India's Encounter with the Silk Road

Author(s): Subhakanta Behera

Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 37, No. 51 (Dec. 21-27, 2002), pp. 5077-5080
Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4412978
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 India's Encounter with
phenomenon. More specifically, the Han
emperor Wu-ti (141-87 AD) in his attempt
to forge a broad alliance of central Asian

the Silk Road

nomads against common enemies like
Xiongnus and Tibetan bandits, dispatched
his general Chang Chie'n who, although
failed in his mission, managed to travel
Exploring the evolution of the Silk Road and its connection with westward as far as Bactria, traversed the
India, brings out the dynamics of cross-cultural relation between regions of today's Afghanistan and pio-
neered a direct way to the central Asian
India and the rest of the Silk Road countries in a historical
regions. Chie'n's information about these
perspective. What is the present symbolism of the Silk Roadfor new lands, peoples, products and ways
India vis-a-vis other countries? eventually led to the development of the
Silk Road, and hence he is rightly credited
SUBHAKANTA BEHERA road. For example, a branch left the south-
as the founder of this great road. Over the
ern route at the far end of the Taklamakanyears, the Silk Road developed to a trade
T he Silk Road is an unique exampleand took in Balkh, today in northernhighway as, along side silk textiles, medi-
from history, of inter-continental Afghanistan, rejoining the west bound Silk
cal herbs, carved jade, furs, ceramics, and
cooperation and collaboration not Road at Merv. Another such important a wide variety of luxury goods travelled
only in the field of trade and commercebranch left southern route at Yarkand and from China, and valuable commodities
but also in the realm of ideas and culture. travelled south and across the Karakoram like horses, glassware, raw jade, frankin-
Highly romanticised and sometimes passes to the town of Leh and Srinagar, cense, gold, silver, etc, were imported to
fictionalised in the literature of the coun-
before finally reaching the north-western China. But trade was indirect as goods
tries through which the Silk Road passed, Indian and thus to other routes throughout passed from one trader to another in
and in innumerable travelogues produced the Indian subcontinent. This is how India short segments. Sometimes, traders would
over the centuries, this great Silk Road became geographically connected with the exchange their goods for other goods
spanned a distance of almost 7,000 miles Silk Road and occupied a prominent place without the use of money. Thus, trade
from China through central Asia, northern in the whole Silk Road phenomenon. The along the Silk Road was of peddling and
India and the Parthian Empire, to the Eurasia geographical context of the Road barter nature.
Roman Empire during the period from itself played an important role in the During this period of the Silk Road
200 BC to 14th century AD circa. It cultural exchange between India and the history roughly in the early Christian era,
connected the Yellow River valley in China rest of the Silk Road countries. north-western Indians who lived near the
to the Mediterranean Sea, virtually con- From the Indian perspective, the impor-Ganges river started playing prominent
necting two continents, Asia and Europe, tance of the Silk Road was not so much role as middlemen in the China-Mediter-
the east and the west. The phrase Silk because of its trade and commercial value ranean silk trade as soon as they under-
Road was coined by the German scholar as because of its being the highway for stood that silk was a lucrative product of
and geographer Baron von Richtofen in the movement of cultures and ideas. This the Chinese Empire. The trading relation-
1877 and since then it has been the subject brings us to consider the nature and purpose ship between China and India mostly in
of much investigation, research, survey of the Silk Road. It was first of all, not barter form, developed with increased Han
and academic debate and dither across a trade route that existed solely for the expansion into the central Asia. The
the world. purpose of trading in silk; many other Chinese traded their silk with Indians for
The physio-geographical connection commodities were also traded, from gold precious stones and metals such as gold,
between the Silk Road and ancient India and ivory to even exotic animals and plants. silver and jade, and then Indians would
cannot be properly understood unless the But of course, silk was the predominant trade silk with the Roman empire. Thus,
Silk Road is geographically contextualised. trading commodity and for Romans, and in a sense India came to be the middle
This brings out the fact that the Silk Road westerners this was the most remarkable point for trade and commerce between
as such does not refer to a single, clearly- item. Till quite recently, the discovery of China and Rome, the east and the west.
defined road or highway, connecting Rome silk weaving and its merchandising were The antiquity of India's participation in
and Syria in the west to the Yellow River considered to be related to the first mil- the silk trade can be attested by the use
valley in China in the east. Rather it is a lennium BC. But the archaeological ex- of word 'Sinapatta' for the Chinese equiva-
series of caravan routes, a network of trails cavation of silk cloths, girdles and yams lent of silk in the great Indian text of
and trading posts, oases and emporiain the Chinese province of Zhenjian near political economy Arthashastra, written
scattered all across the vast Eurasia, with the Taihu Lake has proved that silkwormby Kautilya in the 4th century BC.
the eastern terminus at the old Chinese breeding and cloth-weaving had been well- The Silk Road's importance for India
capital city of Chang'an or the present- developed nearly 5,000 years ago. The mainly came from its becoming a major
day Xian, and the western termini atexport of the Chinese silk and trading in channel for cultural and religious exchange
Byzantium or Constantinople (present-day this commodity however, began in the between India and other countries. It is
Istanbul), Antioch, Damascus and other fourth fifth centuries BC, but it is the Hannow established that brahaminism of
west Asian cities. All along this vast stretch,dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) which largely ancient India had influenced religions of
branch routes at different points led to came to be associated with the rise and the peoples of this road. For example, in
destinations off to either side of the maindevelopment of the Silk Road as a trading Zoroastrianism, the use of fire as the symbol

Economic and Political Weekly December 21, 2002 5077

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of the purifying power of good was sup- local Indo-European dialects suchtexts,
as and Hiuen Tsang is credited to have
posedly borrowed from brahaminism. Over Tocharian. translated over 75 Sanskrit texts into
the centuries for almost 2,000 years, the Chinese. It not only promoted Buddhism
It is said that the most significant com-
Silk Road provided the most important and modity carried along the Silk Road was in a big way but also was instrumental in
credible means for the travel and dissemi- not silk, but religion and no doubt, Bud-creating an extensive Buddhist vocabulary
nation of religious beliefs across Eurasia. dhism was the most important. Travelling in Chinese.
That is why with the growth and regularity across the Silk Road, it finally reached The historical engagement of India with
of the road in terms of travel and trade, China. The Chinese empire had extended the Silk Road is best manifested in the
realm of art, as seen in the Graeco-Indian
original religious orientation and beliefs its frontier into central Asia during the 1st
of the people along side the road changed. century BC and since then and perhaps or Gandharan tradition. The Gandharan art
With traders and caravans, missionaries even earlier, China had contact with that flourished in the Peshawar valley of
also travelled carrying with them their faith Buddhism through the movement of trad- the present north-western Pakistan was
and persuasions and spreading it along the ers and missionaries along the Silk Road. essentially a fusion of the Indian Buddhist
trade routes. One such great religion was But with the Han emperor Mingti (57-75 art imported by the ruling Kushanas and
Buddhism which originating from India, AD) we have evidence of the Chinese the Greek art introduced by Alexander the
took advantage of the great extent and contacts with Buddhism. He sent his Great in that region, and also to some
mobility of the Silk Road to extend its emissary Cai Yin to central Asia and extent
India the Persian elements were discer-
reach far beyond its native land. to learn more about Buddhism. After three nible in this fusion. The most revolution-
years, Yin returned to China not only with ary outcome of this syncretic art was the
Buddhism and Islam images of the Buddha and Buddhist scrip- depiction of the Buddha in human form
tures but also with two Indian Buddhist with straight chiselled nose and brow,
classical lips and wavy hair and dressed
monks to preach in China. It is from about
Buddhism, originating in the 6th century
BC became the dominant religion inthis time onwards that Buddhist mission-
India in toga-like robe - all Hellenistic influ-
during the Mauryan emperor Ashokaaries and pilgrims began to travel betweenences. At the same time, the Buddha's eyes
(273-
China, central Asia and India. Simulta- were heavy-lidded and protruding, lobes
232 BC) and spread throughout his empire
neously also started the translation of of the ears elongated and face oval-shaped
from Bengal to Afghanistan. As a result,
Buddhism eventually reached the Buddhist Shravakayana and other sacredand fleshy - all elements of the Indian
Hellenised neighbour, the Kushana/Bactriatexts into Chinese, and missions to India iconography. The resultant Buddha, either
kingdom which under the Kushanas domi-by Chinese priests and monks in search ofin sculpture, mural painting or stucco clay,
nated the areas of Hindukush into Kabul, texts and doctrinal instructions. The great- came to be known as the Buddha image.
Gandhara, northern Pakistan and north-est flux of Buddhism into China occurred It was predominantly this Gandharan art
western India after the decline of the
under the Northern Wei dynasty, duringwith a high mix of Indian art elements that
the 4th-5th centuries AD which activelytravelled into China, central Asia and
Mauryan empire. Under the great Kushana
king Kanishka (144-172 AD), Buddhismpromoted Buddhism. It has been recordedfurther eastwards, gradually absorbing new
further flourished and spread, and that in the early 6th century AD, there were influences including those of China. With
almost two million Buddhists in China
Gandhara, now in Pakistan became not the eastward development of Buddhism
only a great Buddhist settlement but also with marvellous monasteries, temples andalong the Silk Road, the Gandharan art left
served as a cradle to a distinctive Graceo- grottos built all across. Buddhism in China
its imprints in monasteries, grottoes, viharas
Buddhist art form. During next few cen- reached its apogee during the Sui and Tang and stupas that proliferated on the way.
turies, Buddhism along the Silk Road dynasties (581-907 AD) and thereafterObserving it the importance of the transmis-
spread to Hadda, Bamiyan and Kon- declined due to a combination of factors sion of Buddhism and the resultant fusion
dukistan. Bamiyan now in Afghanistan including the collapse of the Tang dynastyand movement of the art, Peter Hopkirk
became one of the most important Bud- and the Arab invasion. But from China, (1780) writes 'this great trans-Asian high-
dhist centres by the 4th century AD be- Buddhism spread to Korea and then to way carried yet another commodity which
cause of its strategic location at the inter- Japan. was to prove far more significant than silk.
section of roads to Persia, India, Tarim With the spread of Buddhism from India It was to revolutionise art and thought
Basin and China. to central Asia and eventually to China, not only in China but throughout the entire
the Indian art and culture also travelled
By the 7th century AD, the small king- Far East. This was the gentle creed of
along the Silk Road to different countries.Buddhism'.
doms around the Tarim Basin region in the
The Chinese travellers like Fa-Hsien (399- Buddhism may be the most important
western part of China had been swept over
by Buddhism which had brought with 414 it AD), Hiuen Tsang (629-645 AD) andarea of mutual interaction between India
so much of Indian culture that SanskritI-Tsing (671-695 AD) and others greatlyand the Silk Road countries but there were
became the religious language. As Bud- helped in this process. They visited Indiaalso other religions and areas in which
dhism advanced eastwards towards the in search of original sources, scripturessuch interaction took place. For example,
Tarim Basin, Kashgania with Yarkand andand holy sites of Buddhism. They carriedManichaeism, established by the Persian
Khotan in the west, Tumsuk, Aksu and with them a plethora of information on theprophet Mani in the third century AD
Kizil in the north, Loulan, Karasahr Indian
and society, polity and culture therebyconsciously incorporated elements of
Dunhuang in the east, and Miran familiarising
and and revealing to the outsideBuddhism and Hinduism like asceticism
Cherchen in the south became important world what the great Indologist A L Bashamand symbolism. Although its influence
centres of Buddhism. Buddhist texts would say 'the wonder that was India'.and hold was short-lived, it had its follow-
were translated from Sanskrit into various
They themselves translated many Sanskrit ings all along the Silk Road.

5078 Economic and Political Weekly December 21, 2002

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 But in an historical context, India's breath control became an integral part of iq-i Hind. Last but not least, the Mughal
encounter with Islam was highly signifi- the Chishtiyya Sufi order. Of course, emperor Jahangir identified the highest
cant from the Silk Road perspective. controlled breathing was incorporated form of Sufism with the Hindu philosophy
Although relatively late in arriving the Silk finally as a vital aspect in almost all the of Vedanta. All these developments have
Road, Islam is at present the faith of the Sufi orders. The influence of the Natha remained in the Indian cultural repository.
majority of people in the countries spanned tradition on Sufism is again attested by the India's encounter with Sufism and the
by this road. It was definitely the result of Sufi theory of creation which says, 'I was
resulting fusion contributed greatly to the
the work of Muslim preachers, traders and a Hidden Treasure and I wished to be evolution of a tolerant, humanistic, syn-
cretic cultural ethos.
rulers. It is important and pertinent to point known, so I created Creation that I might
out that the full diversity of Islamic tra- be known'. One can even notice the in- The Sufi orders in India made use of
ditions, schools of thought and civilising fluence of Hindu tantricism in the vernacular languages from Bengali and
influences flourished along the Silk Road. Chishtiyya saint Abdul Quddus Gangohi's Tamil, and participated in the widespread
Sufism was one of the most important (16th century AD) belief that the union Bhakti ofstyle of religion of the period. In
Islamic traditions which got expressed in Shakti, the Sun and Shiva, the moon Bengal,is the rise of the Chistiyya silsila
all vernaculars and cultures of the Silk symbolised by prayers performed hanging synchronised with the birth of the Bhakti
Road peoples. In India, Sufism came upside to down with the legs suspendedmovement.from However, the Sufis, wherever
symbolise the intensive and multidirec- a roof or branch of a tree. A few more they went, involved themselves in social
tional process of inter-civilisational dia-examples may be cited here to show the rites to provide a counterpoint to the Hindu
logue. Sufism strove to achieve the inner Indian influence on Sufism. The famous society.
realisation of divine unity by arousing Hatha Yoga text Amritakunda, translatedCulturally, the Silk Road was a medium
into Arabic and Persia had a lasting effect
initiative and spiritual faculties and plung- of inter-cultural dialogue. This can be best
ing into contemplation and meditation. on Sufi practices. Secondly, Hindi poetry exemplified in the Indian context when it
Immediately after the death of Prophet came to be increasingly used by Sufism came in contact with Islam. In the vast
Mohammad, Sufism started developingto intransport Sufis to mystical ecstasy. It production of mystic literature, both Bhakti
Persia (modem Iran), Iraq and other neigh- was the result of the Vaishnavite influence and Sufi in important Indian languages
boring regions [Rizvi 1978]. over Sufism, through its devotional po- and dialects during the medieval period,
The Indian influence on Sufism came etry. Vaishnavite elements and themes came the Muslim form of love narratives and
from the Upanishads and Yoga philoso-to be used in Sufi rituals, particularly to lyrics, and meters, motifs and assorted
induce ecstasy. The great Sufi saint Abdul- rhetorical features of Persian 'masnavis'
phy. But it was not the one-way traffic;
the medieval devotionalism or Bhakti Wahid Bilgarami(16-17th century AD) and 'ghazals' were extensively used. But
movement of India also came under the tried tojustify this practice by giving Islamic by far, the most momentous development
influence of Sufism - a fact well-revealedequivalents for features of the Krishna during this period was a linguistic synthe-
in the Nirguna school of mystics of north-legend such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi, sis between Hindi, Arabic and Persian
ern India. By the end of the first millen-Gokul, Jamuna, Mathura and even leading to the birth of Urdu, a literary
nium AD, many eminent Sufis had movedKrishna's flute. He even compiled a Per- variant of Hindi laden with words of Arabo-
Persian stock and written in an adapted
to India and the adjoining regions. One of sian dictionary of Hindi songs, titled Haqa'
the first orders or silsilas of Sufism to be
popular and well-spread was the
Suhrawardiyya silsila (founder Bahaud- Note to Contributors
Din-Zakariyya) which travelling from
Multan spread to Gujarat, the Punjab, EPW welcomes original research papers in the social sciences. Articles
Kashmir and Delhi. In the 14th century, must be not more than 6,000 words. They should not have been simulta-
a collateral line of the Suhrawardiyyas, neously submitted for publication in another journal or newspaper. If the
known as Firdawsiyya emerged in north- paper has appeared earlier in an abridged version, we would appreciate
ern India and became very popular. But a copy of this enclosed with the submitted paper. Please note that correct
the most dominant and well known Sufi
pagination and referencing and a copy complete in all respects will facilitate
order in India was the Chistiyya silsila early processing of the article.
which was founded by Khwaja Muinud- Contributions should be sent as hard copy accompanied by a floppy
Din (1142-1236 AD) who brought with version. While it is possible for us to receive material by email, to avoid
him both Persian upbringing and intellec- possible distortions and other problems, we prefer to receive material by
tual-religious tradition. The Chistiyya mail. Graphs, charts and maps, even if available in the soft form, must be
mission of inculcating piety, humility and sent as clear hard copy.
devotion to god influenced the teachings EPWalso invites short contributions to the 'Commentary' section on topical
of the Bhakti movement. One of the great-
social, economic and political developments. These are ideally 2,000-3,000
est Sufis of this silsila, Nizammud-Din
words and must be exclusive to EPW. In all cases please include the
Awliya was greatly impressed and influ- contributors' name/s and mailing address. Short contributions may be sent
enced by the Shaivite Natha followers of
as file attachments to epw@vsnl.com to facilitate timely processing and
Gorakhnath. Their theory of the division publication.
of the human body into the regions of Articles will be acknowledged immediately on receipt. Quoting the
Shiva and Shakti, the yogic practice of reference number in inquiries will help.
growing long hair, yogic postures and

Economic and Political Weekly December 21, 2002 5079

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Perso-Arabic script. In a later stage, due road but also accepted and assimilated References
to tremendous Indian influence, an Indian many of their cultural, religious and artis-
school of Persian poetry developed and tic elements and traditions. This multi- Ahluwalia, H P S (1999): Beyond the Himalayas,
culturalism has been a hallmark of the Kamlesh Shah Publishers, Mumbai.
poetry in Afghanistan and Tadjikistan also
Baumar, Christopher (2000): Southern Silk Route,
came to be profoundly influenced by India. Indian civilisation premised on unity inOrchid Press, Bangkok.
The earliest known masnavis composed in diversity. India has been all along its history,
Bentley, Jerry H (1993): Old World Encounters,
Hindi are Chanda'in by Mulla Dawud open, accommodative and liberal to out-OUP, New York.
(14th century) and Mrigawati by Qutb Ali side influence and at the same time not Chopra, P N (ed) (1988): The Gazetteer of
India, 2ndedition,GovernmentofIndia, Vol II,
Qutban (16th century). Even in Bengal, a shied away from exporting the best of its New Delhi.
corpus of mystical poetry based on cultural, religious and artistic traditions.
Folz, Richard C (1999): Religions of Silk Route:
masnavis composed by such poets like And the Silk Road provided the earliest Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from
Nizami Ganjawi, Abdur Rahman Jami and opportunity for this two-way traffic. Antiquity to the 15th Century, St Martin's
so on. Similar type of example of cross- Independent India's first prime minister Griffin Press, New York.
cultural influence can be cited with ref- late Pandit Nehru had rediscovered an AsianHopkirk, Peter (1980): Foreign Devils on the Silk
Road, OUP, Oxford.
erence to musical instruments some of identity even before India became free. Rizvi, S A A (1978a): A History of Sufism in India,
The Silk Road symbolises this identity by Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, Vols I
which were readily adaptable to a variety
of musical styles and genres; like thethe fusion of cultures from the Yellow and II, New Delhi.
River Valley to the Mediterranean Sea. -(1978b):
violin which is used in music as disparate If The Wonder That Was India, Sidgwick
and Jackson, Vol II, London.
as south Indian raga, Celtic dance tune not exaggerated, India, mindful of this
Smart, Ninia (1993): The World's Religions, Rept,
and jazz, all on the Silk Road countries.
Asian identity and the predominant Indian Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Again in case of string instrument, an element in it, has always been a key player
Whitfield, Sushan (1999): Life along the Silk
one-stringed instrument is called 'tar' in the Asian affairs. lU Road, University of California Press, Berkeley.
meaning string; the concept of 'tar' trav-
elled to Persia where one string became

Protecting Migrant
two and it came to be know as 'dutar'. And
in India, it reached as 'Sitar'. In Arabic
countries, it became 'quintara' with five

Workers
strings. Finally it became 'guitar' as it
travelled further west in the form of
stringed lute.
Although representing two different and
divergent cultures and mentalities, the The international convention seeking to protect rights of migrant
contact of Islam with India resulted in the
workers that comes into force in early 2003 is path-breaking in
development of a new culture, manifested
several ways. It seeks to establishes international standards of
in art and architecture. Hindu buildings,
temples or palaces did not continue to be treatment for migrant workers and their families.
purely Hindu nor were the buildings erected
by Muslims purely Muslim-Syro-Egyptian, SIBY THARAKAN The Special Rapporteur of the United
Persian or Central Asian. The craftsman- Nations Commission on Human Rights,
ship, ornamental richness and general n December 10, 2002, the occa- Gabriela Rodriguez Pizarro said: "This is
design remained largely Hindu/Indian, but a great success for all those who have
sion of International Human Rights
arcuated form, plain domes, smooth-faced Day, the national parliament of voiced the suffering of migrants and who
walls and spacious interiors were MuslimTimor-Leste (East Timor) decided to accede have campaigned for the establishment of
superimpositions. Similarly, in new Indianto the International Convention on the Pro-an international legal framework for the
painting, one can see a distinct pattern of
tection of the Rights of All Migrant Workersprotection of the human rights of migrants.
symmetry, proportion and spacing fromand Members of Their Families adopted The on Convention offers a holistic approach
Samarkand and Herat. Even thematically,December 18, 1990 by the United Nations. to the human rights of migrants and
the new style portrayed features of the The UN Convention will thus be enforceablesummarises in a single instrument a broad
face, scenes of war and conquest, hunting,by early 2003. Timor Leste's ratification gamut of rights, including civil, political,
forest, etc. economic, social and cultural rights. The
will be the 20th, finally bringing the Conven-
The Silk Road as we know, declined by tion into force. The Convention was acced- Convention also takes into account all the
the 14th century AD, but its legacy, heri- aspects of the migration process so as to
ed by six Asian countries (Azerbaijan, Philip-
tage and spirit still continue to be nurtured pines, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Timor Leste,
protect effectively the victims of abuses
and to influence the countries through and Tajikistan), six American countries in countries of origins, transit and desti-
which it passed in the past. For India, apart (Belize, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, nation, be they regular or irregular, docu-
from accruing fruits of cross-cultural fu- Mexico, and Uruguay), seven African coun-mented or undocumented. The Conven-
sion and inter-civilisational dialogue, it tries (Cape Verde, Egypt, Ghana, Guinea, tion also plays an important role in pre-
has lent great symbolic value. The Silk Morocco, Senegal, and Uganda) and oneventing and eradicating exploitation, traf-
Road symbolises India's outward-looking, European country, Bosnia and Herzegovina. ficking and smuggling of migrants.
liberal perspective on the world. It not only Another 12 countries have signed the Con- The Convention, besides establishing
culturally outreached the countries of the vention as the first step towards ratification.some obligations for states party vis-a-vis

5080 Economic and Political Weekly December 21, 2002

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