first introduced into the classroom curriculum in 1889 by a high school

principal Jesse B. Davis. Davis instituted guidance programme in high school to decrease

problems created during the industrial revolution.

Guidance and counselling services were introduced in America during the industrial revolution,

a period of rapid industrial growth, social protests, social reforms and utopian idealism. The

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service was introduced to address the negative social conditions associated with the industrial

revolution. During that period the large industrial centres attracted immigrant minority and rural

populations seeking employment. After the 1900s and the industrial revolution the world wars

were the next major event that had an impact on the development of guidance and counselling

services. Guidance and counselling services arose in that context, as a response to the social

crisis brought about by the wars. Students and young people, including other war veterans,

needed counselling to overcome the traumatic experiences they had undergone together with

their families, relatives and friends.

As the decades of the 1960s, 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s unfolded, guidance and counselling in

schools started to respond to the national needs and concerns. Social problems including

substance abuse, mental health issues, and changing family patterns all pulled and tugged at

defining the purpose of the guidance in schools and role of school counsellors. At the same time,

economic issues dealing with changing labour force, needs and globalization industry were also

present. In this case, counsellors extended their activities beyond vocational advice to problems

of social adjustment.

The guidance movement in Africa involved educating the youth about the traditions and the

culture of the community. This was done by elders who considered it their social responsibility.

The elders depended on their age, knowledge, exposure and expertise. The objective of the

guidance in Africa at that time, was to mould the individual in such a way that he/she could fit

into the society as a responsible member in the community. This was often carried out through

the use of artistic expressions such as dances, stories, and provocative or non-provocative verbal

instructions.

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Guidance and counselling in Tanzanian schools started due to the deterioration in students’

behaviour after the introduction of western education. This alienation from their cultural norms,

values and beliefs led to behavioural problems which needed intervention services. This service

in Tanzanian schools started through the introduction of career masters/mistresses who provided

services although with no formal training for their new roles. The service was made an integral

part of the educational system and plays a vital role in preventing educational, personal, social,

mental, emotional and other similar problems among secondary school students.

For students to be properly informed, they need the assistance of trained guidance and

counselling personnel. Hence, the Government of Tanzania, through the Ministry of Education

and Vocational Training (MoEVT), introduced a guideline for counsellors in schools and

teachers’ colleges. In that guideline, the service features the core competencies that all

practitioners need in teacher-education programme regardless of their job settings. The core

competencies focused on the knowledge, skills and attitudes needed by all guidance and

counselling practitioners. These include: ethical behaviour and professional conduct, advocacy

and leadership in advancing clients’ learning, career development and personal concerns,

awareness and appreciation of clients’ cultural differences, awareness of their own capacity and

limitations, ability to design, implement and evaluate guidance and counselling programme,

familiarity with information on educational training, employment trends, labour market and

social issues.

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According to the Education and Training Policy (ETP) of 1995 and the revised edition of 2009,

the provision of guidance and counselling services is mandatory and a vital component of any

level of education as stipulated in these policies. Furthermore,

Guidance and Counselling section has been established in the Ministry of Education and

Vocational Training to coordinate services in schools and teachers’ colleges. An Educational

Circular for the establishment of guidance and counselling services in schools and colleges titled

“Uanzishwaji wa Huduma za Malezi na Ushauri Nasaha Katika Shule na Vyuo vya Ualimu”

which means the inception of guidance and counselling services in schools and colleges was

issued. Also a Guide titled “Huduma ya Malezi na Nasaha Shuleni: Mwongozo wa Wanasihi wa

Shule na Vyuo which means Guidance and Counselling Services in Schools: A Guide for

Counsellors in Schools and Colleges was issued in 2007.

The basic guidance and counselling services include information service, orientation/ mentoring

service, counselling service, appraisal service, placement service, research service, career

development service, educational guidance and responsive services such as consultancy,

professional development advocacy, programme planning and development and other related

issue. All these services aim at furnishing students with the appropriate guidance and counselling

services in educational institutions specifically in secondary schools. For this reason, the said

services are the gateway to the prevention of undesirable behaviours. The absence of these

services in the present-day school system are likely to lead to the extraordinary rise in the crime

wave, violence among students, wrong career choice, and inefficient selection of subject

combination among other issues.

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NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF GUIDANCE

 To help students know themselves better

 To give students information that will help them to succeed in life

 To assist students in planning for educational and vocational choices

 To help students so that they can solve their problems

 To encourage students develop special abilities and right attitudes

 To establish mutual understanding between teachers and students

Guidance is needed wherever there are problems. The need and importance of guidance are as

follows.

 Self understanding and self direction: Guidance helps in understanding one‘s strength,

limitations and other resources. Guidance helps individual to develop ability to solve

problems and take decisions.

 Optimum development of individual

 Solving different problem of the individual

 Academic growth and development

 Vocational maturity, vocational choices and vocational adjustments Social personal

adjustment

 Better family life

 Good citizenship

 For conservation and proper utilization of human resources

 For national development

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Guidance is helpful not only for student and teacher in an educational institution but also to the

parents, administrators, planners and community members.

Purpose of Guidance and Counselling in Educational Institutions

The objectives of the guidance and counselling programme are to provide services which will
meet certain needs in the growth and development of young people, namely:

1. Personal development and adjustment.

Self-understanding: the discovery of potentialities, special aptitudes, and interests.
Recognition and development of favourable attitudes and habits, and the elimination of
undesirable traits
2. Educational progress and adjustment.
Selection of appropriate courses in line with individual needs, interests, abilities, and
circumstances
Choice of the right type of advanced training, college or otherwise
3. Occupational development and adjustment.
Information on occupational opportunities and trends
Knowledge of occupational fields toward which individual aptitudes and interests may best be
directed. Help in finding suitable employment.
4. Follow-up after leaving school.
Research with respect to needs of pupils and the effectiveness of the secondary school
curriculum.
Evaluation of the guidance programme.

Guidance and Counselling: Areas of Focus (Content)

The areas of guidance and counselling are very vast Personal, Educational, Vocational (bread

and butter aims), moral, Health, Leisure-time etc.

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School guidance and counselling services are focused on three distinct areas, although these

areas are frequently combined to create a meaningful context within student learning activities.

Personal/Social Guidance and Counselling (Learn to live):

This area focuses on self-knowledge, social skills, and safety issues.

Students face many personal problems related to themselves, their parents and family, friends

and teachers, etc. They often have memories related to home or family which creates feeling of

disappointment in them. If their parents are expecting too much of them it leaves them with a

feeling of incompetence and insecurity leading poor self-concept and self esteem.

These issues are aligned with the changes in human dynamics and the maturing concept of self.

This area addresses issues faced by young people at each particular age and stage of

development and maturity. Assists the individual to behave appropriately in relation to other

members of the society. It is concern with sexual relationship, interpersonal conflicts, financial

problems, family and parental issues, HIV/AIDS counselling, sex education, problem related to

social adjustment etc.

Social Guidance: We are social animals. But social relationships constitute a problem area for

most of the students. School/educational institution is a miniature society and pupil from

different socio-economic status, linguistic and socio-cultural background read there.Students

some time may face problems in adjustment and social relationship. It is very important that the

students to be helped in acquiring in feeling of security and being accepted by the group; in

developing social relationship and in becoming tolerant towards others. This is the task of social

guidance. Formally social guidance can be given by educational institutions whereas informal

guidance may be provided by Family, religious institutions, Media etc.

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Educational Guidance and Counselling (Learn to learn)

The educational area of guidance and counselling services identifies key knowledge and skills

that students require over time to become effective, independent learners within and beyond the

school setting.

Educational guidance is related to every aspect of education school / colleges, the curriculum, the

methods of instruction, other curricular activities, disciplines etc.

Some of the objectives of educational guidance are:

 To assist the pupil to understand him/herself i.e. to understand his/her potentialities,

strength and limitations.

 To help the child make educational plans consist with his/her abilities, interests and

goals.

 To enable the student to know detail about the subject and courses offered (problems

related to exams, academic advice and mentoring, timetable matters and course

selection).

 To assist the student in making satisfactory progress in various school/ college subjects.

 To help the child to adjust with the schools, its rules, regulations, social life connected

with it.

 To help the child in developing good study habits.

 To help the child to participate in out of class educational activities in which he can

develop leadership and other social qualities.

Career Guidance and Counselling Services (Learn to work):

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 There are thousands of specialized jobs/ occupations. In this context, there is a great need for

vocational guidance. Vocational guidance is a process of assisting the individual to choose an

occupation, prepare for it, enter upon it and progress in it. It is concerned primarily with helping

individuals make decisions and choices involved in planning a future and building a career. The

purpose behind assisting the youth to choose, prepare, enter and progress in a vocation is the

optimum growth of the individual.

Some of the aims and objectives of vocational guidance are:

 Assisting pupil to discover his/her own abilities and skills to fit them into general

requirements of the occupation under consideration.

 Helping the individual to develop an attitude towards work that will dignify whatever

type of occupation s/he may wish to enter.

 Assisting the individual to think critically about various types of occupations and to learn

a technique for analyzing information about vocations.

 Assisting pupils to secure relevant information about the facilities offered by various

educational institutions engaging in vocational training.

 Assisting the individual to choose and prepare for an occupation that is compatible with

his interests and aptitudes. It includes interview skills, Curriculum Vitae writing (CV),

application letter writing, job selection and inviting organizations to give a public talk.

Scope/range of Services

i.Information Services: Psycho-educational services

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 ii.Mentoring/Orientation Services: is the information or training given to students before they start

new activities. The focus is on students from primary school being inducted or introduced to the

secondary school life and those in secondary school being introduced to the world of work and

future studies

iii.Appraisal Service/Testing Service:

iv.Placement Service/Follow-up Service

v.Referral Service: this could be referral to the medical personnel, peer counselors, police,

religious leaders, legal personnel, other counselors, sponsoring agencies, head of school, other

teachers, parents/guardians, social welfare department, village/street authorities etc URT (2007).

vi.Research Services

vii.Students welfare Service

Roles of the Counselor:

Regardless of the school setting, school counsellors, like all school staff, have a set of

professional and personal responsibilities that define their scope of activities. School counsellors

address the needs of:

 Individual (students) Consultation

 Parents/guardians Consultation

 Teacher Consultation (Colleagues and professional associates)

 School and community. Acting as link between school and community

• Self

Working with Students

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School counsellors are responsible for recognizing their boundaries of competence and provide

only those services and use only those techniques for which they are qualified by training or

experience.

The school counsellor’s first professional responsibility is to the students. The educational,

academic, career, personal, and social needs of all students within the school setting.

To meet the needs of all students, school counsellors plan and deliver programming that is

infused into the regular school day.

Because students may have diverse needs that require specific counselling expertise, school

counsellors are responsible for recognizing their boundaries of competence and provide only

those services and use only those techniques for which they are qualified by training or

experience. When their professional assistance cannot adequately meet students’ needs, or when

students’ needs require intensive or long-term counselling beyond what schools may reasonably

be expected to provide, appropriate referrals are made.

Working with Parents/Guardians

Parents/guardians play a primary role in the lives of students.

Collaboration with parents in the best interest of students is a key activity of school counsellors.

School counselors do not provide family counselling. The focus of school counselling is on the

personal, social, educational, and career development of the student.

Providing parents, as appropriate, with accurate information in a caring manner is part of

working with minors in a school setting. The open sharing of guidance education activities with

the public is separate from the confidential nature of counselling relationships. Working with

students to keep parents appropriately informed without breaching confidentiality is an important

responsibility. Issues of confidentiality, informed consent, referral, and right to privacy are enshrined.
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Working with Colleagues and Professional Associates

Guidance and counselling services are part of a broader delivery system designed to enhance the success

of all learners. The school counselor establishes and maintains an ongoing professional

relationship with school staff, clinicians, and other service providers who work with students in

the school. Colleagues and professional associates are consulted and provided with professional

information related to the wellbeing of students who are also in their care.

Educational planning and ancillary services are coordinated in the best interest of the student.

Information is shared with adherence to appropriate guidelines for confidentiality. School

counsellors must work within the limits of the law, within the policies and procedures of school

divisions and schools, as well as within the ethical requirements of the associations of which they

may be members.

Working with the School and Community

School counsellors play a dual role of educator (through guidance education activities) and

therapist (through counselling activities). This dual role particularly merges when the counsellor

is involved in prevention work. All of life’s situations interact with each other. For instance, by

addressing a student’s personal/social needs through counselling, the school counsellor

simultaneously teaches resiliency skills and affects the student’s readiness for educational

challenges. As a result of this interrelationship, the school counsellor supports the integration and

contextualization of guidance and counselling services to address school and community needs.

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The school counsellor therefore develops a comprehensive and developmental guidance and

counselling program that meets the needs of the specific school population. This development

process includes identifying needs, implementing and monitoring programs, as well as adjusting

plans based on the developmental needs of students. Regular evaluation of the plan and its

implementation are important to ensure the school and community are being well served.

Disseminating information to the school community about the services provided through school

guidance and counselling is an important role of the school counsellor. Collaborating with

community resource people to increase opportunities for students and making appropriate

referrals to community agencies assists students with lifelong learning, transitions, appropriate

care and treatment, and success.

BASIC SKILLS OF COUNSELLING

The basic skills of Counselling are represented by the acronym REUNDA

R = Relationship building

E= Exploration of the client’s problem

UND= Understanding client’s problem

A= Action Plan

Communication Skills

 Non-verbal Communication (Client)

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Transmission of information among individuals through non verbal behaviours can be through

various channels such as

1. facial expression

2. body movement

3. Proxemics (study of personal space): the study of distance individuals maintain between each

other in social interaction and its significance.

Non-Verbal Language or Kinesis is articulation of the body or body movements resulting from

muscular and skeletal shift. This includes all actions, physical or physiological, automatic

reflexes posters, facial expressions, gestures and other body movements.

Non-Verbal Communication behaviour can be categorized into four major Channels

 Time: This involves the promptness or slowness (time you take to respond to the individual)

or amount of time taken in attending to particular people or person. This communicates a

message.

 Body: the body and its parts are important in conveying the message. Examples of the body

messages are:

o Eye Contact:

o Eyes: eyes with full of tears, wide or sparking in response to a relationship, the position of

eyelid etc.

o Skin: its perspiration, goose pimples, pallor

o Posture: The ways you arrange your body – these say how you feel, e.g. crossing your arms,

making your body small, turning a shoulder, dropping your shoulder, opening your arms and

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 legs, leaning forward a little, sitting sideways, slouch (bend), facing others, facing away from

others etc.

o Facial expression: smiling, lip biting, wrinkled forehead or sad mouth.

o Hand and Arm Gesture: hand shaking, waving goodbye, sign of calling etc.

o Self Pain Inflicting Behaviour: Nail biting, cracking knuckles, tugging (pulling) at hair,

rubbing or stroking etc. such behaviour can be signs of nervousness (anxiety), shyness etc.

o Repetitive Behaviour: tapping feet, drumming or thumping of fingers, fidgeting (be restless)

while sitting, trembling, playing with buttons on dress. These are signs of nervousness or

restlessness (impatience).

o Sign of Command: snapping fingers, holding fingers on lip to demand silence, pointing,

staring (watching), shrugging shoulders, nodding head in affirmation, shacking head in

disagreement, winking eyes.

o Touching: Touching has several meanings.

a. Touching to get attention- tap on shoulder.

b. Affectionate tender touching especially by lovers.

c. Touching to challenge e.g. poking a finger at someone’s chest to elicit a fight

d. Symbol touch- of comradeship (such as hand shacking)

e. Belittling touch a put on the top of someone’s head.

 vocal media: this communication deals with three aspects of the voice:

i.tone of voice: e.g. flat tone (absence of feelings), weak tone (hesitant and not sure of what you

are saying, strong tone (confident)

ii. Rate of speech: the speed could fast, medium or slow.

iii.Loudness of voice: (pitch) loud (anger), medium or low sound (unsure).

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 environment:

i. Distance: Distance between speaker and listener

ii. Arrangement of Physical setting: e.g. homes, offices, working desks etc they convey

different messages such as untidy (disorderly), neat, casual or expensive furnished office

or house may mean, “take off your shoes, don’t touch, behave while here” etc.

iii. Clothing: the Colour shade (red colour in Tz Simba Sc. & Valentine Day Lovers day

worldwide) and style of the clothes we wear have different messages (night garment,

disco garment, sports wear, etc.

iv. Position in the Room: the position of the counsellor in the room may bring various

connotations in a counselling relationship e.g. if the counsellor blocks the exit or

maneuvers a client into a boxed position may be interpreted as if the counsellor has other

motives than helping the client.

NB: Non-verbal behaviour are just clues to the individual’s feelings and motives, but not

proof of them. Also non-verbal behaviours do vary from society to society and culture to

culture. These clues give counsellors additional information about how others feel and think.

These aspects reinforce the counsellor s to be more skillful as well as sensitive to these

differences.

 Non-Verbal Behaviour (Counsellor)

According to Egan (1975), non verbal behaviour or physical attending behaviour includes: eye

contact, adopting an open posture, facing the client squarely, leaning slightly forward and having

a natural and relaxed posture.

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These attending behaviours in counselling are presented by the acronym ROLES which stand

for:

 R- Relaxed Manner: the counsellor should always try to be who he is (Natural without

pretence).

 O- Open Posture: The ways you arrange your body and face – these say how you feel, e.g.

crossing your arms, making your body small, turning a shoulder. Or opening your arms and

legs, leaning forward a little, and having the right expression on your face

 L- Leaning forward to the client

 E- Eye Contact (Maintaining professional/good eye contact).

 The counsellor should look directly to the client to facilitate a deeper level of

involvement.

 Show that you are listening and concentrating. You should look and not steering because

it brings threats.

 Be aware of culture. E.g. in Northern Europe, people are expected to look into the eyes of

the people with whom they are speaking. If they do not, they may be seen as dishonest. In

other cultures, a woman who looks directly at men's faces – this is lacking modesty

(respectfulness).

 S- Sitting near the client. In this aspect we are talking about spaces between people; (not

too close, not too far). Interviewing, guidance and counselling go better if you sit fairly close

together – but not too close. Close proximity. Not so near, not so far.

Verbal communication
This is a complex part comprising of the following supportive skills:

Oral qualities and basic listening skills

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Feedback: Counselor often provides feedback during the counselling process. For constructive

feedback there are some rules that need to be observed.

 Be descriptive

 Don’t use negatives

 Don’t exaggerate ( i.e. don’t make a mountain out of a molehill).

 Don’t be judgemental

 Speak for yourself. Talk about yourself first, not about the other person.

 Phrase the issues as a statement and not as a question.

 Limit the feedback to things that you know for certain

Self-disclosure: The counselor reveals something about his or her personal life to the client to

make then realize that he is not the only one who has been afflicted (troubled) by the problem at

hand. Never give false disclosure.

Empathy: the counselor feels with the client as he endeavors to in getting out of the problem.

Reflection of feelings: Emotional responses by the counselor.

Paraphrasing: The counselor listens to a short session of the conversation and says the same

thing in different words in short.

Immediacy or Direct mutual communication: Talking about the here and now of the

interpersonal relationship.

Minimal Encouragers: Small indicators which show the client that the counselor is listening

and encouraging him or her to continue talking, e,g. wow! Ok! Yes, oh! So, then!

Confrontation: Responsible unmasking of the discrepancies, distortions, smoke screens and

play games in order to hide from self-understanding and positive change in behaviour.

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Respect: The counselor accepts the counselee as a fellow human being who is afflicted by a

problem. Appreciation of the counselee’s presenting problem however trivial it may appear to

him or her.

Trust: The counselor trusts the counselee and what he or she says without apparent reservations

(doubts).

Genuineness: Helping in a clear and unambiguous manner.

Open & closed questions: Example of open question; would you explain more about your

problem with your wife.

Concreteness: Solutions reached should not be vague or merely thought-out.

PROCEDURES FOLLOWED IN INTERVIEWING INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS FOR

THE PURPOSE OF COUNSELLING

Categories of Counsellees

There are two main categories of Counsellees

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a. Individual Counsellees: a problem is identified in an individual person and attended to

accordingly. Individual counselling is one to one helping relationship in which the counsellor

helps the client to solve or to cope with the problem.

b. Group Counsellees: Group counselling: this is one to group helping relationship in which the

counsellor works with a group of clients in seeking a solution to their common problems. Group

counselling involves a minimum of a three persons.

The counselling Process

This is the process where actual counselling takes place. There are three parts in this process,

namely: the introduction, the main body and the closure.

 The Introduction:

In the counselling interview, the counsellor considers preliminaries before the main parts of

counselling interview.

Preliminaries: These are important and necessary for a successful counselling interview.

In the meeting of the counsellor and the client, it is advised that the counsellor should be trustful,

have empathy and keep the client’s secrets

These include:

i. Choice of physical surrounding: to make both counsellor and client comfortable

physically and emotionally. Can be anywhere provided that it is comfortable and allow

confidential conversation; under a tree, play ground, or in the room

ii. Sitting arrangement: No physical barriers e.g. table, to separate counsellor and client. If

such barrier is present it makes the counsellor to take up the frightening image of an

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 official bureaucrat. It therefore blocks the spirit of equity and friendship which must

prevail.

iii. Equipment: the counselling room should be equipped (if possible) with telephone (for

quick consultation) with other relevant helper, fitted with lockable cabinets/drawers for

safe keeping of counsellee records.

iv. The setting should be arranged in a way that the counsellor sits closest to the door in

readiness to flee (escape) to safety should there occur violence situation during

counselling. Also is advised to leave the door ajar to avoid murmuring about dubious

dealings behind the closed door.

v. Communication: Should be simple, clear for a client to understand gestures, body

language and non-verbal behaviours should be meaningful to the client.

NB: The counsellor should prepare the physical environment i.e. there should be no physical

barriers, e.g. a table between them, no direct light into the eyes of the client, the room should be

in the place where no other people will be able to hear the conversation. The room should be

comfortable so as to make it easy for the client to speak out his/her problems. The counsellor

should employ various counselling skills

 The Main Body:

This is the actual conversational process pertaining client’s problems. The counsellor should use

as many relevant counselling skills as possible to facilitate the interview and to enable effective

outcome. In this part of the counselling interview, the counsellor listens, talks, to give helpful

29
information that help the client to gain self-understanding that leads to self-decision making and

adjustment on how to solve or cope with the problem.

Also in this part of counselling interview, exploration of the problem is made; strategies and

alternatives are sought by the client with the help of the counsellor. Here the counsellor needs to

remain his/her expertise in questioning techniques to help the client with the problem.

 Closure:

It is a good idea to inform the counsellee well in advance that the interview will not go on

indefinitely and that he must be prepared to cope with the situation after the interview is over.

This advance warning enables the counsellee to easily terminate his relationship with the

counsellor.

Counselling session lasts between 45-60 minutes. This however, depends on the nature of the

problem. It should be neither too long nor too short. The counsellor prepare client for closure not

to close abruptly to leave the client out-hanging e.g. we have 10 minutes to wind our session. It

is not possible to respond to all of the counsellee’s problems. Make the client understand that it is

possible to come back to continue or with new problems. Once the counsellor finds that the

counsellee has made sufficient progress to cope with his currently defined problem the interview

or series of interviews should be closed.

Advantages of Individual Counselling

1. Free to express feelings 4. Easy to build relationship

2. Assurance of confidentiality 5. Easy to follow up issues

3. Privacy is maintained 6. Easy to observe behaviour

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 7. easy to develop action plans 8. Easy for the counsellor to support and

work with an individual

Disadvantages of Individual Counselling

1. It may consume a lot of time in dealing with one students

2. Students miss opportunities to share ideas with others

GROUP COUNSELLING

Features/Characteristics of Group Counselling

a. Compatibility: i.e. oneness or similarities. E.g. youths, students, employers etc.

b. Clients must have common problem (s) e.g. hysteria (uncontrollable laughter or crying)

c. The ideal number of clients should range from 6-15 members

d. Monopolistic and bullies tendencies should be avoided where one or two individuals tend to

grab all the chances of explaining the problem to the counsellor. This enables them to respect

other members’ views before they are allowed to join the group session.

e. In group session one hour is an ideal length for the counselling interview process.

f. Psychotics and psychopaths should be removed from the group lest they disrupt the

meaningful discussion

g. Members of the group must be mature and mentally sound to be able to talk about and tackle

their common problems.

Criteria used on group formation

i.Age: Closed related age show social maturity of the group member.

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ii.Size: 6-8 members for effective participation

iii.Sex: boys or girls only or mixed

iv. Personality composition (type). It is recommended that personality type should be mixed

(heterogeneous).

v.Duration of session: this varies depending on the age.

The Advantages of Group Counselling

i. It is efficient. It saves time when dealing with many students at a time

ii.Students get an opportunity to share their experiences. It provides a social interpersonal context

in which to work on interpersonal problems.

iii.Client learn interpersonal communication skills

iv.Gives opportunity to give and receive help

v.It stimulates discussions after the counselling session

vi.It helps to solve common problems easily

Disadvantages of Group Counselling

i.Lack of freedom of expression

ii.There exists a lot of disagreement and lack of information

iii.Lack of trust which may cause some clients to avoid sharing their feelings, attitudes and values.

iv.It may be difficult to manage the group if the counsellor lacks adequate skills for group

counselling. i.e. the role of the counsellor in a group setting is more complex.

v.It needs a bigger space

vi.To a certain extent, it lacks confidentiality, so some students may not like it.

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vii.There is a potential (possible) for psychological destruction as well as potential psychological

growth

Methods of Group Counselling

Specific methods of group counselling according to Biswalo (1996) include:

1. Brainstorming: A short and clear statement on some real problems is presented to the

students (clients) who get involved in an intensive discussion on the presented problem

2. Case discussion: A specific problem is discussed with the group working as a team

3. Free Group Discussion: the group controls, while the counsellor observes and guides.

4. Role Play and Simulation: students can demonstrate their problems by role-playing and

imitating

Group counselling goes through four stages, which are involvement, transition, working and

termination.

Goals of Group Counselling

i. To move towards authenticity and genuineness

ii. To recognize and accept certain polarities/division/split within oneself

iii. To find ways of solving personal problems

iv. To explain hidden potentials and creativity

v. To become sensitive to the needs and feelings of others

When not Recommended Group Counselling

i. When the client is in the state of personal crisis

ii. When confidentiality is essential in protecting the client

iii. When you intend to use tests that are self-concept related
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 iv. If a client has unusual fear of public speaking

v. If a client is ineffective in the area interpersonal relationship skills

vi. When the client’s need for attention is too great to be merged in a group

Characteristics of an Effective Group Counsellor

a. Listening: effective listening e.g. reflection of feelings and restatement of content

b. Perception Check: Understanding the client’s feelings

c. Being in the Lookout for Feedback: the counsellor should provide descriptive feedback and

not evaluative feedback

d. Linking: Linking points out the similarities between the experiences of various group

members so as to encourage more interaction within the group.

e. Providing Open-Ended Leads: “How” and “what” questions are more useful than “why”

f. Creating Confrontation: the counsellor can confront discrepancies/inconsistency in client’s

verbal and non-verbal behaviour.

g. Using progress Skills: Asking group members what is happening or has happened during the

session and then commend on the progress.

THE TYPES OF COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES

Based on the nature of the counselling process and the role of the counsellor, the following are

the three types of counselling techniques

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  Directive Counselling

 Non-Directive counselling

 Eclectic Counselling

A. DIRECTIVE (COUNSELOR-CENTRED/CLINICAL/PRESCRIPTIVE) COUNSELLING:

B. G. Williamson is the chief exponent.

The counsellor assumes the major responsibility of solving the problem.

Counsellor identifies, defines, diagnoses and provides a solution to the problem.

Counsellor directs thinking by informing explaining, interpreting and advising.

Counsellor-oriented

Emphasis is on the problem.

Steps: Role of the Counsellor

Analysis- collecting information/data from various sources to understand the client‘s problem.

The data needed for an adequate understanding of the problem the client is facing.

Synthesis - interpreting and organizing data to reveal students assets, liabilities, adjustments etc.

Summarizing and organizing the data so that they reveal the student’s weaknesses and strengths.

Diagnosis - identifying the nature and cause of the problem. Formulating the conclusions

regarding the nature and cause of the problems of the client

Prognosis-predicting the future development of the client’s problem

Counselling – the counselor taking steps with the client to bring about adjustment and

readjustment to normal

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Follow up- helping with recurrence or new patterns. To determine the effectiveness of the

counselling given

NB: In stages 1-4 the counselor works without involvement of the client. The client comes after

the prediction stage

Merits

Time saving and economical

Gives happiness to the counselee as he gets a solution to this problem

Emphasis is on the intellectual rather than the emotional aspect.

Demerits

 Kills the initiative  Undemocratic

 Makes him helpless  Made dependent

 Does not guide counselee to be efficient

and confident

B. NON DIRECTIVE COUNSELLING

Also Known As (Client-Oriented / Centered Counselling or Permissive Approach):

The client is the counselee (client) is the hub of the counselling process.

Chief exponent - Carl Rogers

Counselee is allowed free expression

Counsellor only directs and guides the client through the alternatives so that he/she may

choose the best.

Counsellor asks a few questions, so as to think about the solution of the problem.

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Counselee takes active part, gains insight into the problem with the help of the counsellor

and arrives at the decision and action to be taken

Counsellor‘s role is passive

Goal is independent and integration of the client rather than the solution

Role of the counsellor is to create an atmosphere in which the counselee can work out his

own understanding

Emotional aspect rather than the intellectual aspect is stressed

Counselling relationship is the establishment of a warm, permissive and accepting

climate which helps the client to express his self structure.

Merits

Freedom of the individual

Relieves tensions due to catharsis

Moves toward acceptance of himself

Confronts weaknesses without feeling threatened

Demerits
Time consuming

Wisdom and judgement of the client cannot be relied upon

All the problems cannot be sorted out through talking

 ECLECTIC COUNSELLING

This is a selective method of counselling. Counselors who advocate eclectic or selective

counselling believe that there are strengths and weaknesses in any counseling method.

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Chief exponent - Bordin (Thome)

Counselling may be evaluated along a continuum from directive to non directive to

directive

Eclectic is a continuation and synthesis of directive and non-directive counselling

Both counsellor and counselee are active and cooperative

Both do the talking in turn

The problem is solved jointly

The counsellor studies the needs and personality of the client and then selects the

technique (appropriate). Begins with directive but switches over to non-directive or vice

versa as demanded by the situation.

Steps

Initial interview

 Develops rapport and does structuring so that client understands what to expect

from the counselling

 Tentative diagnosis and plan of counselling is formulated

 Gathers information about the client and the client needs to be helped to

assimilate this information

 Client achieves emotional release and gains insights, modifies

perceptions/attitudes about himself and situations

Check Your Progress

1. Name the types of counselling with their exponents.

2. Differentiate between Directive and Non-Directive counselling.

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 3. Why is Eclectic Counselling preferred to Directive and Non-directive

counselling?

4. You have received a client with whom you have learned that you can only help

by using counselor-centred method. Identify the stages you will need to go

through to handle the problem.

5. Differentiate Client-Centred Method from Eclectic Method

Client-Centred Method Eclectic Method

The focus is on the client It is the combination of the Counselor-
Centred and Client-Centred
No room for flexibility Gives the flexibility to counselee by
choosing the best tenets of several methods
available depending on the problem
Believes that single technique is the best Believes that no single technique is best
No ready-made solutions to the problem Can be either ready-made solutions or not
from the counselor
It is not selective It is selective because it selects and uses
only the best parts of non-directive and
directive techniques
The counselor believes that the client The counselor believes that neither of the
knows much about his/her problem two know much about the problem
Pioneered by Carl Rogers Pioneered by F.C. Thorne

THEORIES OF COUNSELLING

This part presents a summary on different approaches to counselling. Each of these

theories of counselling generates a set of techniques; a way of working that is consistent

with that particular perspective. Most counselling theories can be classified as

psychoanalytic, humanistic, behavioral, cognitive and Family systems Therapy. The

process of developing one’s own comfortable style of counselling, involves becoming

familiar with several of these theories, and finding the one, which is more likely the

synthesis of several, that fits one best.

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Meaning of a Counselling Theory
Counselling theory is a frame of reference that establishes sound philosophical and

conceptual principles on which to base one’s practical advice to the client.

The goal of counselling theories is to change client’s behaviour (behaviour modification)

either abnormal or unsatisfactory.

Counselling theories help to explain reality in light of the counselors’ own experience.

Classification of Counselling Theories

There are several ways of classifying counselling theories. But in this course we are

going to focus on only three major classifications.

1. Directive or Non-Directive
If the process is controlled and directed by the counsellor (Counsellor- Centred) it is

directive. If the process is directed and controlled by the client (client-Centred) it is non-

directive.

2. Insight-oriented or Action-Oriented

Insight-Oriented is based on how people learn to change. Do people learn by first

understanding their current behaviour then learning to change that behaviour?

Action-oriented is based on Practice. Do people learn to change by practising the new

behaviour under the guidance of counselor regardless of their past and present

understanding of that particular behaviour?

3. Affective, Cognitive or Behavioural Approaches

Affective approach to counselling focuses on the feelings and emotions of the clients.

Cognitive approach to counselling focuses on thinking or logical intellectual approach

and behavioural approach focuses on the specific behaviours of the client.

Psychoanalysis Theory

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Proponent: Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Other Key figures in psychoanalytic approach include, Erik Erikson and Margaret

Mahler. In this approach there are three major psychoanalytic perspectives; Freudian,

Ego Psychology and Object Relations. These perspectives were delivered from the work

of Sigmund Freud, the founder of Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is the theory of counseling and personality development.

According to this theory counseling is a philosophy of human nature and a method of

therapy.

Psychoanalysis is the major influence of all other formal systems of counseling. All other

theories are extension, modification reaction and borrowed the aspect of it.

The theory has the longest history in terms of counseling.

The focus of the theory

This theory pays attention to unconscious factors related to infantile sexuality in the

development of neurosis.

The theory based on insight unconscious factors that influence our behavior with the

belief that the current behavior of any human being is influenced by the first six (6) years

of life.

Determination of human behavior

Human behavior is determined by three things:

 Irrational forces

 Unconscious motivation

 Biological make up or drive

A human personality consists of three (3) systems

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  The id

 The Ego

 The Superego

The Id: Is the biological component. The primitive and selfish aspect of human

behaviour which demand the immediate gratification to increase pleasure by reducing the

pain

At the infancy/childhood stage the human behaviour is characterized by id.

No negotiation to the environment because it is a biological need. No other component.

The id is ruled or work under PLEASURE PRINCIPLE

The id is the primary source of energy and the basis of instincts existing within the

unconscious mind and is driven by what Freud called “the pleasure principle.” This

illogical, amoral entity serves to reduce tension and pain while restoring pleasure.

The Ego: This is the psychological component. It is the part of human nature which

attempts reality on the environment. There is a contact with other external aspect.

The ego controls and regulates personality, remaining in touch with reality while

formulating plans of action to satisfy needs.

The ego is ruled by THE REALITY PRINCIPLE

The Superego: This is the social/moral component i.e. norms and values of the society.

This is the part of human nature that acts as the judicial/judgmental aspect between the Id

and the Ego in the society.

The superego is the individual’s moral code judging whether action is good or bad. This

component also regulates traditions and ideals that are handed down from generation to

generation

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Example: The school girl aged 18 years wants to get married; but because of schooling

act, the society will limit the marriage due to the norms of the society (pupil).

Id, Ego and Superego work unconsciously but what we see is the human behaviour when

the third part of the superego fail to adjust people into norms or values is when the person

use Defense Mechanism.

Defense Mechanisms: are normal behaviours that help an individual to cope with

anxiety. Defense mechanisms are physical or psychological coping mechanisms or

unconscious behavior patterns that help an individual to maintain a favorable self-concept

or avoid harmful event or action. They do so by two things:

 Either deny or

 By distorting the reality

Coping: Refers to the way the mind responds to the challenging or threatening

environment. It is a complex interplay of perception; stressful event the psychological

meaning attributed to the mind; the physiological responses associated with that meaning.

Defense mechanisms are used to protect people themselves psychologically.

Defense mechanisms also operate under unconscious levels.

The mind monitors all external and internal environments by employing the use of

variety mechanisms or active problem solving devices. Defense mechanisms

 Projection: Attributing to others, the unacceptable desires/impulses. Attributing

your own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone or something else

Example: When the student fails the examination may attribute his/her failure to the

teacher

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You get really mad at your husband but scream that he’s the one mad at you

 Displacement/ scape goat: Channeling a feeling or thought from its actual source

to something or someone else. It is shifting impulses from a threatening object to

a safer or weaker object.

Example 1: When the father is harassed by his boss can direct impulses to the children or

wife at home.

Example 2: a man who is angry at his sister, he breaks his drinking glass by throwing it

against the wall.

 Rationalization: Make up excuses for inadequacies, failure, or loss. People

distort reality in order to justify something that has happened. Explaining away to

justify a specific behaviour.

Example 1: a person who passed over for an award says; she didn’t really want to be in

the first place.

Example 2: When you fail to join the degree programme at the university then you say

“The University produces jobless people”

Example 3: I always study hard for tests and I know a lot of people who cheat. So it is not

a big deal I cheated this time. If I had wanted to try hard, I could have done it too.

 If my friend were more understanding, I wouldn’t have to lose my temper.

 If I wanted to I could have a body like his/hers

 If I had better teachers, I would have gotten higher grades

 Denial: Not accepting reality because it is too painful. People refuse to accept or

acknowledge anxiety-producing piece of information.

Example 1: A student refuses to believe that he has flunked/ failed a course.

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Example 2: You are arrested for drunk driving several times but don’t believe you have a

problem with alcohol.

 Sublimation: Redirecting unacceptable, instinctual drives into personally and

socially acceptable channels. People divert unwanted impulses into socially

approved thoughts, feelings or behaviours.

Example 1: A person a person with strong feelings of aggression becomes a soldier.

Example 2: Intense rage/anger redirected in the form of participation in sports such as

boxing and football.

 Suppression: The effort to hide and control unacceptable thoughts or feelings.

Example 1: You are attracted to someone but say that you really don’t like the person at

all.

 Compensation: Develop or strengthen positive traits to make up for limitations.

Distract attention from the weaknesses. Psychological counterbalancing perceived

weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other arenas.

Example 1: Weak in school, excellent in sports, Class clown etc.

Example 2: A person says” I may not know how to cook, but can sure do the dishes”.

 Regression: Revert back to behavior of an earlier stage. Use childhood coping

mechanisms. People behave as if they were at the earlier stage of development.

 Example 1: a boss has a temper tantrum swearing, fighting, sulking, and crying

when an employee makes a mistake.

 Reaction-Formation; Unconscious impulses are expressed as their opposite in

consciousness. Ubaya unalipwa kwa wema.

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  Example 1: A mother who is unconsciously resents (hates) her child acts in an

overly loving way to the child.

 Example 2: Someone frightens you so you snub (ignore) him/her.

 The sex offender becomes the great protector of society

 Fantasy: Dreaming, imagining instead of living in the present world, because you

don’t feel competent to achieve.

Pretending

Example 1: Wanting to look good and pretending to yourself that you are one of

the movie stars you read about.

Example 2: Making up stories about how successful you are, rather than working

on your success.

Repression: Keep painful thoughts and feelings away from consciousness. Burying a

painful feeling or thought from your awareness through it may resurface in symbolic

form. Sometime considered a basis of other defense mechanism. Unacceptable or

unpleasant impulses are pushed back into the unconscious.

Don’t think about it!

Example 1: A woman is unable to recall that that she was not raped.

Example 2: You can’t remember your father’s funeral. Early abuse. Lies you have told

Painful memories

The major therapeutic techniques

 Maintaining the analytic framework,

 Free association: The client explains a problem. Give him/her a chair and tell to

close his/her eyes and say many things freely without thinking the environment.

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  Pick out few stories about the past and the current life.

 The counselor should listen very attentively with “Third Ear” which is the

professional listening, interpreting and summarization of the information.

 Interpretation Method: To point out and explain to the client the meaning in the

story of the client picked through narrating this story and come up with the

meaning. E.g. You said that they hate you. Why do you think they do so.

 Dream analysis Method: The counselor must be trained in dream analysis and

connect the problem with the dream she had.

 Analysis of resistance: This may be keeping quite/no response of the client. The

counselor must be trained to understand resistance/silence.

Silence has several meanings. Some of these possible meanings include:

o The responsibility of the interview lies on client’s shoulders.

o Reflection of thoughts and feelings (pondering out)

o Uncomfortable, anxious or embarrassed at having been sent to the counsellor

o Client resistance to the process

o Both Counsellor and client have reached an impasse (deadlock) situation in which no

further progress is possible and people involved are unwilling to change their

positions or to compromise and are searching for direction

o Evaluation of insight acquired

o Waiting for the therapist to take the lead and decide what to say next

o Either of the two (i.e. the counsellor & the client) are bored, distracted, preoccupied,

or just having nothing to say for the moment.

o The client might be feeling hostile toward the counsellor

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o Communicating without words (non-verbal behaviour)

o Interaction has been at the surface level and there is fear or hesitancy (uncertainty)

about getting to a deeper level.

It is wise to let the client assume responsibility for breaking silence when this silence is

client initiated.

 Analysis of transference

 The strengths of the theory

 It set a framework of all other formal systems of counseling. All other theories are

extension, modification, reaction or borrowed the aspect of it

 The approach provides comprehensive and detailed system of personality.

 It emphasizes the importance of the unconscious drives in determining behavior.

 Limitations of psychoanalysis theories

 It can work very well on the counselors who are well trained, example in dream

interpretation,

 It is time consuming because requires lengthy training for the practitioners.

 The theory has limited applicability to a crisis situation and base on the study of

the neurotics, not healthy people.

 In addition, the approach is counselor-centered which does not empower the

client. Generally, this basic insight is still important, despite its reductionism,

sexism, obsession with early childhood sexuality and other serious limitations.

Existential Approach

Proponents: Victor Frankl (1905) and Rollo May (1909-1994)

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Viktor Frankl is a primary contributor for this model, resulting from his experiences in

Nazi concentration camps during the 1940’s.

A second major contributor to Existential theory is Rollo May who, like Frankl,

developed his approach through extreme experience.

The motive of the theory is to react against the system of viewing counselling in a well

defined principles, techniques or formality.

The theory suggests that counselling should be viewed on the basic foundation of human

existence i.e. viewing oneself as a human being.

Focus: The theory focuses on the freedom, responsibilities and choices to shape one’s

life. In other words the theory focuses on the self-determination, the quality of person to

person therapeutic relationship. The stress is on the subjective world of the client. The

mandate is on the client.

Propositions of the theory

 The capacity awareness: The client reflects and makes choices because of

awareness different alternatives. The counsellor should enhance self-awareness

because the greater the awareness the more the freedom of choice.

 Freedom and responsibility: The client decides what to be and be responsible on

his or her choice.

 Strive for Identity & relationship with others: Every human being struggles for

identity i.e. relationship to others and the nature. According to existentialists,

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 loneliness, uprootedness and alienation, signifies failure to develop ties with other

human beings and nature.

 The search for Meaning: Human beings are natured for struggling significantly

and purposeful to life. Others go to counselling because they have lost the

meaning in their life. E.g. they may try suicide act. The counselor should help the

client to realize the meaning of life.

 Anxiety as the Source of Growth: Anxiety is an appropriate to form growth.

The role of the Counselor in Existential Theory

 The counselor should create positive attitude of honesty, integrity and courage i.e.

(I THOU relationship) e.g. nodding, smile listening etc.

 The counselor models how to be authentic, to realize personal potentials and to

make decisions with emphasis on maturity, wholeness and growth.

 The counselor creates an environment for the client to explore their needs in order

to grow.

 Understanding the subjective the subjective world of the client. The relationship

between the client and the counselor is the core factor in existential theory it

should be strong to stimulate positive change.

Counseling Techniques and Procedures

 No specific technique but it relies on workable relationship. Hence counseling is

creativity of the counselor. Counseling is not a liturgy.

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  However confrontation is also used in this therapy.

Contribution of the Theory

 Existential emphasizes on human quality in human relationship. Presence plus

respect.

 Emphasizes freedom and responsibility are tools of awakening the client to be

aware that choices responsibilities can affect the life.

 Existential therapy seeks to help clients live with freedom and to remove the

limitations that are self-imposed.

 Limitations of Existential Theory

 The theory lacks systematic statement of the principle and practice of the

counseling (No methods and techniques)

 Limited to individualistic culture where people base on their individual life.

Client-Centred Theory/ therapy

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This theory was propounded by Dr. Carl Ranson Rogers (1902-1987). Rogers developed

the theory in 1940 as the reaction against psychodynamic and other directive theories (the

prevailing assumption that the counsellor knows best). In this case, the initiative to seek

counseling must come from the client (MANTEP, 1995, p. 60). Client-centered therapy

emphasizes understanding and caring rather than diagnosis, advice and persuasion.

Effective therapist must be genuine, accepting and empathic. In this situation the client

will be less anxious and more willing to reveal themselves and their weaknesses

(Biswalo, 1996, p. 6).

This theory is divided into 4 different phases:

1st Phase -1940: Non-directive approach

It was known as non-directive approach and it focused on methodology. In this phase

Rogers emphasized that the client knows better; so the counsellor is just the listener. He

was against advising, suggesting, persuading, directing, teaching, diagnosing, and

interpreting.

Rogers, as the father of "client-centered therapy," said that the counselor is to be

"nondirective" in the sessions. His job is to reflect the counselee's responses back to him

and, thus, set up a catalytic atmosphere of acceptance.

2nd Phase - 1950s: Client-centred approach

In this phase the theory changed from non-directive to client-centred approach. The focus

was on the client and not on the methods. Rogers published the book in 1951 titled

“Client-Centred Therapy”. In this phase there are three conditions in counselling i.e.

congruence or genuineness, empathy and acceptance (unconditional positive regard).

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3rd Phase 1960s: Becoming a Person

Becoming oneself means truly one is. If you experience problems you are not yourself

because there is irrational thinking. Hence this helps somebody to think rationally to

become oneself. The one who is integrated i.e. torn apart is amended.

4th Phase 1970s-1980s: Personal Centred

The approach focus on the person in relation to others, e.g. family, educational settings,

work place etc.

This theory changed its name from 1940s from Non-Directive → Client-Centred

→Personal Centred.

Assumptions of Personal- Centred Therapy

 Belief in the dignity and worthy of each individual

 Perceptual view of behaviour

This means that an individual’s self-concept (the way the individual perceive himself) is

an important component of his perceptions.

 Tendency towards self-actualization

To develop in all ways in order to enhance himself

 People are basically good and trustworthy (honest)

Rogers believes that peoples are basically good, trustworthy and reliable. But they

become untrustworthy, bad and unreliable because of building defenses which eventually

alienate them from basically good nature. These defenses are created by the incongruence

between the ideal self (the way an individual believes he ought to be) and the real self

(the way he realizes he is). This leads to distrust hence attempt to hide from others or

himself.

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Goals of Client-Centred Therapy

To help the client to reach a great degree of independence and integrate the torn

feeling of valueless and hence find meaning in life.

To help the client progresses in the growth process i.e. continue growing.

Ro help the client become fully functioning

According to Okech and Ngumba (1991) goals of Personal-Centred Therapy includes:

 Becoming more open to experience (open to further knowledge and growth).

 Leans to trust hi/herself (setting his/her own standards for his behaviour, look at

himself for decisions and choices which he lives).

 Accepts himself to be in the process of changing.

Characteristics of fully functioning person

i. Listening: be a good listener

ii. Accepting: accepting the client genuinely

iii. Respecting: respecting the client in whatever ways

iv. Understanding: himself and his problem

v. Responding: to the client’s problem

Techniques of Client-Centred Therapy

This therapy does not emphasize any particular techniques. Instead the counsellor

establishes close psychological contact (rapport) with the client.

Limitation

People think that the theory is too easy, hence no need of training (no mechanism of

training).

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 Cognitive-Behaviour Theory

This theory is the combination of cognition and behavour also the theory is known as

TWIN THEORY

The theory is divided into two parts:

A. Rational Emotive Behaviour Theory

B. The cognitive Theory

Key figures: Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck

 Ellis is the founder of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT). A highly

didactic, cognitive behaviour-oriented approach.

 Beck is the key spokesperson for cognitive Therapy (CT)

 REBT stresses on the role of action and practice in combating irrational, self-

indoctrinated ideas.

 Beck’s CT shares with REBT the active, directive, time-limited, present-centred,

structured approach used to treat various disorders such as depression, anxiety,

and phobias

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  An insight-focused therapy that emphasizes recognizing and changing negative

thoughts and maladaptive beliefs.

Basic Assumptions

─ Individuals are born with the potential for rational thinking, but tend to fall victim

to uncritical acceptance of irrational beliefs

─ Thinking, evaluating analyzing, questioning, doing, practicing and redeciding are

at the base of behaviour change.

─ Therapy is the process of re-education

─ Re-organization of one’s sel-statements will result in a corresponding

reorganization of one’s behaviour

─ The ways in which individuals monitor and instruct themselves and interpret

events shed light to the dynamics of disorders such as depression and anxiety

Key Concepts

 REBT holds that emotional disturbance is rooted in childhood. People keep telling

themselves irrational and illogical sentences.

 Based on the A-B-C theory of personality

─ A= Actual Event

─ B= Belief System

─ C= Consequence

 Emotional problems are the results of one’s beliefs, which need to be challenged

through scientific method and rational thought

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  For CT, psychological problems stem from commonplace processes such as faulty

thinking, making incorrect inferences on the bases of inadequate or incorrect

information and failing to distinguish between fantasy and reality

 CT consists of changing dysfunctional emotions and behaviours by modifying

inaccurate and dysfunctional thinking

 The techniques are designed to identify and test the client’s misconceptions and

faulty assumptions

Therapeutic Goals

 REBT:

─ To eliminate a self-defeating outlook on life and acquire a more rational and

tolerant philosophy

─ To teach clients how to identify and uproot their ‘shoulds’, ‘must’, and ‘oughts’

and to substitute preferences for demands

 CT:

─ To change the way clients think by using their automatic thoughts to reach the core

schemata and begin to introduce the idea of schema restructuring.

─ To encourage clients to gather and weigh the evidence in support of their belief

Therapeutic Relationship

These theories use a logical intellectual approach to the solution of the client’s problem

or difficulties.

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Cognitive approach counselors engage in active and directive teaching so that the client is

re-educated to gain insight into his emotional disturbance or problems.

The theories of counseling using this approach include Rational-Emotive Therapy,

Cognitive therapy and Transactional Analysis.

Cognitive therapists focus on specific problem. They emphasize on changing beliefs and

thoughts rather than observable behavior.

They believe that irrational beliefs or distorted thinking patterns can cause a variety of

serious problems including depression and chronic anxiety.

They try to teach people to think in more rational and constructive ways.

Key figures in this approach are Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck and Eric Berne.

Rational-Emotive Therapy

The proponent of this therapy is Albert Ellis 1913. Ellis oriented towards both cognition

and behaviour. The emphasis is on thinking, judging, deciding, analysing and doing.

Assumptions:

 The Cognitions, emotions, and behaviours have the reciprocal cause and effect

because they interact significantly.

 All human beings are born with potentials for rational thinking (straight thinking)

and irrational thinking (crooked thinking)

People who think rationally will have all good things such as happiness, love,

communicate effectively, and reach self-actualization (i.e. you go to the maximum of

what you like).

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People who think irrationally will experience unhappiness, self-destruction,

(assuming that there is no life), avoiding of thoughts, endless repetition of mistakes,

intolerance etc.

RET helps the clients accept themselves as dichotomous (good and bad) and live at

peace with both sides of their human nature. Emotions are the products of our

thinking; if we think something is pleasant i.e. enjoyable or satisfying, we feel good

about it and if we suffer from emotional disturbances we feel bad as the result of our

illogical ideas.

Ellis formulated the ABC principle of emotional disturbance which emphasizes

cognitive control of emotional states.

A= the Fact or Activating Event

B= the Beliefs, attitudes or interpretations that an individual adopts on “A”

C= the emotional Consequence or reaction of the individual

“A” does not cause “C”, but “B” which is the self-verbalization of what an individual

convinces himself to be true about “A”

Therefore, human being can change and control his/her future by thinking logically

and rationally.

Goals of Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)

a) To help the client to minimize the emotional disturbances and self defeating

behaviours so as to acquire more realistic workable philosophy of life.

b) To help the client to reduce tendencies of blaming oneself or others on

whatever goes wrong.

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 c) To work with client towards specific goals e.g. self-interests, social interests,

self-direction and flexibility when you face problems, how to accept

uncertainties because are part of life in working towards commitments of

doing things in scientific thinking, risk taking and self responsibility.

FUNCTIONS OF COUNSELLOR IN REBT

 To encourage the client to discover basic irrational ideas that motivate behaviour

disturbances

 To challenge the client to validate (provide evidence of unfortune ideas) of what

s/he says.

 To help the client to identify the illogical nature of thinking (why they think so)

 To help the client use logical analysis to minimize the irrational beliefs.

 To explain to the client on how the irrational ideas can be placed with rational

ideas which are empirically grounded/meaningful

 To help the client work directly with their feelings

Techniques used in RET

Techniques such as debating, challenging, interpreting, explaining,

disputing/Clashing and thinking are used in cognitive methods of reevaluation

self.

Role-playing, modeling, shame-attacking exercises are used as emotive

techniques.

The counsellor employs any technique that proves successful depending on the

individual client and his unique problem(s).

Limitation of Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)

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 The therapy is highly directive, persuasive and confrontative to think rationally.

The Cognitive Theory

Pioneered by Aaron Beck

The theory concentrates on the cognitive thinking only. i.e. how a person can think.

Focus:

The theory doesn’t believe that a person can’t think irrationally. Is you who think that a

person think irrationally. There is no relationship between irrational thinking and the

problem at hand. This is because people see things on their own eyes not through the eyes

of others. You should not think on behalf of others. Also they should think on evidence of

whatever the client says.

Techniques used in Cognitive Therapy

 Talking freely, no confrontation

 No interpretation of client’s sayings

Contribution of the Cognitive Therapy

 Look at how human cognition works, i.e. how a person thinks. Does not talk

about the past.

 Use the cognitive nature to work on the problem.

Family Systems Theory

 The family system looks at the development and change in the family.

 The belief of the theory is that individuals are best understood by assessing the

interaction within an entire family. Hence this is a systemic approach

 The focus is on the entire family and not on an individual life

 The symptoms of problems are viewed as a dysfunctions in the family

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  A client’s problem can be a symptoms of what is happening in the interaction of

the family and not a system of an individual maladjustment

Assumptions of the System Theory

 Client’s problematic behaviour may save a function or a purpose for a family

 Client’s problematic behaviour may be a function of the family’s inability to

operate productively

 Client’s problematic behaviour may be symptoms of dysfunctioning patterns of

handling down across generations.

Key Figures and Major Focus

i. Multigenerational Approach:

 Stresses on exploring patterns from the ones family of origin

 Pioneered by Murray Bowen (1976)

 Dig down the ancestral things which can cause you to behave in a certain way

 You can’t solve a problem of your wife/husband without regarding to their family

 Bowen intended to work to work from-inside-out. i.e. what is happening inside

can be found outwards

 A family therapist needs to have high level of differentiation i.e. problem of the

counselor or client.

Goals of Counselling

─ To change an individual within the context of the system. Don’t push but change.

This is because the problems manifest in one family may not change until

relationship happening in the family is understood first

Functions of the Counsellor

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 ─ Act as the teacher coach or neutral observer

─ Acts as an expert. Needs to have high level of awareness

Methods/Techniques

─ Transgenerational approach don’t deal with an individual, but with generation from

past to present

Contribution of the Theory

─ Characterized as an application of rational thinking in emotional saturated system

Criticism

─ Doesn’t deal with, instead it deal with family

─ This approach is another case of elevation rationally and autonomy

Human Validation Model

─ Pioneered by Virginia Satir

─ She focuses on the interpersonal relationship between the therapist and the family

members

Experiential Family Therapy:

─ Pioneered by Carl Whitaker

─ This therapy assumes that it is the experience changes families, not education

Structural Approach

─ Propounded by Salvador Minuchin

─ Focuses on the family as a system and its subsystems, boundaries and hierarchies

Strategic Family Therapy

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 ─ Founded by Cloe Madanes & Jay Haley

─ Their therapy stresses parental hierarchies and cross generational coalitions

Vocational Guidance and Counselling

Vocational guidance is the process of helping an individual to choose an occupation,

prepare for it, enter it, and progress in it.

Career is a life-long activity. It is a chosen life work or an overall work one does in a

given job in one’s lifetime. Career includes the different types of work you do as a teacher,

the different types of positions you occupy in teaching throughout your life in teaching. If

your career is teaching, you will find yourself doing other jobs like marking examination

scripts, sporting activities, gardening and prep supervision.

At other times, you occupy the position of class teacher, assistant headmaster/mistress,

headmaster/mistress, official, schools inspector. All these are part of teaching career

Sources of Career Information

The dissemination of occupational information in guidance is carried out in the following

ways:

 Creating, keeping Updating Career Register

 Job listing

 List of former students/teachers and employment agencies, training institutions

 Records of relevant local magazine, news papers, films and video

 General group guidance

The counselor collects information and makes it available to groups of students.

The students also collect information on various occupations for themselves.

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  Teaching of occupations

The counselor meets a class and teaches them about different occupations.

 Career day/week activities

Lectures on different careers, career demonstrations, debates, and film shows, are

provided by the school.

 Career clubs

The clubs can show films relating to careers, organize career quizzes, competitions,

career conferences, dramas, and invite lecturers/employers to provide information on

various careers.

 Vacation jobs and work-study

The school can assist students to obtain vacation jobs during the long vacation or provide

work-study programmes.

 Organizing career talks and make Bulletin boards and posters/brochure to

disseminate information

The school can display vocational, educational, and social information, on bulletin

boards.

 Organize a career week day for different organizations, employment agencies,

industries to participate and display exhibition of what they do; and give chance to

students to ask questions

 Invite guest speakers to talk to graduates- lawyers, engineers, nurses, teachers

etc.

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 Trips and excursions to industrial establishments

Students go out of school/college to workplaces, to see things for themselves.

Organize occupational visits for students to:

─ See actual work setting

─ Observe various work conditions

─ Get opportunity to interact with management

 Planning occupational Visits

o Collect as much information as possible about the place to be visited

o Make arrangements/appointments with responsible authority

o Follow-through the visit and never cancel the appointment unless it is absolutely

necessary

o Arrive on time and leave on time

o Visiting students should observe all rules and regulations; safety, courtesy (good

manner), observant etc.

 School subjects

Teachers can relate their teaching of subjects to careers for which they are useful or

applicable

Kinds of Occupational Information Which Students Should Know

1. Employment prospects

Are the employment prospects for this occupation expanding or diminishing?

2. Nature of Work

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What are the pleasant or unpleasant things workers have to do? What tools, equipment, or

materials, are used? What are the hours of work? Are there any shifts?

3. Work Environment

Is it hot, cold, humid, dry, wet, dirty, noisy, etc.?

4. Qualifications

What are the academic and/or physical qualifications?

5. Aptitudes

What are the I.Q. and other special aptitudes needed?

6. Interests

What are the interests of people who succeed in this particular occupation?

7. Legal and professional

Is a licence or certificate required?

8. Preparation

What kind of education and training is needed?

9. Entrance

Is it by examination, by application and interview, or by capital investment?

10. Likes or dislikes

What are the likes and dislikes of the job?

11. Advancement

What proportion of workers advance? And to what positions?

12. Earnings

What are the earnings per month and year? How are wages paid?

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 Factors Influencing Vocational Aspirations of secondary school students

in Tanzania

There are many factors that influence vocational aspirations in Tanzanian context.

Career development can be influenced by both internal and external factors:

Internal factors: These are individuo-centric considerations which are internal to the

individual. Include factors such as cognitive ability, interests, attitudes, career maturity

and values.

External factors: these are factors operating outside the individual that co-determine or

over-determine the individual’s career prospects (forecasts) and choices.

In this way most Tanzanian students have been known to change from their initial course

of entry in their university admission applications to totally different option because of

“the loan factor effect”

This lecture intends to clarify external factors that influence people’s vocational

aspirations (ambitions/desires) in Tanzania.

Critical factors in vocational Aspirations include but not limited to the following:

 Family back ground:

o Whether one’s parents are alive or dead

o Family socio-economic status

o Number of brothers and sisters the one possessed

o Sibling position and rivalry (competition)

o Parental expectations and biases e.g. the second chance hypothesis)

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 School Background

o Type of school attended: rural or urban, public or private

o Quality and type of teachers available

o School’s rating in terms of availability of resources

o Range of school subjects offered

o Hobbies while in school

o Curriculum

 Community/Cultural Influences

o Sex-role expectations of candidate’s community and culture (e.g. impact on marriage

prospects)

o Religious background and expectation (obedience to religious prophecy and dreams)

o Popular trade or business or occupations in one’s community or locality

o The geography and location and location of one’s community (e.g. near the lake

region)

o Government/public policies: policies relating youth employment, labour market

trends, general apathy out-right pessimism among youth, high youth unemployment

rate etc

 Influence of Peers and Significant others

o Opinions of friends and peers about subjects or disciplines of study that are

“valuable”, “prestigious”, “hotly on demand” and “paying”

o Opinions of significant others about professional courses one can do well in

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 o Occupational fields that are considerable familiar or known to one’ significant others

such as one’s elder brothers, sisters, cousins, and in-laws as well as the factor of peer

comparison and imitation

 Economic Constraints and Considerations

o Family economics, constraints and considerations

o Availability of scholarships or loans for training in a given area of study

o Urge for immediate and concrete rewards in a given individual e.g. some good

students do opt to go into business rather than university education in search for quick

money and financial independence

 Age consideration

o Chronological Age; since certain occupations impose age limits for intending new

recruits

o Social age; e.g. age of retirement consideration can discourage an individual from

opting for further studies

 Public Image of the Course/Occupation

o The marketability value of graduating in a given course of study

o Leading courses at the time the decision is being made

o Status and prospects of known graduates in the course area in question

o Tight get-keeping effect in certain occupations. How easy it is to get admission into

the course concerned

o Length of training required for graduation and qualification in the course concerned

 Information Availability

o Level of access to vocational information on nature of life in different occupations

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 o The individual’s prejudice about nature of life and success in various occupations

 Personality Characteristics

o One’s sef-concept and self-esteem

o One’s needs and values

o One’s occupational self-concepts

o One’s ability to take risks in exploring new fields of study

o One’s endurance limits to wait to get admitted into one’s programme of choice

o One’s ability to delay gratification and clear image of a possible self (a self one

would like to become)

o One’s physical attributes such as assets, and handicaps

o One’s ability to postpone gratification in search of long range advantages

o The factor of emotional stability such as ability to stand by one’s vocational decision

o Role Perception: how an individual perceives himself.

 Educational Background

o One’s academic qualifications such as the one’s academic achievements in high

school in relation to admission requirements in different areas of study

o Level of facility in science and arts subjects: an either/or; or a both-and candidate?

o The crisis of multi-potentiality

CAREER DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

Career development is the total constellation (collection) of psychological, sociological,

educational, physical, economic and chance factors that combine to shape the career of a

given individual.

There are four main classes of Career Development Theories:

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 The Trait-factor Theories:

Structural Theories-Focus on individual characteristics and occupational tasks

Developmental Theories-Focus on human development across life span. Place

more emphasis on the stages and processes of career development.

Decision-Making Theories:

Structural Theories

The first structural theory was proposed by Ann Roe while doing research on personality

differences required in various occupations. Roe used Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs with

the belief that lower needs must be met before higher needs are satisfied.

From the counselling point of view, Roe’s insights helps the counsellor understand

important factors that play a part in an individuals decision to pursue or not to pursue a

certain vocation.

John L. Holland -- Theory of Vocational Personalities and Environments (1959)

Holland suggested that "people find job satisfaction in work environments that are

compatible with their personalities". Holland based his theory of personality types on

several assumptions:

 People tend to choose work environment that is reflective of their personality, i.e.

where people like themselves (similar, same characteristics) with what they have.

 People interact with a variety of cultural forces e.g. peer groups, schoolmate,

same rural area, faith etc.

Holland classified personality types and work/occupational environments into six types

which he labeled realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional

(often referred to by the acronym RIASEC).

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He suggests that the closer the match of personality to job, the greater the satisfaction.

That’s why it also known as Person-Environment Fit Theory.

A very brief overview of the six personality types, six work-related activities, and sample

occupations are presented below:

A hexagonal model was developed to illustrate the relationship between personality and

occupational environment.

Realistic People: Working with things, People who prefer practical jobs requiring

physical labour and motor coordination rather than interpersonal skills - work with hands,

machines, tools, active, practical, adventurous

High traits - practical, masculine, stable

Low traits - sensitive, feminine, stable

Occupations - construction, farming, architecture, truck driving, mail carrier, machine

operators, Mechanical Engineer, Carpenter etc

Investigative People (Intellectual): Working with information i.e. abstract ideas and

theories. These are oriented towards thinking rather than acting – thought, analytical

approaches, explore, knowledge, ideas, not social

High traits – scholarly, intellectual, critical

Low traits – powerful, ambitious, adventurous

Occupations – biologist, chemist, dentist, veterinarian, programmer, anthropologists

Artistic People:– Creating things. They show strong needs for artistic self-

expression and prefer tasks that are unstructured and that emphasize physical skills

literary, musical, artistic activities, emotional, creative etc.

High traits – expressive, creative, spontaneous

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 Low traits – orderly, efficient, conventional, social, masculine

Occupations – artist, musician, Painter, poet, interior designer, writer, photographers,

comedians etc.

Social People: these are helping people. Social people are persons who enjoy

interpersonal skills and social interaction – train, inform, educate, help, supportive,

avoid technical skills, empathy, relationships

High traits – cooperative, friendly, humanistic

Low traits – ambitious, creative, strong,

Occupations – social workers, counsellors, police officer, teachers, religious leaders

etc.

Enterprising People: These are people who are verbally skilled and interested in

supervising and directing others– verbally skilled, persuasive, direct, leader, dominant

High traits – ambitious, adventurous, energetic

Low traits – intellectual, creative, feminine

Occupations – lawyer, business executive, politician, TV producer, publicity

officers, sales men and women Entrepreneur etc.

Example: Lawyers (Appeal to pity) or argumentum ad misericodian

Defense lawyers disregarding the facts of the case try to appeal the judge for

pity/mercy or forgiveness.

For instance, a man accused of stealing from a school fund; then the defense lawyer

says: “Honorable judge, I beg you to spare harsh punishment on the defendant

because he is a father of six children; he has a invalid mother; and as a teacher he has

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a dozens of school children that need his service. His wife divorced him a few years

ago”.

Conventional People: – They like structured job environment and prefer to

subordinate their own personal needs to others. Organizing data, rules and routines,

provide order or direct structure, great self control, respect power and status,

punctual, orderly

High traits – stable, efficient, dependable, controlled

Low traits – intellectual, adventurous, creative

Occupations – bank teller, clerk typist, cashier, data entry, secretaries, librarians,

Night Auditor etc

Example: Librarians in the classification Scheme.

I. DDCS= Dewey Decimal Classification Scheme

000-Generality

100- Philosophy & Psychology

200- Religion

300- Social Sciences

400- Languages

500- Natural Sciences and Mathematics

II. LCCS- Library of Congress Classification Scheme (Letter & Figures)

EDL PAM LC 2605; LC191.8.A4; LB5F85N0C

III. UDCS – Use letters only e.g. A- general works B- Philosophy and

Psychology, D- History, G- Geography K-law

Terms:

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Differentiation - the amount of spread between one’s first and second code letters;

denotes how clear one’s type is.

Incongruence – lack of fit between one’s type and work environment. People leave

jobs because of too much incongruence or because of a chance to increase their

congruence. Best decision makers are I’s; worst are C’s.

Consistency – closeness on the hexagon of one’s first and second choices. The higher

one’s consistency, the more integrated one’s characteristics (values, interests, traits)

and the greater one’s vocational maturity, persistence and achievement

Holland’s Hexagonal Model to Illustrate-RIASEC

Realisti Investigati

Convention
Artisti

Enterprisin
g
Social
NB:

Occupational achievement, stability and satisfaction depends on congruence between

one’s personality and job environment

According to Okech and Ngumba (1991) Holland’s theory is based on the following

basic assumptions:

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 Individuals look for environments that will let them exercise their skills and abilities,

express their attitudes and values and environment that are agreeable to their

problems and roles.

 An individual’s behaviour is determined by the interaction of his personality and

environment

 Occupations are ways of life; they help in defining one’s social status, life style and

standard of living.

Stereotypes that people hold about occupations have psychological as well as

sociological significance and therefore, one’s occupational choice can be used as a

projective device to reveal motivations, insights and self-understanding. These

stereotypes also guide the individual’s vocational decisions.

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

These are theories with two (2) ideas in common:

1st idea: Career is a life-long process of development. That’s why you see every time

they advertise employment; they bring in a condition of experience showing the

importance of career as a process ever-growing.

-Outstanding contributor of this idea is Ginzberg

2nd idea: Development takes place in stages. The outstanding contributor is Super.

GINZBERG, GINSBURG, AXELRAD AND HERMA THEORY – 1951

Ginzberg and his associates were interested in illuminating a sequence of developmental

stages leading to entry of into an occupation/job.

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They identified various factors which interact to influence the career choice.

i. Individual Values

ii. Emotional factors

iii. Amount and kind of education

iv. Impact of reality due to environmental pressures

-The model was based on three assumptions which they regarded as basic conditions in

the process of career choice.

(a) Career choice is a developmental process.

(b) The process is irreversible

(c) Compromise (negotiation) is an essential aspect of every choice.

(A) Career Choice as a Developmental Process

Developmental theories identified phases that an individual goes through in the process

of career choice:

 Infancy: delineated from birth to age eleven

 The tentative phase: from age eleven to seventeen. This phase is divided into four

periods of interest, capacity, value and transition.

 Realistic phase: this is divided into two stages of exploration and crystallization

This time span embodies three stages starting in preteen or early childhood (4-5yrs) and

ending in young adulthood (17-20 yrs):

(i) Fantasy (6-11 yrs): In the fantasy stage, children believe that they can be anybody

they desire or believe they can do just about anything such as doctors, drivers,

pilot, etc regardless of the skills or qualifications, training requirements or strengths.

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There is no connection in the child’s mind between means and end of becoming what

they want to be. They frequently say, “I will be a TEACHER” without considering

skill sets, education and training requirements, or the economy. For them,

anything is possible

(ii)Tentative: (11-17 yrs): this is adolescence stage. This period is divided into 4 sub-

stages;

a) Interest Stage: (11-12 yrs): This is the time when they realize that they need to make

decisions about their future jobs. Choices are based on interest and hobbies. They begin

to say, “I like this” (interests). Identifies likes/dislikes as basis for career choices.

b) Capacity Stage (13-14): here they realize that capacity is needed in order to go into a job

they are interested. Teachers and parents help them to realize their capacity. Education

becomes an important aspect to help decision for future career. They begin to say “I’m

good at this,” (Capacities).

c) Value Stage (15-16): Relating their skills and capacities to meet one’s satisfaction. They

choose the job that corresponds to the value. They begin to say, “This is important to

me,” (values).

d) Transition Stage (16-17 yrs): This is the time when realities, prospects, opportunities and

demands become vivid. The adolescent begins the career choice process, recognizes the

consequences and responsibility of that choice.

E.g. transition from high school to the university in above is vivid. They begin to say, “I

think I might want to move in this direction,”

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(iii) Realistic Stage (17-20 yrs): This marks the final stage of development process

spanning from mid-adolescence through young adulthood.

It has three sub-stages:

a) Exploration Stage: Looks at the intellectual or physical requirements with the variety of

jobs available. They choose career and make specialization e.g. sciences, commercial

subjects etc. the person begins to restrict choice based on personal likes, skills and

abilities.

b) Crystallization Stage: an individual makes a firm commitment in a certain choice. E.g. I

think I will be a doctor. An occupational choice is made.

c) Specification Stage: Real stay; enter in a particular job of your choice. The individual

pursues the educational experiences required achieving his career goal.

(B) The Process Is Irreversible

The longer one stays into preparation for a career, the harder it becomes to change one’s

mind. Individual thinks of time and efforts invested into preparation of certain job.

Instead you think of going further into the same root e.g. Certificate in Education,

Diploma in Education, Bachelor Degree in Education, M.A. (ED.) PhD with research

based on education.

(C) Compromising Is Essential Aspect of Every Choice

Each individual needs more information to enlighten him or her, so as to compromise the

decision is making.

SUPER’S THEORY OF VOCATIONAL CHOICE – 1954

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Donald Super agrees with Ginzberg in many aspects but he added. Super divided the

whole human life in five stages: Growth (childhood), Exploration (adolescence),

Establishment (early adulthood), Maintenance (middle adulthood) and Decline

(later adulthood) of Career Choices.

Super’s theory is characterized by the following propositions:

 Vocational preferences and competences, situations in which people live and work,

and their self-concepts change with time and experience.

 People differ in their abilities, interests and personalities. They are qualified, by virtue

(good quality) of these characteristics.

 Development through the life stages can be guided by partly facilitating the process

of maturation of abilities and interests and partly by giving assistance in reality

testing and in the development of the self concept.

 Fantasy (4-10 years old) - needs dominate career fantasies and little reality

orientation.

 Interest (11-12 years old) - identifies likes/dislikes as basis for career choices

 Capacity (13-14 years old) - more reality incorporated; can relate own skills to

specific requirements of jobs. (Vocationalizing the self concept)

Exploration (Mid teens through early 20’s) - major tasks are to develop a realistic self-

concept and implement a vocational preference though role tryouts and exploration; there

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is a gradual narrowing of choices leading to implementation of a preference. Preferences

become CHOICES when acted upon.

Sub Stages

 Tentative (15-17 years old) - tentative choices incorporating needs, interests, abilities

are tried out in fantasy, coursework, part time work, volunteer, shadowing.

o May identify field and level of work at this sub stage.

 Crystallization of Preference (18-21 years old) - General preference is converted into

specific choice. Reality dominates as one enters the job market or training after high

school. Choosing a college major or field of training.

 Specifying a Vocational Preference (early 20’s) - trial/little commitment; first job is

tried out as life’s work but the implemented choice is provisional and person may

cycle back through crystallizing and specifying if not appropriate.

Establishment (mid 20’s through mid 40’s) - major tasks are to find secure niche in

one’s field and advance within it.

Sub Stages

 Trial and Stabilization (25-30 years old) - process of settling down, if unsatisfactory

may make 1-2 more changes before the right job is found.

 Advancement (30-40 years old) - efforts directed at securing one’s position, acquiring

seniority, developing skills, demonstrating superior performance, resume building

actions.

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Maintenance (40’s through early 60’s) - Major task is to preserve one’s gains and

develop non-occupational roles for things one always wanted to do; Little new ground is

broken, one continues established work patterns. One faces competition from younger

workers. Could be a plateau.

Disengagement or Decline (Late 60’s through retirement) - Tasks are deceleration of

the career, gradual disengagement from world of work and retirement. One is challenged

to find other sources of satisfaction. May shift to part time to suit declining capacities

Together with these stages, Super made 10 propositions which he feels are central to any

theory of career development.

1. Individual differences such as abilities, both (general and specific), interests and

personality should be considered.

2. There exists in all of us multi-potentiality by which the attributes (mentioned above)

qualify us for a number of jobs in which we can succeed and gain satisfaction.

3. Career ability patterns are present in all humans, but characteristics pattern of abilities,

interests and personality is more appropriate for some jobs than for others.

4. Career preferences and competencies change with time and experience thus making

choice and adjustment a continuous process.

5. This process can be expressed as a series of life stages of growth, exploration,

establishment, maintenance and decline.

6. A career pattern is determined by internal and external factors. External factors include

socio-economic background and work opportunities and internal factors include mental

abilities, achievement and personality.

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7. Progress through life stages can be guided by counselling in which self-knowledge,

abilities, interests, aptitudes and career prospects are encouraged.

8. The process of career development is essentially that of developing and implementing

a self-concept; it is a compromise process in which the self concept is a product of

interaction of inherent aptitudes, neutral and endocrine make-ups, opportunity to play

various roles and the evaluation of the extend to which the results of role playing meet

with the approval of superiors, and fellows.

9. The role that one plays as the process of compromise between one’s self-concept and

the realities of external social, affairs.

10. Work is a way of life; adequate career and personal adjustment are most likely when

both the nature of work and way of life that goes with it are in line with aptitudes,

interests, and values of an individual.

Decision-Making Theories

Some decision-making theories hypothesize that there are critical points in our lives when

choices are made that greatly influence our career development. These decision making

points are such events as educational choices, entry-level job positions, changing jobs,

etc. Other decision-making theories concerned with ongoing choices across the life span.

The decisions that we make are influenced by our awareness of the choices that are

available to us and our knowledge of how to evaluate them. Others address our complex

environment. For example, H.B. Gelatt says, "We make our decisions based upon what is

actual and what is actual is never static".

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 The major concept in the decision making theories is that each person has several

alternatives from which to choose an occupation and each alternative has an identifiable

consequences or outcomes.

Decision making theories also point out that each alternative has a specific value

arranged in hierarchically.

Bergland’s Theory

Bergland, one of the decision-making theorists has proposed a sequence of events which

occur in career counselling:

1. Defining the problem 4. Processing information

2. Generating alternatives 5. Making plans and selecting goals

3. Gathering information 6. Implementing and evaluating plans.

The Clarke, Gelatt and Levine Theory

They proposed a model made up of four stages and at each stage the person making the decision

needs information.

1. Risk involved in implementing different choices

2. Possible outcomes

3. probabilities linking actions to outcomes

4. Preferences for various outcomes

The Trait-factor Theory:

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The trait and factor theory is founded on the notion that individuals are different, and that their

different capabilities can be measured and related to occupations. The theory of individual

differences based on the following assumptions:

 Each person has a uniquely organized pattern of personality traits (interests, abilities etc.)

which are relatively stable after adolescence.

 These traits can be identified by using a psychological tests or inventories which are then

profiled represent the individual potential

 Occupation also can be profiled in terms of various individual traits they require

 When the two profile are matched then the degree of fit between person and job can be

identified

The terms trait and factor refer to the assessment of characteristics of the person and the job.

Traits are the individual characteristics which can be measured testing and factors are

characteristics required for successful job performance. The term “trait and factor” implies a

matching individuals and jobs and career selection occurs as a result of understanding the

relationship between knowledge about self and knowledge occupations.

The trait of greatest interest to career counsellors such as interests and aptitudes are viewed as

relatively stable.

E.G. Williamson is among the theorists in the trait-factor approach. In putting forward his theory,

he assumed that:

 Vocational development is a cognitive process and therefore, one uses reasoning and logic to

arrive at a decision.

 Vocational choice is a single event that emphasizes choice rather than development

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 There is a single “right” vocation for everyone with no recognition that an individual may fit

into many occupations.

 Vocational choice is available for everyone.

The major task of the counsellor is to assist the individual understand in terms of their traits,

interests, abilities, limitations, etc.

Moreover, the counsellor’s work is to help people to learn more about job requirement so as to fit

themselves into the occupation which is best for them.

According to trait and factor theory, choosing an occupation involves trying to match an

individual to job so that their needs will be met and their job performance will be satisfactory.

Techniques for studying and appraising individuals

In studying and appraising the individual, data and information pertaining to all aspects of life
are required. A number of techniques are used for this purpose. These techniques are developed
by psychologists. They can be classified into:
 Testing Techniques and

 (ii) Non-Testing Techniques

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Non-Testing Techniques

These techniques are also known as non-standardized techniques. Non-testing techniques for

studying and appraising an individual are:

Interview

 Interview is one of the most important techniques used to collect data in guidance and

counselling. It is called “conversation with a purpose.”

 The interview is the heart of counselling process in which other techniques are contributory.

 The counselling interview is a face-to-face situation involving two persons, in which

counselor helps the counselee in gaining insight into his problems and assists him in solving

the same.

 The essential feature of the interview is a dynamic face-to-face relationship in which the

counselee is helped to develop insights that lead to self-realization.

Essential things before counselling interview

Before the interview takes place, it is essential that interviewer must be:

─ Clear in mind about the person who is to be interviewed, his background, his

environment and his merits and weaknesses.

─ Clear in his mind about the technique and purpose of the interview

─ Should select the proper place and atmosphere for the interview and arrange its secrecy.

─ The interviewee needs to be properly motivated.

─ The interviewee should have come voluntarily of his own and without any compulsion.

Steps in Counselling Interview

In order to make the interview meaningful and effective, the following steps are

followed:

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 1. Preparation and establishment of rapport

2. Unfolding the problem

3. Joint working on the Problem

4. Closing of the Interview

5. Evaluation and

6. Follow up

Advantages of Interview

The following are the advantages of the interview:

 It is the most flexible and dynamic way of understanding the individual as a whole

 It is natural like conversation

 It can be used for variety of purposes

 It helps the counsellee to understand himself and solve his problem

 It can be practiced on illiterate persons

 Interview is relatively easy to conduct.

Limitations of Interview

The following are the limitations of the Counselling Interview;

 It is subjective

 It is time consuming

 It needs experts which are generally not available

 It is placed in an artificial situation

 Depression may take place during the interview and may spoil our results

 Sometimes it is difficult to interpret the results of the interview

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To conclude we can say that interview is essential in counselling process. Although it has some

limitations, it must be supplemented by other techniques.

Observation

Observation is one of the important techniques of collecting information about the individual. In

guidance and counselling, observation is the most commonly employed of all individual

techniques. Rousseau wrote, “Watch nature long and observe your pupil carefully before you say

a word to him.”

Behaviour is a reflection of personality. It must be observed very carefully, intelligently and

scientifically as observation of behaviour has been recognized as basic to other techniques. For

reliable and dependable observation, however, observation must be organized or planned,

directed, specific, systematic, scientific, objective, reliable, qualitative, and quantitative.

Two important types of observation are:

Natural Observation:

(i) In natural observation, we observe the specific behavioural characteristics of children or

adults in natural setting. Subjects do not become conscious of the fact that someone is

observing their behaviour.

The teacher can observe the behaviour of the students on the playground or in any other social

situation when students may not become conscious of his presence. In child clinic, one way

screen is used to observe the behaviour of deviant children, the observer can observe the

behaviour of children but they cannot see the observer.

(ii) Participant Observation :

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It is that type of observation in which the observer becomes the part of the group which he

wants to observe. He establishes perfect rapport with the group of children or adolescents so that

they may not become conscious of his presence and may not hide their actual behaviour.

Requisites of Good Observation

Observation should have four characteristics:

(i) Proper Planning: Specific activities or units of behaviour i.e. single or group to be observed

must be clearly defined. The time of each observation period, number of observations and

interval between periods should be decided. The instruments to be used for recording should be

decided. Proper tools for recording observation should be obtained and used.

(ii) Proper Execution: an expert execution demands cultivated skills and resourcefulness on the

part of the investigators. The proper physical position for observing involves focusing attention

on the units of behaviour specific activities, observing discreetly the length area, number of

periods and intervals decided upon, and proper handling of the recording instrument used for

observation.

(iii) Recording of Observation: It can be done in either of the two methods

(a) The first method is to record the observation simultaneously. It avoids time gap, but makes

the students conscious and are also difficult at times.

(b) Facts may be recorded soon after the observation is over. It may not be accurate due to time

gap while it has the merit of not distracting the mind of the student. As it is difficult to record the

minute details so check lists, or rating scales or score cards, blank form of tallying frequencies

are generally used.

(iv)Interpretation: Results should be interpreted cautiously and judiciously after taking into

account various limitations of planning, sampling or procedure.

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Merits of Systematic Observation

Observational studies are particularly very important and yield significant results on

developmental characteristics of children. It has the following advantages:

1. Being a record of actual behaviour of the child, it is more reliable, valid, objective and

scientific.

2. It is economical as it needs no laboratory and costly apparatus

3. It is flexible and can be used in gathering data in many situations.

4. It can be applied to observe the behaviour of children of all ages. Of course, the younger the

child, the easier it is to observe him. This method has been found very useful with shy children.

5. It can be applied to observe the behaviour of individuals as well as of a group.

6. This method can be used with little training and almost all teachers can use it for

understanding the behaviour of problem children, backward children, delinquent children, gifted

children and other types of children.

7. It is not restricted to a test situation but it is applied to the naturally occurring situations of life.

Hence, the method of observation has wide applications for studying individuals in normal non-

testing situations. No doubt, observation is a scientific technique of collecting data whose results

can be verified and relied upon to locate behavioural problems of different types but it suffers

from the following limitations:

Limitations of Observation

1. It is very difficult to get trained observers. Untrained observers may gather superfluous and

irrelevant data.

2. It is subjective. Observer may become lenient i.e., he may give concessions and allowances at

one time and may be strict at another time.

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3. Sometimes artificiality comes in the behaviour e.g. crocodile tears or behaviour of

hippocrats.

4. Sometimes we have to wait for long time for the occurrence of events. For example, for

observing the behaviour of an angry child, we have to wait when he will become angry.

5. Some personal problems and experiences cannot be observed i.e. sex experiences.

6. With the help of observation, we can observe the external behaviour of the individual. Internal

behaviour of the individual cannot be studied.

7. Record may not be written with hundred per cent accuracy as the observation is recorded after

the actions of the observer. There is some time lag.

8. Observation is subject to two kinds of errors, sampling error and observer’s error.

The first error occurs because of inadequacies of selecting situation to be observed.

The observer’s error may be due to the knowledge and background of the situation to be

observed.

Sometimes the observer is not familiar with the total situation and hence he may commit error.

Case Study

The Case study means systematic, complete and intensive study of the pupil - his family

background, his physical, social, emotional and intellectual environment.

 The case study or history is a synthesis and interpretation of information about a person

and his relationship to his environment collected by means of many techniques.

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  The method is specifically followed in learning difficulties, emotional disturbances,

delinquency and other behaviour problems. The complete information of past history and

present condition is collected.

 The developmental history is reconstructed from the memories of the case (individual),

his family and friends. The preparation of a case study is not the work of a single

individual but the combined venture of social worker, teacher, parents, medical man and

psychologist.

In preparing a case study the information is collected from the following sources:

Preliminary Information: Name, age, sex, parent’s age, education, occupation, income, number

of children, social status etc.

(2) Past History: Condition of mother during pregnancy, any incident, child’s development after

birth, physical, mental, emotional, social- illness, relation between parents and other members of

the family, achievement of the child, parents death, birth order etc.

(3) Present Condition: The information may be collected under the following heads:

(i) Physical: Results of medical examination of any diseases.

(ii) Medical: I.Q., special abilities, general intelligence

(iii) Social: House environment, friends and their types, social environment in school, home and

neighborhood.

(iv) Emotional: Anxiety, fear, temperament, attitude etc.

(v) Interest: Personal, social, vocational and special aptitude.

(vi) School Achievement: Position in school, failure, special achievement etc.

Steps involved in Case Study

The following steps are followed in case study:

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1. Location of the case

2. Formulation of hypotheses

3. Collection of data from pupils, parents, friends, teachers, headmaster and community at large.

4. Analysis of data i.e. identification of causal factors as a basis for remedial treatment

5. Removing the causes i.e. application of remedial or adjustment measures

6. Follow up of the case to determine the effectiveness of remedial or adjustmental measure

applied.

Types of Cases

(i) Problem children (vi) Children with exceptional talent in a

(ii) Delinquent children particular skill,

(iii) Backward Children or slow learner (vii) Children with educational difficulty

(iv) Maladjusted children (viii) Children with vocational difficulty

(v) Gifted Children

Characteristics of a Good Case Study

The following are the characteristics of a good case study:

(i) Completeness of data

(ii) Continuity of data

(iii) Validity of data

(iv) Confidential recording of data

(v) Scientific synthesis and analysis of data

Advantages of Case Study

The following are the uses of case study:

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 Bases for diagnosis and treatment: case study clarifies diagnostic relationships,

removes points of discussion, thinking without reasoning and faulty information and

helps in knowing the differences in practical and organic difficulties.

 Useful research technique: Case study is a very useful research technique of

assessing the personality of an individual. It supplies data about an individual and his

general and specific characteristics are also known.

 Suitable Adjustments: Case study is used as a method for specifically giving

assistance to students for making adequate adjustments.

 For Social Workers: Case studies are specially prepared and used for training social

workers.

Limitations of Case Study

The following are the limitations of Case Study

 It is a subjective ‘.technique. A person who prepares case history may project

his own problems, plans, ideas, attitudes, values and the like into the report

 It is very time-consuming technique

 It is difficult to prepare case history. Parents and teachers etc. may not cooperate

 We need experts and trained persons preparing case history. Experts are

generally not available

 It is very difficult to interpret the results objectively

In spite of these limitations case study is an important and useful technique for collection

of data in guidance programme.

Socio-metric Techniques

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Sociometry is a technique/or describing the social relationships among individuals in a

group.

The technique attempts to describe attractions or repulsions between individuals by

asking them to indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations

Children in a school classroom may be asked to name in order of preference (usually two

or three) the child, children that they would invite to a party, eat lunch with, sit next to,

work on

a class project with, or have as a close friend. Although some researchers object to the

method, it is also common to ask the children to name the children, again in order of

preference, that they would least like to invite to a party, eat lunch with, sit next to , and

so forth.

A Sociogram is a graphic drawing using certain symbols and marks to indicate the

pattern of social acceptance and rejection among members of a social group

Sociometry is the method for discovering, describing and evaluating social status,

structure and development through measuring the extent of acceptance or rejection

between individuals in groups

sociometry is the measurement of interpersonal relationships prevailing among the

members of a group. Sociometric devices, such as the sociogram, attempt to discover the

patterns of choice and rejection among the individuals is making up the group.

In sociometric method, each client in the group is asked to write his first, second and

sometimes his third choices about various significant types of social setting.

For example he may be asked questions like the following:

1. Who would you like to be the president of your dramatic club?

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2. Whom would you like to sit next to you in the class, in the bus or while going for a

picnic?

3. With whom would you like to work in the science laboratory?

4. With whom do you enjoy most in social gathering?

All these questions are positive questions and hence show social acceptance.

Negative questions may also be given to show social rejection. Negative questions may

be who are the people you dislike most?

How to Administer Sociometric Test?

The following procedure may be adopted for administration of the test:

(i) Build a relationship with the class, which will enhance the usefulness of the test.

(ii) Decide what information you want and how you will use it,

(iii) Phrase the question carefully so that it is clear.

(iv) Distribute a list of names of all students in the class. Such a list will remind the

students of any who are absent on that day.

(v) Distribute cards on which choices are to be indicated. The following might serve for

that purpose:-

Your Name:
Your First Choice:
Your Second Choice:
Your Third Choice:

During the administration explain the purpose of the test to minimize jealousies and

fears; tell the group that the findings will not be revealed to the other children. Finally, be

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sure to give the children sufficient time to make their choices, but not so much time that

they will reveal their choices to each other.

How to interpret Sociogram?

The following procedure may be adopted to interpret the sociogram:

(i) One student may be concentrated upon at a time.

(ii) A detailed study of the choices made and received should be made.

(iii) The “stars’ and the ‘isolates’ may be looked for. A ‘star’ is a member of the group

who receives most of the choices. An ‘isolate’ is one who is not choosen by anybody.

(iv) After identifying the ‘stars’ and isolates’, efforts should be made to discover the

causes for such selections.

An individual may be isolated for several reasons:

(a) He may be of shy nature

(b) He may not try to make friendship with others

(c) He may be a new member of the group

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(d) He may belong to a lower or upper socio-economic level

Question: Whom would you like to be the President of your Dramatic Club?

Discover individuals who select each other. This reciprocal choice may be due to the

following factors;

(a) Common interests

(b) Close relations

(c) Neighbours

Discover Triangles

A triangle shows three persons selecting one another. It shows evidence of sharp

divisions or cliques in the group/

SOCIOGRAM

The above sociogram shows the pattern of choices of 10 students- Every student was

asked to choose the two students with whom he would like to study and whether he

would give first or second place.

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Advantages of Sociometry

The following are the advantages of Sociometry:

(i) Sociometry helps in discovering the patterns of choice and rejection among the

individuals making up the group

(ii) It facilitates the appraisal of the school adjustment of the individuals within the group,

the classroom management of these individuals, and screening of them for individual

counselling or other remedial work in the area of social skills.

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(iii) It helps in identifying:

(a) Leaders

(b) Isolates

(c) Mutual Choices

(d) Cliques

(e) Rejections

(iv) It helps us to have an idea of group at a glance

(v) It helps us to form appropriate groups of students for carrying out various activities

and projects

(vi) It helps us to understand the characteristics of an individual who is liked or disliked

by the group. It also assists us in knowing the qualities of leadership as being appreciated

by a particular group.

Anecdotal records

Anecdotal record is a description of the student’s conduct and personality in terms of

frequent, brief, concrete observations of the student made and recorded by the teacher,

counsellor or administrator. If these observations are summarized chronologically, a fair

account of the personality of the student can be built up.It gives a dynamic picture of the

student in diverse situations and thus is a good device for the assessment of personality.

Rating Scales

Rating is a sample of the ‘reputation’ of the subject in the eyes of the raters -

counsellors, teachers, parents or others. A rater can record judgements of another person

or of himself upon the traits defined by the scale by a device. It is less descriptive and

more subjective, usually being based on a scale of 0-5 or very poor to excellent.

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It covers a much wider range of more natural behaviour than any practicable battery of

personality tests. It has a great advantage of being applicable without taking up the time

of the subjects, even without their knowing anything about it.

Autobiography
It is a personal and comprehensive document of an individual, which can prove useful in

obtaining information about his personality dynamics. This device can be used more for

gaining understanding of a student’s ‘inner world’ than for ascertaining the facts

regarding the ‘outer world. A proper interpretation of autobiography, thus, will give an

insight into the personality of the individual

Test Techniques
What is a test?

It is a set of tasks or questions intended to elicit particular types of behaviour when

presented under standardized conditions.This means that testing is the act of asking an

individual a particular set of questions in order to obtain a score. The score thus obtained

is the end-product of testing, and yields information needed when making a decision.

A commonly used definition of a test is that it is a systematic procedure for observing and

describing one or more characteristics of a person, with the aid of either a numerical scale

or a category system.

Testing is different from assessment in that assessment involves comprehending,

organizing, communicating and creating impressions. In other words, it helps in the

perception of a person in impression formation or in attribution. In this way, using scores

from a test, a counsellor can form an image or model of the client with whom he/she

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deals. The image thus formed is a set of hypotheses about a particular person, and his/her

potential.

A psychological test is a standardized measure, and this refers to uniformity of

procedures in administering and scoring of the test. Uniformity of procedures exists with

regard to time limits, instructions, and detailed directions for administering each test.

Standardization also implies that norms (an established normal or average performance

on the test) are available.

Types of Tests used in Guidance

The psychological characteristics that an individual possesses may be divided into five

broad categories, each one of which is measurable by a test or a set of tests. We have thus

to use these five types of test.

(1) Tests of Intelligence

(2) Test of abilities

(3) Tests of interests

(4) Tests of personality, and

(5) Tests of achievement

General Uses of Psychological Tests

1. Prediction

A test is given to obtain a measure of ability, achievement and/or other characteristics

that provide a solid basis on which predictions can be made as to what individuals will do

at a later time. Prediction, based on quantitative data, is more likely to be reliable and

accurate, and provide a balance against wishful thinking, than prediction based on clinical

observation or subjective judgement.

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2. Selection

Tests are used by institutions and organizations for hiring some individuals and

rejecting others. The decision to hire an applicant is a selective decision. When tests are

used for selection, it is imperative to show that the scores on these tests bear a

relationship to success in the programme or job (the predictive function), for which the

institution or organization has selected persons. If investigation does not show that the

tests can distinguish between those likely to succeed and those unlikely to do so, then

such tests should be improved or eliminated.

In the selection process, some people who are selected may not be successful in the

programme, and some who were rejected would have been successful if selected. There is

some degree of error, but this error must be minimized by using tests that are reliable and

valid.

3. Classification

Classification is an arrangement according to a systematic division into categories or

groups. Classification involves deciding which treatment to use or to which group a

person should be assigned. For example, after administering an intelligence test,

individuals can be categorized as geniuses or gifted, or retarded.

4. Counselling and Guidance

Tests are frequently used to assist students in exploring and choosing careers, and

directing them to prepare for the careers they select. A single test is not used for making

guidance and counselling decisions. Frequently, a series of tests is administered,

including an interest inventory, various aptitude tests, personality questionnaire, and

achievement tests. This information, along with additional background information, is

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discussed with the student during a series of counselling sessions. This facilitates a

student’s decision-making as he/she considers different careers. Exploring career options

is likely to be an on-going and changing series of decisions occurring, perhaps, over long

periods in a person’s life.

5. Evaluation

Tests are used to assess and evaluate programmes, methods, treatments, etc. For example,

a guidance counsellor can use a questionnaire to evaluate an on-going guidance

programme in a secondary school. Evaluation can be either formative or summative.

Formative evaluation is made when a programme has just been introduced or when it is

in its formative stage.

The purpose of formative evaluation is to try to identify a programme’s strengths and

weaknesses, so that corrective measures can be taken to improve, adjust or review the

objectives if weaknesses become apparent in the programme.

Summative evaluation, on the other hand, is made at the conclusion of the programme.

The purpose of summative evaluation is to find out whether the programme is going to

work or not, whether the objectives have been achieved or not, and whether it should

continue or not. Summative evaluation assists programme designers to decide whether to

implement or abandon a programme.

6. Placement

Tests can be used to place individuals in different groups for instructional purposes or for

particular tasks. For example, in a school students may be placed in different

mathematics classes, on the basis of their scores in mathematical aptitude tests, and

industry tests can be used to place individuals in jobs requiring different skills. Unlike

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selection decisions, where acceptance and rejection are possible, in a placement decision

no one is neglected, or is no longer the concern of the institution or organization. In

placement, every individual remains the concern of

the institution or organization. Persons are assigned to different levels of the same

general type of instruction, or work, and no one is rejected. All remain within the

institution for a certain level of treatment.

Theory of social identity: Self-image and self-concept

Self-concept is an individual’s perception of self and is what helps make each individual
unique.
Positive and negative self-assessments in the physical, emotional, intellectual, and
functional dimensions change over time.
Self-concept affects the ability to function and greatly influences health status.
Self – Concept: who am I, in other words, it includes not only our self schema about who
we currently are, it includes who we might become (possible selves). Self concept
develop from genetical and social influences like the roles we play, social identity we
form, success and failures, judgements by other people as well as the surrounding culture.
Self concept lead to social identity and social categorization e.g. who am I: the answer
may be (a boy/ girl, student, TZ, rich vs poor, etc).

Components of Self-Concept

A. Identity:
A sense of personal identity is what sets one person apart as a unique individual.

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Identity includes a person’s name, gender, ethnic identity, family status, occupation, and
roles.
One’s personal identity begins to develop during childhood and is constantly reinforced
and modified throughout life.
B. Body image is an attitude about one’s physical attributes and characteristics,
appearance, and performance.
Body image is dynamic because any change in body structure or function, including the
normal changes of growth and development, can affect it.
C. Self-esteem is the judgment of personal performance compared with the self-ideal.
Self-esteem is derived from a sense of giving and receiving love, and being respected
by others.
D. Role refers to a set of expected behaviors determined by familial, cultural, and social
norms. The level of self-esteem is dependent upon the self-perception of adequate
role performance in these various social roles.

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