FRICTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS

by
H. M. HORN, M.S., Ph.D. and D. U. DEERE, MS., Ph.D.

SYNOPSIS
The frictional characteristics of minerals com- On a fait des recherches experimentales sur les
monly found in rock and soil have been investigated caracteristiques de friction des mineraux rencontres
experimentally. The test results reveal that the dans le rot et le sol. Le resultat des essais montre
que la presence de fluides sur les surfaces de
presence of fluids on sliding surfaces of minerals
glissement des mineraux augmente fortement les
greatly increases the frictional coefficients of min- coefficients de friction des mineraux de structure
erals having massive crystal structures, such as cristallifere agglomeree tels que le quartz et le
quartz and feldspar, but decreases the frictional feldspath, mais diminue les coefficients des mineraux
coefficients of minerals having layer-lattice struc- de structures a reseau a plans atomiques, tels que le
tures, such as mica and chlorite. The anti- mica et le chlorite. L’action anti-lubrifiante des
lubricating action of fluids on massive-structured fluides sur les mineraux a structure agglomeree s’est
minerals was found to be the most pronounced when revelde la plus forte lorsque les fluides Btaient forte-
ment polarises. Cependant l’effet anti-lubrifiant
the fluids were highly polar. The anti-lubricating
diminue rapidement lorsque la rugosite augmente.
effect diminishes rapidly, however, as surface On n’a trouve aucune relation consequente entre la
roughness increases. No consistent relationship polarite d’un fluide et son efficacite en tant que
was found between the polarity of a fluid and its lubrifiant de mineraux a reseau a plans atomiques.
effectiveness as a lubricant of layer-lattice minerals. Le degre de glissement n’affectait pas les coefficients
The rate of sliding did not affect the frictional co- de friction des surfaces de quartz. Pourtant les
efficients of quartz surfaces. However, the co- coefficients de friction du mica augmentent lorsque
le degre de glissement augmente.
efficients of friction of mica increased as the rate of
Des essais de cisaillement direct faits avec des
sliding increased. sables d’Ottawa montrent qu’a part leur effect
Direct shear tests performed on Ottawa sand possible sur les forces capillaires, les variations de
indicate that, apart from their possible effect on teneur en eau superficielle des grains n’ont pas
capillary forces, variations in particle surface d’effet appreciable sur la resistance au cisaillement
moisture have no appreciable influence on the a l’etat drain6 des sols composes de mineraux a
drained shearing resistance of soils composed of structure agglomeree. Cependant la resistance au
massive-structured minerals. However, the drained cisaillement a l’etat drain.5 du mica en poudre
shearing resistance of powdered mica decreased as diminue lorsque la teneur en eau superficielle des
the surface moisture of the particles was increased. grains augmente.

INTRODUCTION

The frictional characteristics of minerals may have a significant influence on the stability
of masses of soil and of jointed or layered rock. Factors that alter these characteristics may
be, therefore, of major engineering and geologic importance. An investigation of the fric-
tional properties of minerals has been conducted recently in the soil mechanics laboratory of
the University of Illinois. The investigation was limited largely to the study of minerals that
commonly are found in granular soils or in weathered, bedded, or foliated rocks which are often
associated with landslides. Since the crystal structure of several of the minerals studied is
essentially the same as that of the clay minerals, it is believed that the results of certain
phases of this investigation may aid in explaining various aspects of the behaviour of clay
soils.
The investigation encompassed studies of the influence of surface moisture, surface rough-
ness, and the rate of sliding on the frictional resistance developed between surfaces of the same
mineral. The influence that polarity has on the ability of a fluid to lubricate mineral surfaces
was investigated for a limited number of fluids in addition to water. These factors were
evaluated by means of direct shear tests run on mineral surfaces. In addition, direct shear
319

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 320 H. M. HORN AND D. U. DEERE

tests were performed to determine what influence moisture variations have on the shearing
resistance of homo-mineralic soils.

HISTORICAL

The first known written remarks on the nature of the laws that govern the frictional
characteristics of solid surfaces were made by Leonardo da Vinci around the beginning of the
16th century. MacCurdy (1938)r reveals that da Vinci proposed that friction is directly pro-
portional to the normal force between sliding surfaces, and that it is independent of the contact
area between the surfaces. These laws were forgotten and not rediscovered until Amontons
(1699) presented them to the French Royal Academy of Sciences. They did not gain general
acceptance, however, until they were confirmed and reproposed to the Academy by Coulomb
(1785). Ironically, Coulomb is given credit by some writers for originating the ideas that da
Vinci had proposed over 250 years earlier.
Although fluid lubricants had been used for many centuries, the theory involved in hydro-
dynamic lubrication was not formulated until late in the 19th century when Reynolds (1866)
published his treatise on the subject. Reynolds demonstrated that it is possible for a fluid
to keep two sliding solid surfaces separated, and that when this phenomenon occurs, the
frictional resistance that is developed is dependent on the viscosity of the fluid. Kingsbury
(1903) recognized that some fluid lubricants possess a friction-reducing property that is
independent of viscosity. He called this property “body” or “oiliness” but was not able to
define it further. His findings were of great significance, however, since they demonstrated
that the hydrodynamic theory of lubrication did not describe completely the lubricating
mechanism of all fluids. Hardy and Doubleday (1922), while investigating the lubricating
properties of normal paraffins and their related acids and alcohols, proved that certain fluids
have a lubricating ability that is independent of the amount of fluid used. They called this
ability boundary lubrication, a phenomenon wherein a film, possibly only one or two molecules
thick, acts as an effective lubricant. The property Kingsbury referred to as body was
undoubtedly the result of boundary lubrication.
Hardy and Bircumshaw (1925) conducted an investigation to determine if the static
friction that can be developed between lubricated surfaces is directly proportional to the
normal force between the surfaces. They found this to be the case when boundary-lubrication
conditions existed and, further, that these conditions always exist when at least one of the
surfaces is curved.
Terzaghi (1925) proposed that the frictional force developed between two unlubricated
surfaces was the result of molecular bonds formed at the contacts between the surfaces. He
theorized that the friction which could be developed was equal to the product of the real
contact area and the unit shear strength of the bonds. A theory very similar to Terzaghi’s
has been proposed by Bowden, Moore, and Tabor (1943) to explain the frictional resistance
developed between metal surfaces. The latter theory reasons that the adhesive forces at the
contacts are so strong that cold welding actually takes place and that, therefore, the frictional
resistance that can be developed is equal to the product of the real contact area and the shear
strength of the metal junctions. Bowden, Moore, and Tabor also considered a component of
friction resulting from portions of one surface ploughing through portions of the other surface,
but concluded that it is generally insignificant. The adhesion theory of friction proposed by
Terzaghi, and Bowden, Moore, and Tabor is based on two assumptions; namely, that the real
contact area between the surfaces is directly proportional to the normal load, and that the
shear strength at the contacts is independent of the normal force between the surfaces. The

1 See references on pp. 334-335.

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 FRICTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS 321
first assumption has been verified for metals by Holm (1946), while the second assumption
appears to be true for most surfaces. The adhesion theory of friction is now generally accepted
as being valid for both metallic and non-metallic surfaces, with but few exceptions.
Numerous studies have been made concerning the frictional properties of various sub-
stances, but surprisingly little attention has been given to minerals. Possibly the first in-
vestigation pertaining to the frictional characteristics of mineral surfaces was made by
Terzaghi (1925) who found that the application of water between two previously dry, smooth
surfaces of quartz resulted in a substantial increase in the coefficient of static friction of the
surfaces, i.e., water acted as an antilubricant when applied to quartz. Lord Rayleigh (1918)
had previously noted the same antilubricating phenomenon when water was applied to smooth
surfaces of glass. Hardy and Hardy (1919) concluded from the results of an investigation
which they conducted on the lubricating ability of various pure organic and inorganic fluids
that the antilubricating action of water on glass which had been observed by Lord Rayleigh
occurred because the water reduced, in some manner, the lubricating ability of an imperceptible
film of “grease” which had been adsorbed by the glass surfaces prior to the application of
water. They also believed that the adsorbed film had a highly oriented molecular structure.
Tschebotarioff and Welch (1948) investigated the influence of surface moisture variations
on the frictional properties of quartz, calcite, pagodite, and pyrophyllite, the latter two being
talc-like minerals. Their test results reveal that water acted as an antilubricant when applied
to smooth surfaces of calcite as well as those of quartz but lubricated the surfaces of pagodite
and pyrophyllite. In addition, they found that the frictional characteristics of moist mineral
surfaces and those of completely inundated mineral surfaces were virtually the same. It
should be noted, however, that Tschebotarioff and Welch did not define what they meant by
moist surfaces.
Penman (1953) has provided further confirmation of the antilubricating action that water
has on quartz, although his data indicate that the submerged coefficient of friction decreases
with increasing contact pressure.

TEST PROGRA%IME

Minerals investigated
The minerals studied included calcite, quartz, microcline feldspar, muscovite, biotite,
phlogopite, chlorite, serpentine, steatite, and talc. The frictional characteristics of surfaces
of at least one specimen of each of the above minerals were investigated. In addition, the
shearing resistance of a quartz sand and that of a powdered muscovite were studied.

Test conditions
Coefficients of friction are functions not only of the materials involved but also of the
testing techniques that are used to determine them. The test conditions that were imposed
during this investigation are described in the following paragraphs.
(1) Direct shear tests on mineral surfaces.--In all of the tests, except those which were run
on the micas (muscovite, biotite, and phlogopite), a slider consisting of three approximately
hemispherical “buttons” of a mineral was pulled across a plane surface of the same mineral.
When mica was tested, the mineral components of the slider consisted of three small coplanar
sheets rather than the hemispherical “buttons”.
Four different surface moisture conditions were studied; namely, the oven-dried condition,
the oven-dried/air-equilibrated condition, the saturated/air-equilibrated condition, and the
saturated condition.
Oven-dried specimens were heated for several hours in an oven which had a temperature
of approximately 105°C. They were then removed and transferred directly to an environment

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 322 Ii. M. HORN AND D. U. DEERE

which had a relative humidity (RH) of less than 7%. Tests were conducted in the low-
humidity environment as soon as thermal equilibrium was reached between the mineral and
the surrounding air.
Oven-dried/air-equilibrated specimens were first oven-dried for several hours at 105”C,
after which, they were removed from the oven and allowed to cool and adsorb moisture from
the surrounding air in an environment that had a known relative humidity. The tests were
run with the ambient relative humidity having the same value as that which existed during
the cooling period. This ranged between 17% and 97%. Most tests, however, were per-
formed at ambient relative humidities of between 17% and 35%.
The saturated/air-equilibrated specimens were saturated initially with tap water and then
stored for several days in a room that had a relative humidity of between 30% and 40%.
All of the visible surface moisture had evaporated by the time the specimens were tested.
The saturated tests were run with the sliding surfaces of the minerals covered by at least
&, in. of distilled water.
Most of the tests were run on very smooth surfaces. Cleavage surfaces were used when a
mica was tested. An attempt was made to test cleavage surfaces of calcite and of microcline
feldspar. Perfect cleavages were not attained, however, and the surfaces had to be polished
with a tin-oxide abrasive until very smooth finishes were achieved. The polishing technique
was also used on the other non-mica minerals. An additional test series was performed on a
specimen of quartz that had sliding surfaces which had been ground with a No. 240 car-
borundum grit.
No attempt was made to obtain chemically clean mineral surfaces, a condition which can
only be achieved through rather elaborate techniques (Bowden and Tabor, 1950). Clean
surfaces were considered in this investigation to be surfaces from which the grosser impurities
had been removed. Since the air surrounding the mineral specimens during the tests was not
purified, it is certain that lubricating matter contained in the air condensed on the surfaces
after they had been cleaned (Hardy and Hardy, 1919). The latter is a phenomenon associated
with all naturally occurring surfaces.
Clean mica surfaces were obtained by cleavage. The non-mica minerals were generally
cleaned by scrubbing the surfaces with surgical grade absorbent cotton which was soaked with
reagent grade acetone. A number of surfaces were washed with soap powder and tap water,
and then rubbed vigorously with previously cleaned finger tips under a flow of tap water. The
latter method has been used successfully in removing grosser impurities from surfaces by other
investigators (Hardy and Hardy, 1919; and Hardy and Doubleday, 1922). It should be noted
that there was no perceptible difference between the frictional characteristics of surfaces
cleaned with soap powder and tap water and those cleaned with acetone. In cases where
fluids other than water had been applied to the surfaces of non-mica minerals, the surfaces
were repolished and cleaned before they were tested again.
Most tests were performed with an average rate of sliding of 0.7 in./min and are referred
to as “slow tests”. A number of tests were run with an average rate of sliding of 6.0 in./min
and are referred to as “fast tests”.
The lubricating characteristics of various fluids other than water were studied. The highly
polar fluids, ethylene glycol and the ionic compound amylamine; and the non-polar fluids,
carbon tetrachloride, and decahydronaphthalene, were used in this phase of the investigation.
When practicable, the fluids were applied immediately after the specimens had been removed
from the oven. However, the vapours of carbon tetrachloride and amylamine are highly
poisonous, and both compounds have relatively low boiling points. Because of this, they
were applied to the specimens after the latter had been allowed to cool in a desiccator.
(2) Direct shear tests on homo-mineralic so&.-Direct shear tests were performed on two
prepared homo-mineralic soils; a fine Ottawa sand, the particles of which are almost pure
quartz; and a powdered muscovite. Both soils were placed in a very loose state prior to

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 FRICTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS 323
testing, The muscovite specimen was sheared slightly before the start of a test so that the
cleavage faces of the particles tended to be parallel to the plane of shear.
The soils were tested under three conditions of particle surface moisture: oven-dried,
oven-dried/air-equilibrated, and saturated. All of these conditions are as defined previously
with the exception of the oven-dried condition, for which, the specimens were tested immedi-
ately after they had been removed from the oven.
A rate of shear of 0.003 in./min was used in all of the tests. This rate proved to be low
enough so that the drained shearing resistance was obtained in the saturated tests.

Apparatus
A schematic diagram of the system which was used to run the direct shear tests on mineral
surfaces is shown in Fig. 1. The force required to pull the slider across the horizontal mineral
surface was measured with a highly sensitive proving ring which was developed at the Uni-
versity of Illinois (Bowman, 1959). The four SR-4 strain gauges cemented to the proving ring

Cable to Sanborn recorder

Weight

wire
Mineral

/ Reservoir

-Rubber grommets \
Plaster of Paris

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of test apparatus

were connected to a Model 127 Sanborn recorder, thus providing a continuous record of the
frictional resistance during any test run. The proving ring-recorder combination was cali-
brated for loads up to 10 lb, with the accuracy being estimated as -&-0.02lb for loads up to
2.5 lb and &O.OS lb for greater loads.
A large desiccating chamber was needed to provide the low-humidity environment required
to perform the oven-dried tests. A plastic tent was designed to fit over and enclose the testing
system. The tent consisted of a plastic fabric supported by a heavily varnished wooden
frame; all other wooden components within the tent were also heavily varnished. The con-
tact between the tent and the table was sealed with modelling clay. Trays of activated
alumina were placed in the desiccating chamber. It was possible, in this manner, to reduce
the relative humidity within the tent to below 7% and possibly to as low as 2%.
Test specimens were transferred from the oven into the dehumidified tent by tilting
momentarily the supporting frame and sliding the specimen into place. The mineral was
allowed to cool and a check was made at the end of the cooling period to see if the tilting had
resulted in an increase in the relative humidity within the tent. Usually, no change was noted.

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 324 H. M. HORN AND D. U. DEERE

Any manual operations that had to be peformed inside of the tent during a test were done with
the aid of plastic arms that had rubber-glove attachments. The plastic arms extended
through one side of the tent.
The tent was also used to achieve the higher relative humidities used in some of the
oven-dried/air-equilibrated tests. The trays of activated alumina were replaced by a pan of
water which could be warmed by means of a hot-plate that was controlled from outside of the
enclosure. The water was heated until a relative humidity was reached that was within the
range desired.
Direct shear tests were run on prepared, homo-mineralic soil specimens 2 in. x 2 in. in
plan and approximately f in. thick. A conventional shear box and direct shear apparatus
were used for this phase of the investigation. A test series consisted of three runs, each having
a different normal load. All test runs were continued until the shearing force became constant
or dropped off.

TEST RESULTS

Frictional characteristics of mineral surfaces

A summary of coefficients of friction (p) based on the results of the slow tests performed on
smooth mineral surfaces under oven-dried, oven-dried/air-equilibrated, and saturated con-
ditions is presented in Table 1. All of the coefficients listed for oven-dried/air-equilibrated
conditions are based on tests at ambient relative humidities which ranged between 17% and
35%.
(1) Relatiomhip between static and kinetic friction .-The investigation revealed that, for the
various moisture conditions studied, kinetic friction is generally equal to or slightly less than
static friction. An exception to this occurs in the case of quartz. It was not possible to
measure directly the kinetic frictional resistance developed between saturated surfaces of
quartz with the apparatus used because of the well-known stick-slip phenomenon. This
phenomenon is one in which the frictional resistance builds up to a peak and then suddenly
drops off. The drop-off is accompanied by a rapid, short duration movement of the slider.
The resulting frictional resistance-time relationship is a series of peaks and sudden drop-offs.
This is illustrated in Fig. 2 wherein frictional resistance-time relationships taken from actual
recorder curves are presented. The relationship shown for oven-dried quartz is continuous,
whereas that of saturated quartz exhibits the stick-slip characteristics outlined above.
Bowden and Tabor (1950) have demonstrated that the stick-slip phenomenon is a direct
result of the elastic freedom of the slider, and of the difference between the static and the
kinetic frictional resistances. The stick-slip movement becomes more pronounced as this
difference increases. Bowden and Tabor also demonstrated that if kinetic friction is not a
function of the rate of sliding, kinetic frictional resistance is equal to the average force pulling
the slider during a slip. Estimated values for the coefficient of kinetic friction of saturated
smooth surfaces of quartz have been arrived at by assuming kinetic frictional resistance to be
equal to the average force pulling the slider during a slip. This force is illustrated in Fig. 2.
These coefficients, which are listed in Table 1, should be considered as being approximate only,
since the kinetic friction between saturated quartz surfaces may be a function of the rate of
sliding, which varied over a wide range during a slip.
(2) In&ence of crystal stmcture on frictional characteristics.-The frictional coefficients
summarized in Table 1 vividly illustrate that the crystal structure of minerals determines the
manner in which the frictional characteristics of smooth mineral surfaces are affected by
moisture variations. Water acted as an antilubricant when it was applied to surfaces of
minerals that had massive (three-dimensional) crystal structures, i.e. quartz, microcline
feldspar, and calcite; whereas it lubricated surfaces of minerals that had layer-lattice (two-

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 FRICTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS 325

-
Fig. 2. Sanborn recorder plots for a typical specimen of polished quartz

Table 1
Summary of Frictional Coefficients for Three Conditions of Surface Moisture
- -
T T
I Ii
I
Origin Oven-dried Oven-dried/ Saturated
air-equilibrate<
_-
Static 1Kinetic Static Kineti’ c IStatic
T 1Kinetic

I--
IQ* lib; tis F+mk IQ C(rk
_- _- _‘- -
Clear quartz N. Carolina 0.11 0.11 0.10 0.42 0.23’ 3.82 2.30
Milky quartz Wisconsin 0.14 0.16 0.16 0.51 0.27’ 3.64 1.91
Rose quartz Unknown 0.13 0.13 0.11 0.45 O-26* 3.45 2.36
Microcline
feldspar Unknown-A 0.11 0.11 0.13 0.11 0.76 0.76 6.90 6.90
Microcline
feldspar 0.12

--
Unknown-B 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.77 0.77 6.42 6.42
Calcite
(Scratching) N. Jersey - - 0.21 0.21 0.60 0.60 - -
Calcite (N.S.) N. Jersey 0.12 0.12 -
Calcite (N.S.) Kansas 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0% 0% 4G 4.85
-.-
Muscovite Penna. 0.43 0.43 0.30 0.30 0.23 0.23 0.54 0.54
Muscovite Brazil 0.41 0.41 0.32 0.32 0.22 0.22 0.54 0.54
Muscovite Unknown 0.45 0.45 0.36 0.36 0.26 0.26 0.58 0.58
Phlogopite Madagascar 0.31 0.31 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.15 0.48 0.48
Phlogopite Canada 0.29 0.30 0.22 0.22 0.16 0.16 0.55 0.53
Biotite Canada 0.31 0.31 0.26 0.26 0.13 0.13 0.42 0.42
Chlorite Vermont 0.53 0.53 0.35 0.35 0.22 0.22 0.42 0.42

-
Serpentine Vermont 0.62 0.62 0.50 0.47 0.29 0.26 0.47 0.42
Sernentine Unknown 0.76 0.76 0.65 0.65 0.48 0.48 0.63 0.63
Steitite N. Carolina 0.38 0.38 0.26 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.61 0.50
Talc Vermont 0.36 0.36 0.24 0.24 0.16 0.16 0.45 0.45
- - -

_V&s.-1. The above coefficients are for very smooth surfaces.

2. These coefficients are based on a rate of sliding of 0.7 in./min.
3. The coefficients refer to the friction develoned
* between surfaces of the same mineral, e.g.
quartz on quartz.
4. Relative humidity during oven-dried/air-equilibrated tests ranged between 17% and 35%.
5. The normal load ranged between 0.65 lb and 10.2 lb.
* Denotes approximate coefficient of kinetic friction; based on average of maximum and
minimum values of frictional resistance during stick-slip movement.

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 326 H. M. HORN AND D. U. DEERE

dimensional) crystal structures, i.e. muscovite, biotite, phlogopite, chlorite, serpentine,

steatite, and talc. The ratio of the saturated coefficient of static friction to the oven-dried
coefficient of static friction can be used as a measure of the lubricating or antilubricating
action of water on a particular surface. A ratio much smaller than unity signifies effective
lubrication; a ratio much larger than unity signifies a strong antilubricating effect. This ratio
ranged between 3.45 and 332 for quartz, 6.42 and 6.90 for microcline feldspar, and was 435 for
the one specimen of calcite that was tested successfully in the oven-dried condition. In the
case of the layer-lattice minerals, this ratio was always less than unity, ranging between a
high of 0.63 for one specimen of serpentine, and a low of 0.42 for biotite and chlorite.
(3) In&ewe of polishing on frictional characteristics.-Beilby (1921) proposed that the
structure of material immediately adjacent to a polished surface was different than that of
the underlying material. The possibility existed, therefore, that the polishing required to
achieve smooth surfaces on all but the mica minerals had altered the crystal structure at the
surfaces, and that the antilubricating action which water had on the massive-structured
minerals was the result of the structural change. Accordingly, the influence of polishing on the
frictional characteristics of mineral surfaces was studied by means of a series of slow tests
performed on surfaces of quartz which were first polished and then etched for 30 minutes in a
strong solution of ammonium bifluoride and water. It was felt that if the polishing had
altered the structure of the quartz at the surface, the etching would remove the altered
material, thereby exposing raw quartz surfaces. The results of this test series, which are
plotted in Fig. 3, reveal that etching resulted in a slight decrease in the coefficient of static
friction developed under oven-dried/air-equilibrated conditions, and a substantial increase in
the coefficient under saturated conditions. As might be expected, the etched surfaces had a
distinctly rougher appearance than did the unetched surfaces. It is therefore difficult to
explain the slight decrease noted in the coefficient of static friction of oven-dried/air-equili-
brated surfaces after etching. However, the significant aspect of these test results is that
water acted as an antilubricant when it was applied to the etched quartz surfaces. This test
series illustrated quite clearly that if structural changes had developed during the polishing

NORMAL LOAD ,LB;

Fig. 3. The effect of etching on the static frictional characteristics of polished surfaces of milky
quartz (Wisconsin)

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 FRICTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS 327
operation, the frictional characteristics of the altered material were similar to those of raw
quartz.
(4) In&ence of ambient relative hum&Y.-The coefficients of friction that are listed in
Table 1 indicate that there is very little difference between the frictional characteristics of
oven-dried surfaces and those of oven-dried/air-equilibrated surfaces when massive-structured
minerals are considered, but that a very distinct difference exists in the case of layer-lattice
minerals. This is somewhat of a paradox, however, since it was found that the oven-dried/air-
equilibrated coefficients of friction of both structural groups are functions of the ambient
relative humidity. Relationships between the coefficient of static friction and the ambient
relative humidity are plotted in Fig. 4 for specimens of quartz and muscovite. These relation-
ships are based on the results of slow tests performed on smooth mineral surfaces which were
first oven-dried and then allowed to adsorb moisture from the surrounding air. Despite the
scatter, there is little doubt that the coefficient of static friction of quartz is fairly constant
at low relative humidities, and that it does not change appreciably until a “threshold”
relative humidity is exceeded. The threshold relative humidity for the particular specimen
of quartz that was studied appears to be about 40°h, which is greater than the upper limit
of the oven-dried/air-equilibrated conditions referred to in Table 1. As the relative humidity
increases above the threshold value, the coefficient of static friction of quartz increases in a
regular manner until the saturated coefficient is reached at a relative humidity of 100%.
The test results plotted in Fig. 4 demonstrate quite clearly that the coefficient of static
friction of muscovite is particularly sensitive to variations in relative humidity when the
relative humidity is less than about 40%. The coefficient decreases in an almost linear
fashion as the relative humidity increases from 40% to about lOO%, after which, it drops
suddenly. This sudden drop was confirmed by first running a series of tests at a relative
humidity of about 97% and then re-running the tests on the same surfaces after they had been
submerged. The sudden drop probably takes place at a relative humidity of 100% when the
water adsorbed by the surfaces goes from the gaseous to the liquid state.
(5) Injhence of surface moisture history.-Slow tests were performed on saturatedlair-
equilibrated specimens of microcline feldspar and chlorite. The resulting static frictional-
resistance/normal-load relationships are plotted in Figs 5 and 6, respectively, along with the
results of tests run on oven-dried/air-equilibrated specimens, and saturated specimens. A
comparison of the various test results reveals that the frictional characteristics of saturated/
air-equilibrated mineral surfaces are very similar to those of saturated mineral surfaces. The
significance of this is that a mineral surface that was initially saturated is able to retain more
moisture after being air-dried than it can adsorb from the air after having been oven-dried.
This explains why Tschebotarioff and Welch (1948) found “moist” mineral surfaces to have
the same frictional coefficients as saturated mineral surfaces since their moist condition
corresponded to the saturated/air-equilibrated condition as defined in this investigation
(Welch, 1961). The above emphasizes the necessity of accurately defining the surface
moisture conditions in any investigation concerned with the frictional characteristics of
materials.
(6) Irtjiuence of surface roughness.-The surfaces of massive-structured minerals occurring
in natural soils are generally much rougher than the highly polished surfaces studied in this
investigation. Consequently, a limited study was made to determine the influence of surface
roughness on the frictional characteristics of quartz. Slow tests were performed on a specimen
of quartz, the surfaces of which had been ground with No. 240 Carborundum grit. The tests
were run under both oven-dried/air-equilibrated conditions and saturated conditions. The
results of these tests, which are plotted in Fig. 7, clearly show that static friction increases
under both of these moisture conditions when the roughness of the sliding surfaces is increased.
However, surface roughness has more influence on the frictional resistance of quartz surfaces
under oven-dried/air-equilibrated conditions than it has under saturated conditions. The

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 328 H. M. HORN AND D. U. DEERE

00
0 20 40 60 80 100
AMBIENT RELATIVE HUMIDITY PER CENT

Fig. 4. Relationships between the coefficient of static friction and the ambient relative humidity
for muscovite (Brazil) and clear quartz (N. Carolina)

result is that the antilubricating action which water has on quartz surfaces diminishes rapidly
as the surfaces become rougher. For example, the ratio of the saturated coefficient of static
friction to the oven-dried/air-equilibrated coefficient of static friction was 3.18 : 1 for highly
polished surfaces of the specimen studied, whereas it was only 1.34 : 1 for the roughened sur-
faces. One may conclude from this that the antilubricating effect of water on quartz,
and quite likely on the other massive-structured minerals, becomes insignificant when the
surfaces reach a critical roughness. This is in agreement with Terzaghi (1925) who found
that the coefficient of static friction of rough glass surfaces was unaffected by surface films.

A Oven dried-airequhbrared (R.H: 2S%)

0 Saturated.airequiltbrated
IR.H: 35 -4O'i)
[3 Saturated
8
2

tll
5
k6
2

a
$
64

E
2
2

0
0 2 4 6 8 IO 12
NORMAL LOAD (LB)

Fig. 5. Influence of the surface moisture history on the static friction developed between polished
surfaces of microcline feldspar (Specimen A)

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 FRICTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS 329
It should be noted that a stick-slip movement of the slider resulted when tests were run on
roughened surfaces of quartz under saturated conditions. This demonstrates that the
phenomenon is not a feature unique to smooth quartz surfaces.
(7) Injuence of rate of sliding.- The frictional characteristics of many materials are
functions of the rate of sliding (Clayton, 1951). A study was made to see what influence the
rate of sliding has on the frictional coefficients of smooth quartz, roughened quartz, and
phlogopite mica. A series of fast tests was run on a specimen of each under both oven-dried/
air-equilibrated conditions and saturated conditions.
The results of the fast tests performed on the specimens of quartz were identical to those
of slow tests that had been performed earlier. From this, it can be concluded that the fric-
tional coefficients of either smooth quartz or roughened quartz are unaffected by variations in
the rate of sliding when this rate is between O-7 and 6.0 in./min. It is reasonable to expect
that similar conclusions could be made for calcite and microcline feldspar.
The results of the tests performed on phlogopite, which are plotted in Fig. 8, demonstrate
that the frictional resistance developed under both moisture conditions studied increases when
the rate of sliding increases. An increase in the rate of sliding from 0.7 to 6.0 in./min resulted
in a 12% increase in static frictional resistance under oven-dried/air-equilibrated conditions
and a 28% increase under saturated conditions.
Particles of clay have crystal structures that are very similar to those of the micas and the
other layer-lattice minerals. Because of this, it is quite likely that the frictional character-
istics of the clay minerals are similar to those of the micas. It is possible, therefore, that a
portion of the increase in the drained shear strength of clay noted by Bishop and Henkel(1957)
when the rate of shearing was increased is due to an increase in the frictional resistance
developed between the individual clay particles.
(8) InJEuence of the polarity of a lubricant.-The proposal of Hardy and Hardy (1919),
namely, that the antilubricating action of water on smooth surfaces of glass is the result of
the water reducing the lubricating ability of a film composed of highly oriented molecules
which had been adsorbed prior to the application of the water, is probably the best inter-
pretation of the phenomenon offered to date. Menter (1951) has shown by means of electron
diffraction methods that a disorientation of the molecules of a boundary lubricant is accom-
panied by an increase in the frictional resistance that can be developed between the lubricated
surfaces. Furthermore, Bowden and Tabor (1956) have demonstrated that all natural sur-
faces are contaminated with substances which reduce the frictional coefficients below that
which would exist if the surfaces were chemically pure.
As soon as it had been established that water acted as an antilubricant when applied to
smooth surfaces of the massive-structured minerals, the various characteristics of water were
considered in an effort to account for its antilubricating tendencies. The high polarity of
water was considered a likely factor since it seemed reasonable that the force fields associated
with polar molecules might disrupt the orientation of an adsorbed layer. Accordingly, the
lubricating characteristics of various polar and non-polar fluids were investigated. Slow tests
were run on two specimens of highly polished quartz and two specimens of mica. The results
of this study are summarized in Table 2.
All of the fluids increased the coefficient of static friction of the quartz surfaces. However,
the highly polar fluids (water, ethylene glycol, and amylamine) caused much greater increases
than the non-polar fluids (carbon tetrachloride and decahydronaphthalene). The forces
existing between the molecules of the superimposed fluid and the molecules adsorbed by the
mineral surfaces apparently caused a disorientation of the latter. The forces involved are not
obvious, but it would appear from the results of this investigation that a relationship exists
between the polarity of the fluid and the magnitude of the forces. This is not to imply that
polarity is the only factor involved. Much more work is required before the antilubrication
phenomenon will be fully understood.

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 330 H. M. HORN AND D. U. DEERE

A Oven dried - air equilibrated (R.H: 28 - 30%)

o Saturated _ PIT equtlibrated (R.H: 30%

q Saturated

0
0 1 4 6 8 IO
NORMAL LOAD (LB)
Fig. 6. Influence of the surface moisture history on the static friction developed between polished
surfaces of chlorite

A stick-slip movement of the slider resulted when tests were run on polished quartz
surfaces which were coated with either ethylene glycol or amylamine. As a consequence, it
was not possible to determine directly the kinetic coefficient of friction of quartz surfaces
coated with either of these highly polar fluids. Approximate values for the coefficient of
kinetic friction were determined by assuming the kinetic frictional resistance to be equal to
the average force pulling the slider during a slip. These approximate coefficients are listed
in Table 2. It is interesting to note that no stick-slip motion was observed when tests were
performed on quartz surfaces coated with either of the non-polar fluids investigated.
All of the fluids studied reduced the frictional coefficients of the mica specimens below the
corresponding oven-dried values. The non-polar fluids, however, proved to be rather in-
effective lubricants, reducing the frictional resistance of these minerals only 10% to 20%
below the oven-dried values as compared to the 45% to 50% reductions effected by water and

8 I I I I I

Roughened A Oven dried. air equilibrated (R.H: 46-48X)

S surfacer c 0 Saturated 1

Note. - Data for polished

f surfaces are plotted
5
I” Fig.3
a
ccz
$4-
E

Oven dried- air equlhbrated

0
0 2 4 6 8 IO I2
NORMAL LOAD (LB1

Fig. 7. The effect of surface roughness on the frictional characteristics of

milky quartz (Wisconsin)

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 FRICTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS 331
amylamine. It would appear at first that the greater the polarity, the better the lubricant.
This correlation breaks down, however, when ethylene glycol is considered, since this fluid
is highly polar, and yet the results of the tests indicate that it is no more effective as a lubricant
of layer-lattice minerals than the non-polar fluids.
The surfaces of the layer-lattice minerals are undoubtedly contaminated with adsorbed
molecules. It would seem plausible that the superimposed fluids would disrupt the orienta-
tion of these adsorbed molecules, thereby causing the frictional coefficients to increase. On
the contrary, however, the fluids caused a decrease in the frictional coefficients. The reasons
for this may include the effects of: (a) the scratching and wear that always take place between
sliding surfaces that are boundary lubricated (Bowden and Tabor, 1950), and (b) the cohesive
forces that exist between fresh cleavage faces of layer-lattice minerals (Finch, 1951).
All layer-lattice minerals have perfect basal cleavage. The atoms in a molecular sheet
are held together by strong covalent bonds, whereas the molecular sheets are held together
by relatively weak van der Waals forces. As a consequence of this, it is very easy to cleave
thin sheets from crystals of these materials; but, at the same time, it is relatively difficult to
rupture a crystal along a non-cleavage plane. This implies that the scratching that results
when boundary-lubricated surfaces of layer-lattice minerals are rubbed together generally
exposes fresh cleavage surfaces. If nothing is present that will tend to neutralize the cohesive
forces between the fresh cleavage surfaces, the frictional resistance will be high. If the rubbing
surfaces are submerged in a fluid, molecules of the fluid will be adsorbed by the freshly cleaved
surfaces, thereby diminishing the cohesive forces and reducing the friction accordingly. If
this explanation of the lubrication of layer-lattice minerals by fluids is a valid one, the most
important quality that the lubricant can have is a strong tendency to be rapidly adsorbed by
the fresh cleavage surfaces. The results of this study would indicate that factors in addition
to polarity affect the degree and rate of adsorption. It should be noted that no attempt was
made to ascertain the effect of surface roughness on the frictional characteristics of layer-
lattice minerals, and that all tests involving these minerals were performed on either cleavage
surfaces or surfaces which were highly polished.

Table 2

A Summary of Frictional Coefficients for Mineral Surfaces Coated with Various

Polar and Non-Polar Fluids

I
Fluid Clear quartz Rose quartz Brazilian Madagascan
muscovite phlogopite
-)-q---q.).)..)+q+-
Kinetic Static Kmetx Static Kmetlc Static Kmetlc

Water 0.42
Polar Ethylene glycol 0.53 0.31* 0.54 0.29* 0.31 0.31 0.24 0.24
Amylamine 0.61 0.32* _ _ _ _ 0.17 0.17
_____ ___-~
Non- Carbon tetrachloride 0.20 0.26 0.24 0.37 0.37 0.25 0.25
polar -t Decahydronaphthalene 0.20 - - 0.36 0.36 0.24 0.24
______ ______
Oven-dried coefficients 0.10 0.13 0.11 0.41 0.41 0.31 0.31

No&x.-l. The above coefficients are for very smooth surfaces.

2. These coefficients are based on a rate of sliding of 0.7 in/min.
3. The coefficients refer to friction developed between surfaces of the same mineral, e.g.
quartz on quartz.
4. The normal load ranged between 0.65 lb and 10.2 lb.
* Denotes approximate coefficient of kinetic friction; based on average of maximum and
minimum values of frictional resistance during stick-slip movement.

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 332 H. M. HORN AND D. U. DEERE

Frictional characteristics of homo-mineralic soils

The results of the series of direct shear tests that were conducted on loose, fine Ottawa
sand clearly demonstrate that apart from their effect on capillary forces, particle surface-
moisture variations have no measurable influence on the drained shearing resistance of quartz
grains. Caquot (1934) advanced the idea that a definite relationship exists between the angle
of shearing resistance of a granular mass and the angle of friction of the constituent material.
Work in recent years by Bishop (1954), and Newland and Allely (1957) has verified Caquot’s
idea. Why then is the shearing resistance of Ottawa sand unaffected by variations in surface
moisture when the frictional properties of highly polished quartz are changed radically by such
variations? It is believed that the apparent paradox can be explained by considering the
roughness of the surfaces of the particles of Ottawa sand. Several grains of the sand were
observed under a microscope. They were rounded to well-rounded and had an average
sphericity of about 0.8. The surfaces of the grains were found to be quite rough, having an

0 0.7 inlmin
Oven dried -air equilibrated (KH: 48%
0 6.0 in/n-tin.

2 4 6 8
NORMAL LOAD (LB)

Fig. 8. The influence of the rate of sliding on the frictional characteristics of phlogopite (Mada-
gascar)

etched or frosted appearance. As was established earlier, the antilubricating effect of water
on quartz diminishes rapidly as the surface roughness increases. The most probable explana-
tion for the fact that water had no effect on the drained shearing resistance of Ottawa sand
is that the surfaces involved were rough enough so that the antilubricating action of water on
quartz was reduced to an insignificant amount. The argument isprobablyvalidformost natural
granular soils that are composed of massive-structured minerals. This would mean that, in so
far as these soils are concerned, the antilubrication phenomenon is of academic interest only.
The drained shearing resistance of the powdered muscovite was found to be very sensitive
to moisture variations. The friction envelopes plotted in Fig. 9 illustrate this quite clearly.
The ratio of the shearing resistance under oven-dried/air-equilibrated conditions to that under
oven-dried conditions was 088 : 1, while the ratio of the saturated drained shearing resistance
to the oven-dried shearing resistance was 0.57 : 1. These ratios agree surprisingly well with
the results of the direct shear tests that were run on sheets of muscovite. It should be kept
in mind that the powdered muscovite was sheared slightly before the start of a test in order
to orient the particles parallel to the shear plane. Although the orientation was doubtlessly
incomplete, many of the plate-like particles were parallel to the shear plane by the time the
failure strain was reached. Furthermore, the plane surfaces of mica particles are very smooth
since they are cleavage faces. This means that the direct shear tests that were performed on

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 FRICTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS 333
powdered mica were essentially the same as the tests that were conducted on sheets of musco-
vite. If tests had been performed on powders of other layer-lattice minerals, it is very likely
that similar results would have been obtained.
The lubricating action of water on the surfaces of layer-lattice minerals and soils composed
of these minerals may be the cause of some of the failures of masses of soil and of rock. Ter-
zaghi (1958) has observed several failures that took place during rock-tunnelling operations
which could not be explained except by a reduction in the shear strength of the rock. He
noted that many times the faces of joints in the rock where failure took place were coated with
layers of sericite, which is a fine, scaly muscovite. If moisture had been introduced into these
joints during the tunnelling operation, the frictional resistance along the joints would have
been reduced, thus reducing the shear strength of the rock and possibly initiating the failure.

40 I I , I I I

+ Oven dried
0 Oven dried-air equlllbrrred (R.H: 40%)
A Saturated - dralned

Note:- A shearing rate cf

0003 in/mln. was
used in all tests
2 20-
%

NORMAL LOAD (LB)

Fig. 9. Relationships between shearing resistance and normal load for powdered muscovite

It would appear that the concept of the lubrication of rock surfaces by water that was pro-
posed by geologists as a major cause of landslides, but which has been discounted by soil
engineers, is probably correct in some instances.

CONCLUSIONS

The conclusions that have been drawn from this investigation are summarized as follows:
(1) The kinetic friction developed between mineral surfaces is generally equal to or slightly
less than the static friction. An exception occurs when surfaces of quartz are saturated with
a highly polar fluid. The indications are that under these conditions kinetic friction is
appreciably less than static friction.
(2) As surface moisture increases, the frictional resistance that can be developed between
surfaces of massive-structured minerals increases, whereas the reverse is true for minerals
having layer-lattice structures.
(3) The antilubricating action of water on surfaces of massive-structured minerals dimin-
ishes rapidly as surface roughness increases.
(4) Variations in the rate of sliding for sliding rates between 0.7 and 6.0 in./min have no
effect on the frictional characteristics of surfaces of massive-structured minerals. The
frictional resistance that can be developed between surfaces of mica increases as the rate of

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 334 H. M. HORN AND D. U. DEERE

sliding increases. This may partially explain the increase in the drained shearing resistance
of clays noted in other investigations when the shearing rate was increased, since clay minerals
have crystal structures similar to that of mica.
(5) Polarity influences the lubricating characteristics of a fluid. All of the fluids studied
acted as antilubricants when applied to smooth surfaces of massive-structured minerals.
However, the highly polar fluids produced the greatest degree of antilubrication. All of the
fluids investigated lubricated smooth surfaces of layer-lattice minerals. Although no con-
sistent correlation was found to exist between polarity and lubricating ability, the highly
polar fluids were generally the most effective lubricants.
(6) Apart from their effect on capillary forces, particle surface-moisture variations have
no measurable influence on the drained shearing resistance of soils composed of massive-
structured minerals. The drained shearing resistance of soils composed of layer-lattice
minerals decreases as the moisture on the surfaces of the soil particles increases.
(7) An increase in moisture could cause the failure of a mass of soil that contained a high
percentage of layer-lattice minerals. It is also possible that some of the failures that have
taken place during rock-tunnelling and open-cut rock excavating operations have been the
result of water getting into joints that had surfaces which were covered with layer-lattice
minerals or where the rock itself contained a high percentage of these minerals.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Authors are indebted to Professors K. Terzaghi and R. B. Peck who first suggested
the problem and with whom valuable discussions were held during the course of the investiga-
tion.
This Paper is an abstract of a thesis prepared by the initial Author in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the degree of Ph.D. in Engineering at the University of Illinois. The
thesis was prepared under the direction of Professor D. U. Deere.

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