THE B A L K A N S AND

NORTH AFRICA,
T H E BALKANS
AND
NORTH AFRICA
1941 - 1942
Dust and smoke rise into the
air as German paratroops
race forward to attack a
position in Crete.
T H E BALKANS
NORTH AFRICA
1941 - 1942
WILL FOWLER
 CONTENTS

UNTERNEHMEN MARITA
6-27

T he German invasion of Yugoslavia,

triggered by the need to rescue the
Italians from their disastrous attack on
Greece, was a model of co-operation
between tanks and aircraft. Riven by
national factionalism and hopelessly
outclassed, the Yugoslav armed forces were
quickly defeated.

Blitzkrieg: Fast armoured and mechanised

warfare supported by bombers and ground
attack aircraft.
 GREEK TRAGEDY
28-43

AFRIKA KORPS
ASCENDANT
66-94

B ritish and Greek troops fought together

against German and Italian forces, but
air power was the deciding factor of the
campaign. With the benefit of ULTRA
intelligence, the British and
Commonwealth troops of W Force were
able to withdraw from Greece and
German-occupied Athens.

UNTERNEHMEN MERKUR G erman troops under General Erwin

Rommel arrived in North Africa to
assist the Italians who were suffering badly
44-65
under attacks by British and
Commonwealth forces. Under Rommel the
Afrika Korps counter attacked and
eventually pushed the 8th Army back into
Egypt, where General Montgomery took a
stand at El Alamein.

INDEX 95-96

T he plans for the German airborne

attack on Crete were known through
ULTRA to the island's commander General
Freyberg. The inadequately armed and
equipped troops under his command fought
hard and were close to defeating the
German paratroops, but were finally forced
to withdraw.
 UNTERNEHMEN MARITA
The military revolt in Yugoslavia has changed the political position in the
Balkans. Yugoslavia, even if it makes initial prof essions of loyalty, must be
regarded as an enemy and beaten down as quickly as possible.
Adolf Hitler
Directive No 25, March 27, 1941

H
itler had been an early admirer of the
Fascist Italy of Benito Mussolini.
Long before Hitler achieved power in
Germany in 1933, Mussolini had begun to
transform Italy into a totalitarian state.
Italy went to war to seize the African
kingdom of Abyssinia in October 1935 and
had expanded its territorial and colonial
control through the 1930s.
As France was reeling from German
attacks, Italy declared war on her on June 10,
1940. The Italian attempt to advance along
the Mediterranean coast was disastrous and
the depleted French forces held the attacks
until the French surrender at Compiegne.
The Italians were then able to grab border
areas of southeastern France and extended
their control as far as Lyon to the north and
Avignon to the south on the River Rhone as
well as the island of Corsica.
On September 27, 1940 Germany and Italy,
who had already signed the Axis Pact on May

6

22, 1939, signed the Tripartite Pact with Japan
that promised mutual assistance if one of the
signatories was attacked. In November
Romania, Hungary and Slovakia signed and
in March 1941 Bulgaria and Yugoslavia,
though following a British-engineered coup
Yugoslavia repudiated it almost immediately.
After the defeat of Yugoslavia the Nazi puppet
state of Croatia signed on June 15, 1941.
The Tripartite Pact did not include joint
measures for waging the war and left
member states some leeway. Even though
Italian troops had invaded the tiny and prim-
itive kingdom of Albania as far back as April
7, 1939, Mussolini caught Hitler off guard
when he announced: "Fuhrer we are on the
march" and informed him that Italian troops
in Albania had attacked Greece on October
28, 1940. A day later the two leaders met at
the Brenner Pass and Hitler, though angry at
the lack of consultation, offered Mussolini the
assistance of German forces. The Duce
declined since he saw the Balkans as his
sphere of influence.
At the outbreak of war in September 1939
Greece, under its authoritarian leader
General Ioannis Metaxas, had adopted a
policy of neutrality. In the early hours of
October 28 through his ambassador in Athens
Mussolini presented a calculated unaccept-
able ultimatum to the Greeks. Metaxas
rejected it with a dignified refusal. (After the
war October 28 became a national holiday
celebrated as Okhi ["No!"] day.)
At 05.30 on Monday October 28, attacking
out of Albania, the six Italian divisions of the
11th and 9th Armies under General Visconti-
Prasca made some headway in four thrusts
through the mountains. Accompanied by
LEFT: Gaunt and frail, Mussolini greets a shaken
Hitler and congratulates him on surviving the
attempt on his life in July 1944. In less than a
year's time both men would be dead.
7
BLITZKRIEG
BENITO AMILCARE
ANDREA MUSSOLINI
(1883 - 1945)
B orn at Dovia in the province of Forli on
July 29, 1 883 he served as a private
in World War I and was wounded in
training. Following the war Mussolini
established the Fascio di Combattimento -
the Union of Combat - the Latin word
"Fasces" from which Facism is derived
was chosen from the bundle of rods
encircling an axe that was used in ancient
Rome by Lictors as a symbol of authority.
In October 2 2 , 1922 he led the March on
Rome with 50,000 Fascists and
pressurised the government into making
him Prime Minister. Hitler took the march
as the model for his Beer Hall Putsch.
The parades, salutes and uniforms of
the Italians were adopted by the Nazis.
When Hitler visited Mussolini in Italy it
was as an up and coming politician
visiting an established national leader.
Italian and German troops served in Spain
in the Civil War but when Mussolini took
Italy into the war on the side of Germany
in 1940, this exposed the poor quality of
the equipment and training of the armed
forces. Italian troops suffered losses in
Greece, Albania, North Africa and Russia.
On July 25, 1943, following the Allied
invasion of mainland Italy, Mussolini was
sacked by King Victor Emmanuel. Under
German control an Italian Fascist state
hung on in northern Italy. At the close of
the war, attempting to escape into
Switzerland with his mistress Clara
Petacci, Mussolini was captured by Italian
partisans and executed on April 28,
1945. Their bodies were hung up in a
public square in Milan.
BLITZKRIEG
Albanian troops and volunteers they were
ostensibly on a mission of "liberation" for
Albanians living in Greece.
They faced four Greek divisions of the 1st
Army. Though on paper the Greeks appeared
outnumbered their divisions were larger, at
18,500 in contrast to the Italians, at between
12,000 and 14,000. The Greeks had more effi-
cient light and medium artillery and more
machine guns. They stopped the Italian
attacks and then on November 4 the 2nd
ABOVE: The Italian crew of a Mitriaglice Fiat
194/35 machine gun man the weapon in an anti-
aircraft role. The gun, dating from World War I,
was unreliable and unpopular.
Corps under Colonel Papadopoulos counter
attacked the Italian 11th Army under General
Gelsos. The Greek Army of Macedonia
inflicted a startling defeat on the elite Italian
Iulia Mountain Division
Greek forces recaptured border areas and

forced the Italians out of Greece and across
the border into Albania. By mid-November
they had deployed 11 infantry divisions, two
infantry brigades and one cavalry division
against 15 Italian infantry divisions and one
tank division.
Mussolini's generals had warned him
against launching an attack in this harsh
terrain so late in the year. His Chief of Staff
Marshal Pietro Badoglio resigned in protest
and on December 4 his Under Secretary of
State for War, General Ubaldo Soddu, recom-
mended an armistice with the Greeks.
On February 25, 1941 the Greek govern-
ment under Alexandros Rorizis accepted the
offer of British military assistance. Known as
W Force after its commander Lt General
Maitland Wilson it consisted of 50,672 men
from the New Zealand Division, and 6th and
7th Australian Divisions of the 1st Australian
Corps under Lt General Blarney. In addition
armour and artillery support was also drawn
GREECE
C-in-C G e n e r a l 4 Fighter Sqns
Papagos 3 Bomber Sqns
ARMY NAVY
5 0 0 , 0 0 0 men 2 , 9 0 0 men
18 Infantry 1 Cruiser
Divisions 10 Destroyers
1 3 Torpedo
A I R FORCE Boats
3,000 men 6 Submarines
120 aircraft
LEFT: An Italian flame thrower crew in action. Both
w e a p o n s , clothing and equipment were
unsuitable for the type of fighting and harsh
terrain over w h i c h Italian forces w o u l d be
operating in Greece.
from the Middle East Command of General
Wavell in Egypt. This was a sizeable slice of
Wavell's force that was fighting hard against
the Italians in North Africa. In Operation
Lustre W Force sailed for Greece and on
March 4 began landing at Piraeus.
By March 1 the Greek forces had captured
Porto Edda on the coast and the inland towns
of Klisura, Roritsa, Pogradec and were within
striking distance of the Albanian capital
Tirana.
The submarines in the small Greek Navy
lay in wait in the waters of the Adriatic and
sank 18 Italian ships carrying men, stores and
equipment from Italy to Albania.
The Italian navy was also suffering humil-
iating losses in action against the Royal Navy
in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . In O p e r a t i o n
Judgement on November 11, 1940, for the loss
of two aircraft, 12 Fleet Air Arm Swordfish
torpedo bombers operating from the carrier
HMS Illustrious 290km (180 miles) off the
BLITZKRIEG

SAVOIA-MARCHETTI SM79-II
SPAVIERO (SPARROWHAWK)
"The three-engined aircraft was originally

designed as an airliner and saw action

in the Spanish Civil War. It was used as

both a conventional and torpedo bomber.

It was a rugged machine that handled well

and between 1 9 3 9 and 1 9 4 4 some 1,200

aircraft of all types were built. Over 100

were exported and a Rumanian built

version powered by two 1,220hp Junkers

engines saw action on the Eastern Front.

Type: Bomber
Crew: 4 - 5
Power Plant: Three 7 8 0 h p Alfa Romeo 1 2 6 RC 3 4
Performance: Maximum speed at 4 , 0 0 0 m (13,120ft)
4 3 0 k m / h (267mph)
Normal range: 1,900km ( 1 , 1 8 0 miles)
Weights: Loaded 1 0 , 4 8 0 k g (23,100lb)
Dimensions: W i n g span: 2 1 . 2 m (69ft 6in)
Length: 15.8m (51ft l 0 i n )
Height: 4 . 3 1 m (14ft 1 in)
Armament: One fixed forward-firing 12.7mm (0.5in)
Breda SAFAT SAG; one flexible 12.7mm
(0.5in) Breda SAFAT SAG in dorsal and
ventral position; one 7.7mm Lewis M G in
either of two lateral hatches; max bomb
A B O V E : A n Italian A i r Force S M 8 1 Pipistrello
load 1,250kg (2,750lb)
(Bat), a m i l i t a r y version of the S M 7 3 a i r l i n e r that

w a s used as a utility a i r c r a f t .

RIGHT: The Italian battleship Conte de Cavour

b a d l y d a m a g e d at Taranto.

Italian coast had crippled three battleships
and a cruiser and damaged dock installations
in the Italians' base at Taranto. The attack at
night was undertaken in two waves. Each
wave had two aircraft that dropped flares to
illuminate the targets. Following the attack
the Italian fleet moved north to harbours on
Italy's west coast, reducing their ability to
attack British convoys in the Mediterranean.
The operation was later closely studied by
the Imperial Japanese Navy who were inter-
ested to establish if aerial torpedoes would
run true in the confined waters of a harbour.
It was clear that they would, and so similar
tactics would be used at Pearl Harbor in their
attack against the American Pacific Fleet on
Sunday December 7, 1941.
On February 25, 1941 the submarine HMS
Upholder sank the cruiser Armando Diaz off
Tunisia.
The naval action was not completely one
BLITZKRIEG
sided however. On March 26 Italian Mezzi
Navali d'Assalto one-man high-speed craft
loaded with explosives were used in a spec-
tacular attack against the cruiser HMS York
in Suda Bay, Crete. The warship was crippled
and later sunk by German bombers.
Italian Maiale - "Pig" - submersibles crip-
pled the battleships HMS Queen Elizabeth and
Valiant in Alexandria harbour on December
19, 1941. The Pigs were 6.7m (22ft) long and
had a two-man crew equipped with dry suits
and breathing equipment, who sat astride
them like a giant tandem motorcycle. The
Human Torpedo, as the British dubbed them,
had a detachable warhead that could be posi-
tioned underneath the keel of an anchored
ship. A timer on the warhead allowed the
crew to swim clear and escape. In Alexandria
the Italian "frog men", as the swimmers in
their black waterproof one-piece suits were
nicknamed, were captured but remained
BLITZKRIEG
11
ABOVE: The thick armour of British M a t i l d a M k II
tanks was a frightening shock for Italian gunners
in North A f r i c a w h o were forced to aim for the
tracks.
silent until the charges had exploded beneath
the two battleships.
ULTRA intelligence allowed the British
Mediterranean Fleet to intercept an Italian
task force of eight cruisers, nine destroyers
and the battleship Vittorio Veneto. Aircraft
A t 5 . 3 0 this morning the German
Government announced that it felt
compelled to order the Wehrmacht to
march into Greece and Yugoslavia last
night, with the aim of driving Britain out
of Europe once and for all.
German News Bureau
Sunday April 6, 1 9 4 1 , Berlin
from HMS Formidable damaged Vittorio
Veneto and the British warships under
Admiral Cunningham sank two heavy
cruisers and two destroyers, while the
damaged Italian heavy cruiser Pola was later
torpedoed. The action on March 28, 1941,
known as the battle of Cape Matapan, marked
the high point of Royal Navy operations in the
Mediterranean.
Earlier in North Africa on September 13,
1940 80,000 men of the Italian 10th Army
grouped in five divisions supported by 200
tanks pushed over the border from the Italian
colony of Tripolitania into British-protected
Egypt.
It was counter attacked in December 10 -
11 by a fast-moving and vigorously led British
and C o m m o n w e a l t h force of 50,000
commanded by General Archibald Wavell
and forced back into Libya. On February 7 at
Beda Fomm a pincer movement caught the
withdrawing Italians and by the end of their
campaign they had lost 130,000 troops, 845
guns and 380 tanks while British and
Commonwealth losses were 2,000 men.
 BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: South African gunners training with

obsolescent 1 8-Pounder guns that would be
replaced by the superb 25-Pounder Gun Howitzer.

LEFT: Defences dug into the side of a wadi for

cover and camouflage.

FRENCH HUMOUR

Germany's flamboyant Italian ally was

I n Vichy and Occupied France, among
becoming a liability.
Hitler was well advanced in his plans for
the invasion of Russia so when in March 1941
British troops and aircraft arrived in Greece
he feared that his right flank would be inse-
cure. Rumania was now supplying Germany
with the bulk of its fuel and oil requirements
from the Ploesti oil fields and bombers based
in a hostile Greece could easily reach
Rumania. In 1959 Germany had imported
848,000 tons of oil from Rumania, this had
risen to 1,177,000 tons in 1940 and in the year
the jokes that circulated, was a fictional
telephone call from Hitler to Mussolini
following the failure of the Italian attack
on Greece.
"Benito aren't you in Athens yet?"
"I can't hear you Adolf."
"I said aren't you in Athens yet?"
"I can't hear you. You must be ringing
from a long way off, presumably London."
BLITZKRIEG
that she invaded the USSR (1941) it stood at
a wartime record of 2,963,000 tons. The USSR
had provided Germany with 617,000 tons in
1940 and so helped fuel the tanks that
crashed through Western Europe.
The fastest and most effective way to
prevent the threat of air attacks on Ploesti was
to neutralise Greece. The original operation
in a directive issued by Hitler in December
13, 1940 called for the occupation of the
Aegean coast and Salonika Basin. In the end
the Germans with their Italian allies would
seize not only mainland Greece, but also the
offshore islands.
A passive or cooperative Yugoslavia was
necessary for German troops to move south.
The Yugoslav government in Belgrade was
strong-armed by the Germans and Italians
into joining the Tripartite Pact on March 25.
However, two days later, encouraged by the
British Foreign Office, Serbian officers in the
Air Force led a coup against the government
of Prince Paul, rejecting the Pact and setting
up a government of national unity under
 BLITZKRIEG

FAR LEFT, ABOVE A N D

BELOW: Heinkel H e l 1 1
bombers part of the
force that devastated
Belgrade in three
waves of attacks on
Easter Sunday, 1 9 4 1 .

LEFT: The crew of a

PzKpfw II watch
nervously as the driver
manoeuvres across a
f l o o d e d river in
Yugoslavia during the
G e r m a n invasion.

BELOW: Heavily laden

Gebirgsjager mountain
troops advance into
Yugoslavia. The Royal
Yugoslav A r m y was
completely outclassed
in equipment and
training by the G e r m a n
invaders.

General Dusan Simovic with the 17-year-old

Prince Peter as monarch. Hitler was enraged.
To him the Pact was perfectly reasonable.
Yugoslavia would offer German troops free
passage to attack Greece and for this she
would have been able to seize the Greek
province of Salonika.
He ordered an air attack, aptly named
O p e r a t i o n Punishment, against the
completely unprotected capital, Belgrade.
Flying in three waves 484 bombers and dive
bombers with 250 fighter escorts hit the
Yugoslav capital on April 6, Easter Sunday, in
a succession of 20-minute attacks. The
figures killed vary considerably from 5,000 to
17,000 in what was a supposedly open city.
BLITZKRIEG
ABOVE: A Junkers Ju88 runs up its engines on an
improvised airstrip. The Ju88 was one of the
outstanding aircraft of World War II, operating in
a variety of roles including fighter, bomber and
dive bomber.
ORDERS - COUNTER
ORDERS - DISORDER
"All troops must engage the enemy wher-
ever encountered and with every means
at their disposal. Do not wait for direct
orders from above but act on your own
and be guided by your judgement, initia-
tive and conscience."'
Yugoslav General Dusan Simovic
Radio orders to the Army April 1941
What is certain is the attacks panicked the
young king and his government into flight.
During the raids the fighter squadrons of the
Royal Yugoslav Air Force took off to defend
the city. Some were equipped with Hawker
Hurricanes, others had Messerschmitt
Bf109s. They shot down two aircraft but by
the end of the campaign out of 419 aircraft
the air force had lost 49 in the air and 85 on
the ground with about 50 escaping to Greece
and some later making their way to Egypt. At
05.10 on April 6 Luftflotte IV under General
Lohr attacked airfields in Yugoslavia as well
as Belgrade.
The Yugoslav plan of operations "R-41", like
that adopted by Poland in 1939, played into
the German hands. It called for defence of the
entire length of the border in which almost
the whole army, 27 divisions, would be tied
up. The only offensive operation envisaged

was with Greek forces on the Albanian border
against the Italians.
On land the German 2nd Army under
General Freiherr von Weichs attacked from
Austria on April 6 and at 05.50 on April 8
General von Kleist's Panzergruppe I, that had
been earmarked for an attack on Thrace in
Greece, pushed towards Belgrade from
Bulgaria. In brief fighting the Panzergruppe
smashed the right wing of the Yugoslav 5th
Army. A day later it took the town Nis and
turned to attack Belgrade driving through the
Yugoslav 6th Army that was holding the
Morava river valley. The XIV Panzer Korps
reached Skopje on April 8, and German
troops entered Nis.
The German 12th Army attacked Thrace,
detaching the XL Panzer Korps westward
through the Vardar region of southern
Yugoslavia that led to Macedonia and the
Monastir gap. On April 10 it linked up with Italian
forces on Lake Ochrid and moved into positions
where it could attack Greece from the north.
BLITZKRIEG
Luftwaffe bombers based in Bulgaria
attacked the Greek port of Piraeus and hit the
SS Clan Fraser, a freighter loaded with
ammunition for the British Expeditionary
Force. The huge explosion that followed
wrecked the port.
On April 12 German and Italian forces
moved towards Greece. The Italian V, VI and
XI Corps was backed by Luftflotte IV that
attacked the Yugoslav 7th Army columns and
troop concentrations around the Ljubljana
area. The Italians encountered little resis-
tance from the enemy who were attempting
to withdraw to the southeast. Around 50,000
Yugoslav troops concentrated near Delnice to
await the Italians to make their surrender.
On April 15, in a daring coup, Belgrade was
captured by motorcycle reconnaissance
BELOW: The commander of an SdKfz 2 3 1
armoured car watches as it fords a stream in
Yugoslavia. The bullet-proof tyres could be
removed to a l l o w it to drive along r a i l w a y tracks.
BLITZKRIEG

Carrier-based reconnaissance
/torpedo-bomber
Crew: 2 - 3
Power Plant: One 690hp Bristol Pegasus IIIM3
T h e Swordfish entered service with the Performance: Maximum speed 248km/h (154mph)
Maximum ran 1,657km (1,030 miles)
Fleet Air Arm in 1 9 3 6 . It remained in
Weights: Empty 1,903kg (4,1951b)
action throughout the war, actually Loaded 3,502kg (7,720lb)
Hasting the aircraft that was designed to Wing span 13.87m (45ft 6in)
Dimensions:
replace it. The biplane construction of the Length 10.87m (35ft 8in)
Height 3.76m (12ft 4in)
Swordfish earned it the affectionate nick- One fixed .303in Vickers MG firing
Armament:
Tie "Stringbag" and its outdated canvas through the propeller hub; one .303in
construction proved very resilient with Lewis or Vickers K gun; provision for
one 1 8in torpedo or 680kg
contact-fused cannon shells actually passing (1,500lb) mine or one 680kg
through without exploding. Fairey built (1,500lb) bomb.
4 0 0 Swordfish in World W a r II.

troops of the Waffen-SS Division Reich, part

of the XLI Panzer Korps. The commander of
this assault group, SS-Hauptsturmfuhrer
Klingenberg, had found all the bridges across
the Danube had been demolished but
captured a motor boat and after a hazardous
journey entered the city and took the
surrender from the mayor. Klingenberg also
hoisted the swastika over the German lega-
tion and released a representative of the
German Foreign Ministry who had been ABOVE: A grimly heroic postcard produced in Italy
interned by the Yugoslavs. For this coup he shows a machine gunner d y i n g at his post.
was awarded the Knight's Cross. Klingenberg
would rise to command a division and die in RIGHT: Yugoslavia d i d not stand a chance when
fighting in the West in 1945. G e r m a n forces attacked from t w o sides. The
There was some confusion over who had Italian navy controlled the seas to the west a n d
captured Belgrade since three separate the Luftwaffe dominated the skies. Yugoslav
attacks were converging on the Yugoslav tactics played into German hands as they
capital. The 8th Panzer Division, part of the attempted to hold the frontiers a n d so were cut
German 2nd Army, was off the air for nearly off or bypassed.
 BLITZKRIEG

19
 ABOVE: A PzKpfwIII
fords a river,
bypassing a
demolished bridge on
the Yugoslav border.

LEFT: German soldiers

take cover behind
concrete anti-tank
obstacles on the
Greek Bulgarian
border.

24 hours and then at 11.52 on April 15 the
division's operations officer reported:
"During the night the 8.Panzer-Division
drove into Belgrade, occupied the city, and
hoisted the Swastika flag".
However, the 2nd Army had better commu-
nications with Panzergruppe 1, who signalled
before the 8th P a n z e r Division:
"Panzergruppe von Kleist has taken Belgrade
from the south. Patrols of Infanterie-Regiment
'Gross Deutschland' have entered the city
from the north. With General von Kleist at the
head, the 11 Panzer-Division has been rolling
into the capital since 06.32".
The final drive of the campaign was on the
historic city of Sarajevo. The commander of
the German 2nd Army, General von Weichs,
was aware that the mountainous terrain in
the area would be ideal for waging a
prolonged campaign. Bad weather and poor

RIGHT: German
mountain troops lead
mules laden with
radio equipment
along a mountain
track in Greece. The
Gebirgsjager were
experienced climbers
recruited from
southern Germany
and Austria.
CROAT
C roatia - a country that had seen itself as
the victim of Serb oppression - was
delighted when it was recognised as an
independent country. It contributed ground
forces to assist the Germans as well as a
small naval force operating in the Aegean
and air force squadrons that fought on the
eastern Front. These squadrons produced a
number of aces.
Verstarktes Infanterie Regiment 3 6 9
(kroatisches)
The Verstarktes Infanterie Regiment 3 6 9
[kroatisches) also known as the Croatian
Legion (Hrvatska Legija) was formed soon
after the German invasion of the Soviet
Union. It was made up of two companies of
Croatian and one company of Bosnian
volunteers and was posted to Dollersheim,
Austria, for training.
It was attached to the 100 Jager Division
and was sent to Army Group South on the
Eastern front. The regiment fought at Valki,
Kharkov, Kalatch and at the Don before
being trapped and destroyed in Stalingrad.
BLITZKRIEG
VOLUNTEERS
1 . Light I n f a n t r y P a r a c h u t e B a t t a l i o n
1. Light Infantry Parachute Battalion ( 1 .
Padobranska Lovacka Bonja) was formed
in 1942 as 1. Light Infantry Parachute
Company ( 1 . Padobranska Lovacka Sat). The
volunteers were trained at the Air Force
school at Petrovaradin before moving to the
new training area at Koprivnica. The base
was attacked by the partisans in October
1943 and the paratroopers were forced out
after days of heavy fighting, where they
suffered 2 0 killed or captured.
Following the attack the unit was disbanded.
It was, however, soon reformed again and
expanded to battalion size. It was sent to the
area of Resnik and Obrovo in January 1945 to
fight the partisans. The unit later fought the
partisans at Sisak and Petrinja, this time
attached to the Kampfgruppe Schlacher
(Borbena Skupina Schlacher) together with the
Motorised Brigade (Brzi Zdrug).
At the end of the war the men of this unit
marched to Austria and surrendered to the
Allies but were immediately transferred back
to the partisans and most of them were killed.
BLITZKRIEG
MACCHI MC200 SAETTA (DART)
First flown in 1937, the M C 2 0 0 was developed
from the racing seaplanes that had been designed
to compete for speed trophies in the 1930s. A
rugged design, its weakness was the radial engine.
Only when a German liquid-cooled engine was fitted
to the C 2 0 2 Folgore (Thunderbolt) and a 1,475hp
engineto the C 2 0 5 Veltro (Greyhound) did the
Regia Aeronautica have fighters that could take on
types like the USAAF P51 D. Only 262 C205s were
built and these were taken over by the Luftwaffe after
September 1943.
roads had delayed the Germans but if the
Yugoslavs offered more resistance in these
mountains, fighting could last for months.
The 2nd Army was reorganised into two
pursuit groups to keep up the pressure on the
Yugoslavs.
Under the command of the recently arrived
LII Infantry Corps HQ, the western group
consisted of four infantry divisions under the
XLIX Corps and LI Corps as well as the 14th
Panzer Division.
The eastern force under Panzergruppe I
was made up of six divisions with the 8th
Panzer Division leading the drive towards
Sarajevo from the east. Luftflotte IV was
tasked with neutralising the anticipated
enemy troop concentrations in the Mostar-
Sarajevo sector.
By the evening of April 13, as the 14th
Panzer Division approached Sarajevo, reports
reached the Germans of fighting between
Serbs and Croats in Mostar. German aircraft
22
Type: Fighter
Crew: 1
Power Plant: One 870hp Fiat A.74 RC38
Performance: Maximum speed at 4,500m
(14,765ft) 502km/h (312mph)
Maximum range :870km (540 miles)
Weights: Empty 1,800kg (3,902lb)
Loaded 2,200kg (4,850lb)
Dimensions: Wing span 10.58m (34ft 8in)
Length 8.19m (26ft l0in)
Height 3.51m (11ft 6in)
Armament: Two 12.7mm (0.5in) Breda
SAFAT MGs in upper cowling
were diverted to attack the Serb positions. A
day later fighting between these groups had
spread to the whole of Dalmatia.
On April 15 both pursuit groups of the 2nd
Army were closing in on Sarajevo. As two
Panzer divisions entered simultaneously
from east and west the Yugoslav 2nd Army,
which had its HQ in the city, capitulated.
Four days after the fall of Belgrade an
unconditional surrender was signed by the
Yugoslavs at 21.00 on Thursday April 17.
General von Weichs signed for the Germans,
the Italian military attache in Belgrade for the
Italians and a Hungarian liaison officer was
present but did not sign since technically his
country was "not at war with Yugoslavia".
The Yugoslav government was represented
by Foreign Minister Cincar-Marcovic and the
armed forces by General Milojko Yankovic.
It was a move that marked the dismantling
of Yugoslavia and creation of the puppet state
of Croatia. Areas of Slovenia were annexed
 BLITZKRIEG

FIAT G50BIS FRECCIA (ARROW)

Type: Fighter/fighter-bomber
Crew: 1
Power Plant: One 840hp Fiat A . 7 4 RC 38
Performance: Maximum speed at 4,500m
(14,765ft) 4 7 0 k m / h (293mph)
Normal range 676km (420 miles)
Weights: Empty 2,015kg (4,443lb)
Loaded 2,522kg (5,5601b)
Dimensions: Wing span 10.9m (36ft)
ABOVE: Ground crew warm the engines of a Fiat Length 7.8m (25ft 7in)
Height 2.95m (9ft 8in)
BR.20M Cicogna (Stork) bomber prior to takeoff.
Armament: Two fixed forward-firing 12.7mm
The BR.20 saw action in the Battle of Britain as (0.5in) Breda SAFAT MGs in fuselage
well as the Mediterranean and Eastern Front. max bomb load 300kg (660lb)

by Italy or incorporated into the Greater
German Reich. On the Dalmatian coast the
Italians took Zara as a naval base and many
of the offshore islands as well as Rotor to the
south. They administered the state of
Montenegro, their puppet Albania and
grabbed areas of Kosovo and western
Macedonia. The Bulgarians seized Skopje,
Veles and Macedonia. To the north and east
the Germans administered Serbia and occu-
pied Banat with its German-speaking
minority, while Hungary took the provinces
of Backa, Prekmurje and Medjumurje.
In Directive No 26 issued on April 4, 1941
Hitler had already cynically anticipated these
land grabs and that Yugoslavia's Balkan

23
BLITZKRIEG
ABOVE: W a v i n g white flags Yugoslav soldiers
hesitantly cross a stream to surrender to G e r m a n
forces. The ethnic mix of the Yugoslav army split
it into factions, some of which were actually pro-
German.
ABOVE: Pro-Axis crowds in Croatia greet the crew
of a German B M W R75 motorcycle combination
from a reconnaissance unit.
neighbours could out of self interest thus be
called on to act in concert with German
forces or at least grant them free passage.
The Fascist organisation Ustasa led by Ante
Pavelic ran the Independent State of Croatia
or Drzava Hrvatska Nezavisna (DHN) that
had been set up by the Germans. They waged
a particularly brutal war against the Serbs
within Croatia, expelling, murdering or
converting them to Roman Catholicism in
roughly equal numbers. Incredibly Croatia
was actually a kingdom with a monarch - the
Italian Duke of Spoleto -who during the brief
life of his kingdom never visited his lands or
his subjects. During the fighting in Yugoslavia
some Croat units had refused to go into action
against the Germans. One German formation
surprised a Croat unit that was still in
garrison and not yet fully mobilised. A regi-
mental officers' party which was in progress
was interrupted only long enough to sign the
instruments of surrender, then the officers
returned to drinking as if nothing untoward
had happened.
With the invasion of the USSR four months
 BLITZKRIEG

POSING

Bulgaria Yugoslavia Hungary

Army Army Army Navy
6 5 0 , 0 0 0 men 1,400,000 men 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 men 6 Picket ships
1 3 Infantry Divisions 110 light tanks 12 Infantry Divisions 7 Auxiliary boats
2 Mobile Divisions 2 Armoured Divisions
Air Force 1 Light Division
Air Force 4 1 9 aircraft 1 Cavalry Division
100 aircraft 1 Fighter W i n g
1 8 Sqns 1 Bomber W i n g Air Force
7 Sqns Army 1,000 aircraft
Navy Aviation (obsolete) 8 Fighter Sqns
4 Patrol Boats 8 Bomber Sqns
Navy 1 3 Reconnaissance
1 Cruiser (old) Sqns
4 Destroyers
16 Torpedo Boats
4 Submarines

ABOVE: Yugoslav prisoners of w a r w a i t to hear their fate. M a n y were released f o l l o w i n g the defeat.

25
BLITZKRIEG

Armament: One Breda Model 35 20mm

FIAT L6/40 LIGHT TANK (0.78in) cannon; one coaxial
Breda Model 38 8mm
"The little Fiat tank was roughly the equivalent of the (0.31 in) MG
Armour: 6-40mm (0.23in-1.57in)
I German PzKpfw II when it was introduced in Crew: 2
1939. Though 283 were built and it saw service in Weight: 6,800kg (6.69 ton)
cavalry and reconnaissance units in Italy, North Hull length: 3.78m (12ft 5in)
Width: 1.92m (6ft 4in)
Africa and Russia, it was never an ideal front line Height: 2.03m (6ft 8in)
vehicle. The hull was modified as a flame thrower, a Engine: One SPA 18D four-cylinder
command tank with extra radios and an open petrol engine developing
70hp
topped turret, and a less than successful assault gun. Road speed: 42km/h (26mph)
Range: 200km (124 miles)

later, Croatia initially committed a reinforced

infantry regiment to join the German forces.
With Bulgaria within the Nazi orbit the
Greek defences - the Metaxas Line - could
now be outflanked. Under Ring Boris III
Bulgaria joined in the attack on Yugoslavia
and grabbed territory on its borders, but
when Germany invaded the USSR they did
not participate. Bulgarian soldiers did
however join the anti-partisan drives against
Tito's forces in Yugoslavia.
One of the little reported actions of the
Yugoslav campaign was the so called
"Feuezauber" operations on the Austrian-

LEFT: A 3.7cm Pak 3 5 / 3 6 crew covers the border

between Bulgaria and Greece. The gun was
inadequate against British Matilda II tanks and
would be hopeless against Soviet T-34s.
 BLITZKRIEG

FIAT M13/40 MEDIUM TANK Armament: One 47mm (1.85in)

gun; two Modello 38
8mm (0.3 1 in) MGs
Armour: 6-42mm (0.24-1.65in)
Crew: 4
Weight: 14,000kg (13.78 tons)
Hull length: 4.92m (16ft 2in)
Width: 2.2m (7ft 3in)
Height: 2.38m (7ft 10in)
Engine One SPA TM40 eight-
cylinder diesel engine
developing 125hp
Road speed: 32km/h (20mph)
Range: 200km (125miles)

Yugoslav border. The terrain did not lend

itself to operations by motorised units but a
force of HQ staff and recently conscripted
soldiers were assembled on the border. It
consisted of four battalion staffs, nine rifle
companies, two Gebirgsjager pioneer platoons
with two Gebirgsjager artillery batteries, one
SP medium artillery battery, four anti-tank
companies, three signal and four bicycle
platoons. The task was to secure the start line
for the 2nd Army under General von Weichs.
They adopted a much more aggressive
approach to their mission. For the loss of one
killed and two wounded, one group under
Hauptmann Palten made an assault river
crossing and entered Maribor, capturing over
100 prisoners and weapons and equipment.
Palten was then ordered to take his force back ABOVE: A n Italian p r o p a g a n d a postcard
to the border and resume his more static duties. celebrates heroic death in A f r i c a .

27
 GREEK TRAGEDY
Following violent attack and pursuit fighting, German Panzer
Division spearheads pursued the fleeing British and marched into
Athens at 09.25 on Sunday.
The Swastika flag has been hoisted over the Acropolis

Oberkommando der Wehrmacht

Sunday April 27, 1941

T
he German attack on Greece that
began on April 8 was to be quick and
r u t h l e s s . The 12th Army u n d e r
General Wilhem von List pierced the Greek
defences in Thrace and on April 9 the 2nd
Panzer Division under General Veiel took
Salonika. However, poor roads, bad weather
and crucially hard fighting by the Greek
armies and British Expeditionary Force
imposed delays on the Germans.
The Greek 2nd Army holding the Metaxas
Line that ran from the Aegean to the border
 BLITZKRIEG

with Yugoslavia and protected northern

Greece and Salonika was outflanked by
attacks through Yugoslavia. Trapped and
bombarded it was finally forced to surrender.
Frontal attacks on the line by the XVIII
Gebirgsjager Corps had met with extremely
tough resistance even after three days of
attacks supported by artillery and dive
bombers. The intensity of the fighting can be
gauged by the fact that in the Rupul Gorge
the German 125th Infantry Regiment suffered
such heavy casualties that it was rendered
combat ineffective.
The Greek 2nd Army surrendered on April 9
and after the soldiers had been disarmed the
Germans released them.
By the morning of April 10 the 40th Panzer
Corps had pushed through the Monastir Gap
from Yugoslavia. The first contact with W Force
happened on April 11 when a Waffen-SS
reconnaissance unit entered Vevi but was
halted by Australian troops holding ground
covering the pass to the south. It took a day
to build up a picture of the enemy position
and then at dusk the Waffen-SS attacked and
broke through the defile.
During the early afternoon of April 13 the
9th Panzer Division's 33rd Panzer Regiment
entered Ptolemais, a town halfway between

LEFT: W i t h M t Olympus in the b a c k g r o u n d the

crew of an M G 3 4 on an A A mount scans the
skies for RAF aircraft. O n e man holds the mount
to keep it stable.

ABOVE: A PzKpfw III is unloaded from a freighter.

W i t h i n Europe G e r m a n y was a b l e to use the r o a d
and rail network to move men a n d equipment to
fronts and embarkation ports.

RIGHT: A PzKpfw IV moves carefully along a

mountain track in the Balkans. Poor roads and
demolitions as well as fierce Greek a n d British
resistance caused many delays.
BLITZKRIEG

SDKFZ 222
Armament: One 2cm (0.79in) or 2.8cm
(1.1 in) cannon; one 7.92mm
(0.31 in) MG
Armour: 14.5mm (0.57in) max
Crew: 3
Dimensions: Length 4.8m (15ft 9in);
Width 1.95m (6ft 4in);
Height 1.8m (5ft 11 in)
Weight: 4,800kg (4.72 tons)
Powerplant: Horch V-8 petrol, 81 bhp or
90bhp
Speed: 75km/h (46.6mph) road
Range: 280km (174 miles) road

Vevi and Kozani. It was here that W Force had

prepared positions and the Germans came
under heavy artillery fire from positions in
the hills and to the southeast of Ptolemais.
The reconnaissance patrols pushed forward
and found the main bridge had been blown
and that a water-filled ditch 1.8m (6ft) wide
and 0.9m (5ft) deep with soft banks that ran
across low ground was an effective anti-tank
obstacle.
Under fire from the British the reconnais-
sance troops from 35rd Panzer Regiment
identified two possible axes for advance
along minor roads. Closer examination
revealed that one was impassable because a
bridge had been blown. The other route
through marshy ground across drainage
ditches was under enemy observation.
I n 480BC 5 , 0 0 0 Greeks held the pass at
Thermopylae against 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 Persians
under Xerxes. The Greeks held for three
days then a traitor showed the Persians a
flanking route through another pass.
Leonidas I of Sparta with 3 0 0 men fought
a valiant rearguard action that allowed
other Greeks to escape, but all 3 0 0
Spartans were killed. Xerxes was finally
defeated at the great naval battle of
Salamis, where the Greek forces under
commander Themistocles sank 3 0 0 ships
for the loss of 4 0 .
BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: G r o u n d
crew ready a
Heinkel H e 1 1 1 .
Efficiently a n d
aggressively
directed air power
w o u l d be decisive
in the Balkans
c a m p a i g n both
against land
targets and
shipping.

LEFT: Leading mules,

German mountain
troops move into
Greece, their ski
caps, cleated boots
and edelweiss
insignia were
distinctive.
BLITZKRIEG
Choosing the route through the marsh the
German tanks were forced to advance at
walking speed and lost seven vehicles that
got bogged down. At dusk the surviving
German tanks were through and launched an
attack at less than 183m (200yd) from the
flank on British armour and anti-tank gun
positions. Some British tanks were knocked
out or abandoned and supply vehicles
captured, but the delaying action had been
effective. The Germans halted, low on fuel
and ammunition, and waited for the bogged-
down tanks to be recovered. The 53rd Panzer
Regiment lost two PzKpfw IVs, one PzKpfw II
and one PzKpfw I in what was the only tank
action of the campaign.
On the morning of April 14 the spearheads
of the 9th Panzer Division reached Kozani
and established a bridgehead across the
Aliakmon River. However, they had reached
32
ABOVE: Captured Greek vehicles on the waterfront
at Kavalla in the northern A e g e a n . The Germans
were greatly assisted in their advance by
capturing a b a n d o n e d British stores of fuel and
rations.
the Aliakmon Line defended by W Force and
for three days the Panzer division was stalled
in front on these well-sited positions.
To the west the Greek 1st Army that had
fought heroically in Albania was now at risk
of being cut off by the rapid advance of
German armour via Fiorina and the British
withdrawal to the Aliakmon Line. From April
13 the Greeks began to pull back towards the
Pindus Mountains. At Kastoria Pass they
encountered the advanced guard of the
German 73rd Infantry Division and fought
hard for a day to break through.
On April 19 the Waffen-SS Regiment 1 that
 BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: Greek infantry with youthful admirers.

The performance of the Greek A r m y in A l b a n i a
a n d Greece in the winter of 1 9 4 1 was
outstanding, earning admiration from key
neutrals like the USA.

LEFT: A road becomes a stream in the spring

rains in Greece. The German motorcycle crews
are protected against the rain a n d spray by
their excellent double-breasted, full-length
rubberised coats.

had reached Grevena was ordered to move

on a south-east axis towards Yannina to cut
off the Greek 1st Army grouped as the Army
of Epirus and Army of Macedonia. A day later
at the Metsovon Pass high in the Pindus
Mountains Greek and German forces clashed
in a desperate battle. Realising that further
fighting would only cause unnecessary losses
BLITZKRIEG

TOP LEFT: Big Short Sunderland flying boats
assisting in the evacuation of key British
personnel from Greece. ULTRA intercepts gave
A l l i e d planners the chance to second guess the
Germans and evacuate troops from safe
locations.
LEFT: German soldiers lend a hand to a
motorcycle crew as they manoeuvre their B M W
R75 across rugged terrain in Greece. It had a
drive through to the sidecar w h e e l , a crew of
three and an M G 3 4 machine g u n .
ABOVE: British soldiers pause by the roadside
during the evacuation of Greece. The trees and
other vegetation provide camouflage from the
ever present Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft
and bombers.
BLITZKRIEG
the Greek commander surrendered his
forces. On Hitler's orders this was kept secret
from the Italians and in recognition of their
valour the officers were permitted to keep
their side arms. The soldiers were disarmed
and permitted to return home.
Mussolini, however, insisted that the 1st
Army should also surrender to the Italians,
with whom the Greeks had fought for a
further two days. On April 25 the Greek
commander signed a second surrender
agreement that included the Italians.
On April 19 the Greeks agreed that W Force
should be evacuated. On the same day men
of the German XVIII Gebirgsjager Corps
entered Larissa and captured the airfield and
British supply dumps. Ten truck loads of
rations and fuel allowed the mountain troops
to keep up their advance. At the port of Volos.
RIGHT: Junkers Ju52 transports
that could c a r r y 1 8 paratroops
were used at Corinth and in
large numbers in Crete.

LEFT: The G e r m a n parachute

design had no risers and so the
soldier could not steer it a n d
made an uncomfortable
"forward roll" landing.

ABOVE: The dramatic diving

" c r u c i f i x " or in modern terms
"spread stable" exit from a
Ju52 was essential to ensure
that the paratrooper was clear
of the tailplane before his
parachute d e p l o y e d .

which fell on April 21, the Germans again
captured large quantities of petrol, oil and
lubricants (POL). These captures were
invaluable for the Germans whose supply
lines were restricted by bad roads, demoli-
tions and poor weather. They had even used
Greek fishing vessels and lighters to move
stores along the Aegean coast.
In a fighting withdrawal the men of W Force
held the Germans at Thermopylae on April
24. G e r m a n air r e c o n n a i s s a n c e h a d
confirmed that a defence line was under
construction. On April 22 tanks and vehicles
from the 5th Panzer Division, part of the XVIII
Corps under General Bohme, attempted to
bounce the Thermopylae position but were
halted by fire from well camouflaged artillery
and single tanks. The following day men of
the German 6th Gebirgsjager Division
outflanked the position by working their way
through difficult terrain to the west in
conjunction with a n o t h e r outflanking
manoeuvre through Molos. At Molos they
37
BLITZKRIEG
encountered strong resistance but on the
night of April 24 - 25 W Force withdrew from
the Thermopylae position.
This action and the access to ULTRA
decrypts allowed the British to second guess
the German moves and, in Operation Demon,
evacuate not only many of their men, but also
Ring George II of Greece, who flew out to
Crete. Luftwaffe reports said that British
troops were being evacuated from Salamis,
and 20 large and 15 small ships were in the
Athenian port of Piraeus and four large and
31 smaller vessels in Khalkis. All the ports
were reported to be well protected by AA
batteries.
At the Corinth Canal on April 25 German
paratroopers were tasked with seizing the
bridge that spanned the deep ship canal
dividing the North and South Peloponnese. If
the Germans could hold it they would speed
the advance of the XII Army and also cut off
the retreat of British and Commonwealth
forces. The troops assigned to the task were
BLITZKRIEG

BELOW: The exhausted crew of a B f 1 1 0 heavy

fighter rest as it is refuelled. The fighter had
proved a disaster in the Battle of Britain but was
effective in Greece.

RIGHT: Dornier D o l 7 Z bombers fly in close

formation over the Acropolis in central Athens
f o l l o w i n g its capture on A p r i l 2 7 , 1 9 4 1 . W i t h a
crew of four or five, the bomber had a maximum
p a y l o a d of 1,000kg ( 2 , 2 0 5 l b ) a n d a range of
1,500km ( 9 3 2 miles).
BLITZKRIEG
BLITZKRIEG

commanded by Colonel Sturm and consisted

of 52 parachute engineers (Fallschirmpioniere)
under Leutnant Haffner supported by the 1st
and 2nd Battalions of Fallschirmjager
Regiment 2 (FJR 2) under respectively
Hauptmann KrohanidHauptmann Pietzonka
with signals and medical detachments. It
would be a classic attack with Kroh's
battalion landing to the north of the bridge
and Pietzonka's to the south. The engineers
would then move in to remove any demoli-
tion charges that might be in place.
The force of 270 Ju52s took off from Larissa
at 05.00 and the gliders carrying the engi-
neers landed accurately at 07.00 with the
engineers racing to capture the bridge. They

BREN LIGHT
MACHINE-GUN
held it but were strongly counter-attacked

T he Bren Light Machine Gun (LMG)

initially built at the Royal Small Arms
Factory at Enfield was based on the ZB
26, a LMG design from the
Czechoslovakian small arms factory at
Brno. The first two letters of the two
names were combined to produce the
"Bren", the versatile LMG that soldiered
from World War II to the Gulf in 1 9 9 1 .
The Bren was an air-cooled gas-operated
weapon that fired a .303in (7.7mm)
round from a 30-round box magazine. It
had a slow rate of fire - 500rpm, but
was very accurate, with sights set out to
1,829 metres (2,000yd), and light - it
weighed only 9.95kg (22.12ib) and was
1,155mm (45.5in) long. It was easy to
strip and experienced gunners could
change magazines or barrels in less than
five seconds. Brens were also made in
Australia, Canada and India during the
course of the war.
and the situation was only resolved by the late
arrival of the 2nd Battalion.
There are indications that ULTRA inter-
cepts may have alerted the British troops at
the bridge, however there is no explanation
for what happened a few moments later. The
engineers had removed the charges but
moments later the bridge crashed down into
the canal, possibly the structure was weak-
ened and collapsed under the impact of a
stray shell.
German losses were light, only eight engi-
neers were killed, and a temporary structure
was built across the canal by the morning of
April 28. The capture of the Corinth Canal cut
off the rearguard of the 4th New Zealand
Brigade at Erithrae, but they were eventually
evacuated from Port Raphti.
German forces reached Athens on April 27
and the German love affair with ancient
Greece was given a new character as propa-
ganda company photographers recorded the
moment the Reichskriegsflagge was run up on
 BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: A dramatic reconstruction of the Corinth BELOW: G e r m a n artillerymen urge their horses
canal operation in the m a g a z i n e Signal. It was across a river in Greece. Tanks and motorcycles
published in 1 9 4 4 as a morale booster when might spearhead the attacks, but not all the
G e r m a n y was close to defeat. G e r m a n army was mechanised.
BLITZKRIEG

TOP: An officer salutes as the Reichskriegsflagge ABOVE: A Royal N a v y submarine enters Port Said
is raised on the Acropolis in Athens. The with the battleship HMS Resolution in the
Germans saw themselves as ejecting the British b a c k g r o u n d . The battleship survived the w a r a n d
from G r e e c e , not as occupiers. was scrapped at Faslane in 1 9 4 8 .

a flagstaff on the Acropolis. In an act of
symbolic resistance it would be torn down on
the night of May 30-31,1941 - one of the first
of many acts of active and passive resistance
during the occupation.
The campaign in Greece and Yugoslavia
was a triumph for the German tactics of coor-
dinating tanks, mechanised infantry and
dive-bombers.
By April 28 W Force had been evacuated.
For the operation the Royal Navy had
provided six cruisers and 19 destroyers as
well as numerous transports. Two destroyers
and four transports were sunk and the bulk
of troops evacuated to Crete.
BLITZKRIEG
ABOVE: An SdKfz 231 armoured car with a 2cm
KwK cannon and 7.92mm MG passes the Greek
parliament building in Athens following the
surrender.
German casualties were 2,559 killed, 5,820
wounded and 3,169 missing. The British who
had committed 75,000 to the campaign lost
12,000 men and all their heavy equipment.
Some 6,298 Yugoslav officers and 337,864
NCOs and soldiers of Serbian extraction were
taken prisoner. The Germans released
Slovenian, Croatian and Macedonian pris-
oners. The Greeks, who were fully mobilised,
lost 223,000 men.
 UNTERNEHMEN MERKUR

'Auf Kreta im Sturm und im Regen'

- 'To Crete in storms and in rain' -
Fallschirmjager song

T
he final stage in the German occupa-
tion of Greece, the attack on Crete
between May 20-23,1941, code named
Unternehmen Merkur - Undertaking Mercury
- was a unique battle.
On April 25 Hitler issued Directive No 28
stating that: "As a base for air warfare against
Great Britain in the Eastern Mediterranean
we must prepare to occupy the island of
Crete."
The island was defended by 28,000 British
and Commonwealth forces commanded by

General Bernard Freyberg, but many had
been evacuated from the Greek mainland
and had limited weapons, ammunition, trans-
port and poor communications equipment.
For the capture of the island of Crete the
Germans committed 13,000 paratroops of
the 7th Air Division u n d e r Leutnant-
General Kurt Student and 9,000 men of the
5th Gebirgsjager Division under Major-
General Julius Ringel with Colonel-General
Alexander Lohr in overall command. They
were supported by 500 fighters and bombers,
500 transports and 80 gliders.
The first air attacks on the island began on
May 15 and in the light of the Luftwaffe's
overwhelming superiority four days later
LEFT: General Freyberg enjoys a cigarette during
a pause in the fighting in Crete. Despite enjoying
the advantages of ULTRA his forces lacked the
equipment and air support to defeat the Germans
once they had g a i n e d a lodgement on the island.
45
BLITZKRIEG
ABOVE: Smoke rises from d a m a g e d or sunk ships
in Suda Bay f o l l o w i n g G e r m a n air attacks. The
Luftwaffe's dominance of the air over Crete was
critical for the operations by German
paratroopers.
Freyberg ordered the remaining RAF aircraft
to fly to Egypt. He assured Wavell that the
airfields on the island would be rendered
unusable. The daily attacks, known to the
soldiers as the "Morning Hate", reached a
crescendo just before 06.00 on May 20 when
they concentrated on the AA gun positions as
well as any identified infantry positions. At
Maleme all but one of the AA guns was
silenced: "This went on firing for some time,"
recalled a survivor, "till a host of Stukas and
Me 109s fastened on it and shot and blasted
it out of existence".
The island was held by 28,000 Imperial
troops reinforced by Greek battalions and
Cretan irregulars who brought the total
Continued on page SO.
BLITZKRIEG

LUFTWAFFE

T he Luftwaffe was formally established in

March 1935, however Germany had
managed to develop medium range bombers
and transports and train pilots from as early
as 1926 in the state-subsidised airline
Deutsche Luft Hansa (changed in 1934 to
Lufthansa). Headed by Erhard Milch, a World
War I veteran of both the infantry and air
force, the civil airline operated the versatile
Ju52 as well as sleek Heinkel airliners which
were later re-engineered as bombers.
The Government sponsored the German
Union of Sport Flying which by 1929 had
5 0 , 0 0 0 members. The organisation gave
boys and young men the chance to fly gliders
and light aircraft and provided an excellent
pool of experienced or semi-trained pilots.
By the time Germany sided with Franco
in the Spanish Civil War the Luftwaffe was
well established and the war gave the pilots
in the Kondor Legion the opportunity to test
tactics and polish up flying skills as well as
being valuable proving ground for aircraft.
The Heinkel Hel111, Dornier Do17, Junkers
Ju52, Ju87 and Ju88 and the Messerschmitt
Bf109 and Bf110 were flown in action in
Spain by pilots and crews who were rotated
through the war zone. The Kondor Legion
demonstrated to the awed world the effec-
tiveness of air power when in July 1936
shuttles of Ju52s flew 7 , 3 5 0 Nationalist
troops with their artillery and equipment
from Morocco to Spain.

RIGHT: A promotional advertisement by the German company

Dornier-Werke for its Do215 medium bomber. The detail
shows the defensive machine gun positions around the cockpit.
BLITZKRIEG
BLITZKRIEG

TOP: W r e c k e d tankers in Suda Bay. The superb ABOVE LEFT A N D RIGHT: Paratroops t r a p p e d on the
natural a n c h o r a g e and port facilities in the north- beach near Retimo lay out g r o u n d to a i r signals
west corner of the island was an obvious target for the Luftwaffe. Some 5 0 0 men of G r o u p Centre
for a i r attacks and p a r a t r o o p landings. survived the initial landings at Retimo.
BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: The sky over

Crete fills with
parachutes. For the
defenders the attack
seemed almost
futuristic, but the
paratroops were
terribly vulnerable in
the air.

LEFT: Paratroops jump

from Ju52s. Delays
in take-offs later led
to single aircraft
flying over d r o p
zones and bearing
the brunt of heavy
A A and small arms
fire.
BLITZKRIEG
2nd LlEUTENANT
CHARLES U P H A M ,
VC AND BAR
A modest 33-year-old New Zealand
sheep farmer, "Charlie" Upham was
awarded the Victoria Cross for his courage
and leadership on Crete. On the night of
May 21-22 he helped silence a German
machine gun position. Between May
2 2 - 3 0 , though wounded by two mortar
bombs and a bullet through his foot, and
suffering from dysentery, he continued to
lead his platoon.
In 1942, promoted to Captain and now
fighting in North Africa at El Ruweisat
Ridge near El Alamein, he led his men in
an attack that destroyed a German tank
and several machine gun positions. He was
captured and remained a PoW until 1945.
For this action he received the rare
distinction of a bar to his VC.
50
ABOVE AND RIGHT: The death dives of Ju52s
photographed by Lt Gordon Hope-Morley who
had taken his camera to photograph Cretan flora
on the day of the attack. The pilot of the Ju52
manages to keep flying long enough for the men
to jump over Heraklion.
garrison strength up to 42,500. Though the
Allied forces were very poorly equipped they
had a unique asset. ULTRA decrypts had
given their commander Major General
Bernard Freyberg VC, appointed on May 5, a
complete breakdown of the German plans.
He knew where the proposed drop zones
were located in Crete. However, Freyberg
was under orders not to compromise his
ULTRA intelligence by exactly second
guessing the German moves and as a cover
also positioned troops on the coast. He was
aware that seaborne reinforcements were
part of the German plan but, though
concerned to reinforce the Maleme airfield
area, he was overruled.
The island garrison lacked sufficient radios
and so headquarters had to rely on runners,
dispatch riders and field telephones - all

vulnerable to air attack. There were few
tanks and these were battered veterans of the
fighting in North Africa. Artillery consisted in
part of captured Italian guns for which sights
had been improvised with match sticks and
BLITZKRIEG
chewing gum. The soldiers even lacked
digging tools and were obliged to use their
helmets to construct positions.
Operation Merkur divided the island into
four drop zones: from west to east, Maleme,
BLITZKRIEG
Canea, Retimo and Heraklion. For lack of
sufficient transport aircraft the island was
attacked in two waves in the morning and the
afternoon of May 20. Some 500 tough, reli-
able Ju52 transport aircraft were available in
the XI Air Corps commanded by Generalmajor
Conrad. The Corps consisted of Geschwader
1, 2 and 3, making up ten transport groups.
They would fly from airfields at Tanagra,
Topolis, Dadion, Megara, Corinth, Phaleron
and Elevsis.
The first w a v e , Group West u n d e r
Generalmajor Eugen Meindl, would land in
Maleme/Canea zone. They would be spear-
headed by the 1st Assault Regiment in
DFS230 gliders who would land to the west
of Maleme airfield and around Suda Bay to
neutralise any AA guns that had survived the
air attacks. This would prepare the way for
the paratroops.
ABOVE: W i t h the fighting over a Luftwaffe
motorcycle crew g a z e at a crash-landed J u 5 2 ,
the port engine of w h i c h has been ripped from
its mountings. This is p r o b a b l y M a l e m e a i r f i e l d .
ABOVE RIGHT: M e n of the 5th M o u n t a i n Division
w a i t at airfields near Athens, ready for the flight
across the A e g e a n . C o m m a n d e d by the b e a r d e d
Austrian General Julius Ringel, the division
composed of the 85th and 100th M o u n t a i n
Regiments proved critical in the battle for Crete.
RIGHT: Some men are pensive and others joke
nervously as, w e a r i n g life jackets, Gebirgsjager,
sit rifle in h a n d , in the bucket seats of their Ju52
as it roars across the sea. Upon landing the drill
was to exit the aircraft as quickly as possible.
 BLITZKRIEG

53
BLITZKRIEG
GREEK SACRED
REGIMENT
T his special forces unit was formed in
August 1942 from officers of the Royal
Hellenic Army who had escaped to Egypt.
About 3 0 0 enlisted as soldiers and it was
the only Greek unit to be regularly
employed operationally. It was the
regiment's third incarnation, having been
first formed in 370BC and then again in
1821 during Greece's fight for freedom.
The Regiment became part of the SAS and
took part in the campaign in North Africa
in 1943. It was attached to the SBS and
conducted operations in the Aegean. It
also assisted British forces to quell the
Communist ELAS rising in Athens in
December 1944.
ABOVE: In the heat of a Greek spring
Gebirgsjager, now wearing steel helmets,
advance eastwards as the attack rolls up the
defences on Crete. German logisticians had
failed to make allowances for the onset of spring
and issue lighter uniforms.
In the afternoon, Group Centre under
Generalmajor Sussmann would land at Retimo
and Canea/Suda, and Group East under
Generalleutnant Julius Ringel, spearheaded by
paratroops of FJR 1 and a battalion of FJR 2,
would seize the airfield at Heraklion. This
would allow the bulk of the 5th Gebirgsjager
Division to be flown in by Ju 52s.
Bad luck dogged the Germans from the
outset of the attack. The glider carrying
Generalmajor Wilhelm Sussmann crashed on
an island off the Greek mainland and Major
General Meindl was critically wounded
shortly after landing. The Germans had also
underestimated the physical difficulties of
 BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE AND BELOW: A mopping up operation in and N e w Zealand troops were captured as they
Crete. Paratroops move cautiously through an olive fought rearguard actions that allowed British
grove before throwing stick grenades into a British troops to be evacuated by the Royal N a v y from the
position and launching an attack. M a n y Australian tiny southern harbour at Sphakia.

55
BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: British soldiers

emerge to surrender
f o l l o w i n g the attack by the
paratroops armed with Kar
9 8 K rifles. Paratroops were
also armed with the M P 3 8
submachine gun a n d M G 3 4
machine g u n .

LEFT: A sniper, distinctive

by his goggles, takes
w e a p o n s from a
Waffenbehalter -
W e a p o n ' s Container. A
platoon of 4 0 to 5 0
paratroops required 14
containers that were
painted with distinguishing
coloured bands.

56

fighting in Crete and the size and determi-
nation of the garrison. The olive groves
provided excellent camouflage for the
defenders and the terraced hillsides reduced
much of the effect of bombing.
The German airborne attack philosophy
was to jump directly onto the objective - even
though this ran the risk of incurring heavy
casualties. The British and American
approach was to have a safe DZ away from
the objective and so allow the paratroopers
to form into a cohesive group - however, this
ran the risk that the force would be inter-
cepted before it reached its objective.
When they jumped the men were lightly
armed and had to collect heavier weapons
from containers that were parachuted with
them. In the short time that men were in the
air on their parachutes they were easy targets
for riflemen below. On the ground the British
BLITZKRIEG
ABOVE: A Junkers Ju88 dive bomber roars low
across the sea in an anti-shipping strike against
ships off Crete. The Royal N a v y lost cruisers
and destroyers in these attacks but evacuated
1 6 , 5 0 0 men.
and Anzac troops quickly established the
most effective technique was to aim at the
paratrooper's feet as he descended. One
defender described it as being "like the opening
of the duck shooting season in New Zealand".
The gliders came in so low and slow that
the defenders could fire right into them
killing all the occupants before they had even
hit the ground. Even those that landed with
the soldiers still alive hit rocky, terraced
terrain and broke up, killing or injuring the
occupants.
Paratroops who landed at the little fishing
port of Kastelli west of Maleme were killed
BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: A p a r a t r o o p pioneer sprints

f o r w a r d moments after firing a burst with
his M 1 9 4 1 Kleif flamethrower. The
flamethrower was a very effective
w e a p o n against bunkers, but it was
heavy, bulky and short r a n g e d .

LEFT: Fatigued and shocked paratroops

describe the heavy fighting that proved so
costly to General Student. Though the losses
in Crete were made up Hitler was convinced
that "the day of the paratrooper is over".

RIGHT: Shells explode a few metres away

from Fallschirmjager as they take cover from
British artillery fire. The paratroops may
have lacked artillery but they had dive
bombers on call.

by Cretan irregulars, men dressed in the
traditional costume of baggy black trousers
and high boots. Armed with knives, axes and
hunting rifles they attacked these airborne
enemies. When Crete was finally occupied
the Germans shot 200 men from Kastelli for
these "atrocities".
In the afternoon the second wave flew into
disaster. In just one hour a force of 1,500
Fallschirmjager was reduced to 1,000 men in
small scattered groups being hunted and
trapped. At Retimo, Group Centre in the
second wave was trapped in an olive factory,
under siege by the British and Australian
forces. Dust now shrouded the airfields in
Greece and in the chaos the Luftwaffe
released aircraft that arrived at Heraklion in
relays and so were easy targets for the well
camouflaged defenders. On the morning of
May 21 Piper Macpherson of the Black Watch
climbed out of his slit trench at Heraklion and
sounded reveille - the British and Anzac
BLITZKRIEG
troops with their Cretan allies were confident
almost cocky.
By the end of the day 40 per cent of
Student's assault force was either dead,
wounded or a prisoner. "Today has been a
hard one," Freyberg cabled Wavell in Egypt.
"We have been hard pressed. So far, I believe,
we hold aerodromes at Heraklion and
Maleme...Margin by which we hold them is
a bare one, and it would be wrong of me to
paint an optimistic picture. Fighting has been
heavy and we have killed large numbers of
Germans. Communications are most diffi-
cult".
Only at the western end of Maleme airfield
did the paratroops manage to find cover and
set up a viable base in the dried up riverbed
of the Tavronitis.
The key feature that dominated the airfield
was the hill known as Point 107 that was held
by t h e New Z e a l a n d 22nd B a t t a l i o n
commanded by Lt Colonel Les Andrew.
BLITZKRIEG
I n World War II M a x Schmeling, the
German heavyweight boxing champion,
enlisted in the Fallschirmjager. The Nazi
propaganda machine made much of him
during his parachute training. In May
1 9 4 1 , though ill from eating fresh fruit in
mainland Greece, he jumped into action in
Crete. It was reported that he had been
hospitalised and in Berlin Goering assumed
he had been wounded and ordered that he
should be awarded the EK II (Iron Cross
Second Class). In reality he was still ill with
diarrhoea.
Under heavy air attack and enemy probes he
sent runners to his commanding officer
Brigadier James Hargest requesting assis-
tance. Hargest promised a counter attack
against the men in the Tavronitis but his men
were pinned down by air attacks. Andrew
attempted an attack with a tiny force of 40
men and two Matilda tanks but it failed, and
only three men returned unwounded. A brave
and experienced soldier, Andrew who had
won the VC in World War I, was under intense
pressure and without reliable communica-
tions. His battalion appeared to be in danger
of being cut off so Andrew pulled back A
Company on Point 107 and this gave the
Germans their opening.
With an airfield in their possession, albeit
under spasmodic artillery fire, they poured
in reinforcements. On the first day aircraft
landed 650 mountain troops and 550 more
paratroops were landed. The Germans now
prepared to "roll up" the island, pushing
eastwards from their secure base at Maleme.
In Athens Student took the tough but tacti-
cally sound decision to a b a n d o n the
operations at Retimo and Heraklion. On May
20 1,500 and 2,000 men had been committed
to these locations, and a day later only 120
men landed at Heraklion, while at the
Maleme, Galatas and Suda Bay area 1,880
were parachuted in. On May 22 this figure
jumped to 1,950 and on the 23rd the Luftwaffe
landed 3,650 men. On May 25 Student landed
at Maleme. The airfield was littered with
smashed Ju52s and to those who knew him
the General looked tired and aged. He had
LEFT: Max Schmeling, the German World
heavyweight boxing champion who was a
Fallschirmjager, features on the cover of Signal.
Though the Nazi propaganda ministry made
much of Schmeling, he was a widely respected
apolitical sportsman. He survived the war and
still enjoys a vigorous lifestyle.
 BLITZKRIEG

LEFT: A lone Ju52 flies

low across Crete. The
need to fly straight
a n d level at low
speed to a l l o w
paratroops to exit
safely made all troop
c a r r y i n g aircraft
desperately vulnerable
to ground fire. M i x
ups at the airfields in
Greece meant that
many aircraft in the
second w a v e came in
alone and not as part
of a formation a n d so
suffered heavily.

witnessed the destruction of his creation, the t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s two C o m m a n d o s

7th Air Division.
On May 22 Freyberg decided that he would
have to pull his forces back on Suda to secure
the naval base. In five days of hard fighting
the paratroops had reached the outskirts of
Canea and Freyberg had to face the fact that
the battle of Crete was lost. He signalled
Wavell: "From a military point of view our
position is hopeless," and on May 27 London
gave permission to withdraw.
He organised an evacuation initially from
the better appointed port of Heraklion on the
north coast, but was eventually forced to use
the tiny south coast port of Sphakia. To cover
commanded by Brigadier Robert Laycock
and designated Layforce were landed at Suda
Bay on the nights of May 23-24 and 26-27.
Among their number was the writer Evelyn
Waugh who was the formations intelligence
officer. In his novel Officers and Gentlemen
he described the fighting in Crete from an
idiosyncratic and rather jaundiced viewpoint.
"The Navy has never let the Army down,"
signalled Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham.
"No enemy forces must reach Crete by sea."
On the night of May 21-22 a Royal Navy force
commanded by Rear Admiral Irvine Glennie
acting on ULTRA intelligence intercepted a
BLITZKRIEG

MP38/40
MP38/40
T he German Maschinenpistole MP38 and
MP40 sub-machine guns, originally
manufactured at the Erma-Werke at Erfurt,
had several revolutionary features. N o
wood was used in their construction, only
steel and plastic, and they had a folding
metal butt ideal for paratroopers and
armoured vehicle crews. The 9mm calibre
MP38 and MP40 both fired from a 32-
round box magazine with a distinctive
cyclic rate of 5 0 0 rounds a minute. They
were 833mm (32.6in) long with the butt
extended and 630mm (24.8in) with it
folded. Manufacturing changes to increase
production reduced machining and
replaced it with welding and steel press-
ings. This reduced the weight of the MP40
to 4.027kg (8.87lb), compared to
4 . 0 8 6 k g (9lb) in the MP38.

convoy of 25 commandeered caiques - Greek
fishing boats - escorted by the Italian
destroyer Lupo. The Royal Navy sank several
caiques and others turned back. They were
carrying elements of the 5th Gebirgsjager
Division with their vehicles, Flak and support
weapons, as well as engineer and anti-tank
units. A larger group of 35 vessels intended
to support Group East on the second day
returned to Milos but some boats did make
landfall on the island.
These attacks came at a cost, and on May
21 the Royal Navy had suffered its first casu-
alties when at dawn German aircraft sank the
destroyer HMS Juno and damaged the cruiser
HMS Ajax. A day later the losses mounted as
the cruisers HMS Gloucester and Fiji were
sunk along with the destroyer HMS
Greyhound. Gloucester and Greyhound had
been patrolling the Kithira Channel to the
north-west of the island, on the look out for
troop-carrying convoys. On May 23 the
destroyers HMS Kelly and Kashmir were lost,
the former captained by Lord Mountbatten. On
May 29 the destroyers HMS Imperial and
Hereward were sunk off the north coast.
For the men making the fighting withdrawal
to the south, it was a grim slog across the
m o u n t a i n spine of the Levka (White)
Mountains to Sphakia. The men at Retimo
never received the order to withdraw and
when German forces finally arrived in the area
they found that 500 paratroops were virtual
prisoners in the olive oil factory, surrounded

62

by 1,500 Australian and Greek troops. In the
olive groves and fields lay the bodies of over
700 Fallschirmjager.
At Retimo and Heraklion Australian and
British forces had quickly learned how to
confuse the Luftwaffe t r a n s p o r t s and
bombers. They laid out captured swastika
flags on their positions, stopped shooting
when aircraft appeared and when the
Germans fired green recognition flares, fired
similar signals. On a number of occasions
laying out captured recognition panels
produced the prompt delivery of weapons,
ammunition, rations and medical stores.
The evacuation of the garrison by the Royal
Navy had been costly, but when it ended on
J u n e 1, 16,500 m e n had b e e n saved.
63
BLITZKRIEG
ABOVE: This dramatic and very inaccurate map
published in Signal shows the three d r o p zones
and suggests that all were successful. In reality it
was only at M a l e m e that the paratroopers g a i n e d
a small toehold and eventually after hard fighting
they secured the island.
Cunningham was an inspirational leader for
his crews: "It takes the Navy three years to
build a ship. It would take 300 years to rebuild
a tradition."
However so severe were the losses at Crete
that the Germans never attempted a major
airborne operation again. Hitler declared to
Student that: "the day of the paratrooper is
over. The parachute arm is a surprise weapon
and without the element of surprise there can
BLITZKRIEG
be no future for airborne forces," and with
these words he condemned this superb force to
a ground role. If it had been used against Malta
or Cyprus this would have shifted the strategic
balance in the Mediterranean firmly in favour
of the Axis. Paratroops, were, however, used in
some small scale operations in the latter years
of the war, including the Aegean, and the
Ardennes offensive in 1944-45.
Conquered Greece was divided among the
Axis powers. Bulgaria took Western Thrace
and so had access to the Aegean and after 1943
this area was expanded westwards into
Macedonia. However Germany had control of
the border with Turkey along with the offshore
islands of Lemnos, Lesbos and Chios.
The bulk of Greece was administered by
the Italians, with the exception of Athens, the
port of Piraeus and the western two-thirds of
Crete including Suda Bay. Following Italy's
surrender in September 1945 German troops
pushed into the whole of Greece.
By May 9, 1945, on the last day of the war,
the Germans had evacuated Greece, but the
garrison of western Crete was trapped
64
ABOVE: The fighting over, paratroops march d o w n
to the docks in Crete. M e n were shocked to
discover how heavy the losses were when they
returned to almost empty barracks in Germany.
without shipping with which to reach the
mainland. Along with the islands of Milos,
Leros and Rhodes, they were grandly desig-
nated Festungen - fortresses.
The Balkan campaign, forced on the
Germans by Italian adventurism in Greece in
1941, had delayed the attack on the USSR by
a critical two months. It had been scheduled
for May 15 but would be launched on June 22.
The mud and snow of the winter of 1941
would not have stopped the Panzers outside
Moscow, they would still have had eight weeks
good going if they had attacked in May.
RIGHT: The air a n d sea battle over a n d around
Crete saw the Luftwaffe pitched against the Royal
Navy. Though the navy suffered heavy losses, it
m a n a g e d to evacuate many men from the island
and intercept enemy convoys c a r r y i n g troops and
equipment to support the a i r b o r n e landings.
 BLITZKRIEG

LEFT: Dust shrouds an airfield where

Ju52s are loaded and B f 1 1 0
fighters are refuelled and re-armed.

ABOVE: The "Kreta" cuff title

a w a r d e d to troops w h o had
landed or fought between M a y 2 0
and 2 7 , or a i r c r e w w h o had taken
part in air operations.

65
 AFRIKA KORPS ASCENDANT

W
hile the Balkans campaign was
being fought out, on the other side
of the Mediterranean Germany
was again coming to the assistance of its
unreliable ally. The Italians had been driven
back deep into their colony of Libya by British
and Commonwealth forces and so Berlin
decided that a small number of troops should
be sent to assist them. On Tuesday February
18, 1941, the force was designated the
Deutsches Afrika Korps (DAK) or Afrika Korps
and consisted of the 15th Panzer and 5th

ABOVE: General Erwin Rommel salutes the newly formed Afrika Korps in Tripoli on February 2 7 , 1941
 BLITZKRIEG

Light (later renamed 21st Panzer) Divisions, ABOVE: O n e of several p r o p a g a n d a pictures taken
though the title would be used for all German showing the arrival of the Afrika Korps in Libya.
forces serving in North Africa from 1941 to Rommel was quick to take the offensive against
1943. the over-extended British and Commonwealth
It was commanded by Lieutenant General forces.
Erwin Rommel, a soldier who would be as
m u c h r e s p e c t e d by h i s B r i t i s h a n d
Commonwealth enemies, who nicknamed
him the "Desert Fox", as by the soldiers
under his command. Rommel, who had
served with distinction in World War I,
commanded the Afrika Korps from February
18, 1941 to March 9, 1943, during which time
he outfought the British and Commonwealth
forces on numerous occasions.
Rommel was an aggressive and energetic
leader and before his forces were fully up to
strength he elected to attack. The first contact ABOVE: A salute from the commander of an 8 x 8
between the Afrika Korps and the men of SdKfz 2 3 1 heavy armoured car. It had a crew of
Wavell's Middle East Command was by a four a n d was used for a variety of roles.
BLITZKRIEG

RIGHT: The commander of an

SdKfz 2 5 0 / 3 of 3 r d Battery
21 Panzer Division holds
onto the frame antenna as
the half track bucks through
the desert sand.

BELOW: A B M W R75 motor

cycle combination of the 21
Panzer Division churns
through the desert. Heat,
sand, grit and rocks played
havoc with engines of tanks
and trucks.

BELOW RIGHT: A n SdKfz 250

is off loaded at docks in

Libya. Axis convoys c a r r y i n g
men, equipment, fuel a n d
ammunition were regularly
intercepted by RAF aircraft
and RN submarines.
 BLITZKRIEG

Armament:
PZKPFW IV AUSF F2 Armour:
Weight:
"The PzKpfw IV was built
Hull length:
under a 1934 specification Width:
from the Germany Army Height:
Weapons Department. It Engine:

entered service in 1939 and Road speed:

was in production until 1945, Range:
with a total of 9 , 0 0 0 vehicles
being built by Krupp. The same
chassis was used for the Ausf
F2 variant up-gunned and
armoured tanks and despite the
increase in weight the tank
enjoyed good mobility and an
excellent power-to-weight ratio.
It was also used for a wide
range of SP guns and other
specialised armour.

RIGHT: O p e r a t i o n Crusader was

launched at 0 6 . 0 0 on November 18
1 9 4 1 and caught Rommel and the
DAK off balance. The attack took
British and Commonwealth troops
back into Libya and lifted the siege
of Tobruk. However, the ever
resourceful Rommel bounced back in
January 1 9 4 2 . N o w it was the
British 8th A r m y that was in retreat.
BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: The US tanker

Ohio limps into the
G r a n d Harbour at
Valletta, M a l t a after
surviving the Pedestal
convoy in August 1 9 4 2
She delivered 1 0 , 0 0 0
tons of fuel to the
island.

RIGHT: A British soldier

emerges from a knocked
out M k III Valentine
tank. The Valentine was
armed with a 2-Pdr gun
a n d a machine g u n .

70

reconnaissance patrol on February 24 at
Nofilia on the Libyan coast. The Germans
then hit the British positions at Al Agheila on
March 24, 1941 and as the exhausted British
forces fell back this allowed the DAK to roam
deep into the desert. The British 2nd
Armoured Division at Mersa Brega fought for
a day on March 51 but was forced back.
Benghazi fell on April 4, Derna on the 7th and
Rommel had driven the British out of Halfaya
Pass and crossed the Egyptian border by
April 25.
The Italian and German forces lacked the
strength to take the port of Tobruk that was
cut off on April 10. It held for six months deep
behind Axis lines, garrisoned by men of the
9th Australian Division under General
Morshead and supplied at night by sea.
Between August 19-29 the Australians were
replaced by Polish troops. They were helped
by ULTRA intelligence that gave them
advanced warning of where and when the
Germans would attack.
BLITZKRIEG
On May 12 a convoy, code named Tiger,
arrived at Alexandria carrying urgently
needed tanks and aircraft for the British. At
considerable risk it had been sent through
the Mediterranean rather than by the longer
safer route around the Cape. The Afrika
Korps survived two operations mounted by
General Wavell Brevity on May 15 that recap-
tured Halfaya Pass, Solium and Capuzzo and
Battleaxe on June 15. The Germans believed
that both operations were attempts to relieve
Tobruk.
Wavell's s u c c e s s o r G e n e r a l Claude
Auchinleck, commanding an enlarged British
and Commonwealth force renamed the 8th
Army, launched Operation Crusader at 06.00
on November 18, 1941. The 8th Army now
had over 700 tanks while the Afrika Korps
BELOW: A battery of Afrika Korps heavy 1 5cm
K18 guns in action. The gun weighed 12,460kg
(27,412lbs) in action and had a maximum range
of 24,825m (27,060yds).
BLITZKRIEG

M3A1 STUART M K III

Armament:

Armour:
Crew:
Dimensions:

Weight:
Powerplant:

Speed:
MEDIUM TANK M3 Range:

(LEE/GRANT M K I)

Armament:

Armour:
Crew:
Dimensions:

Weight:
Powerplant:

Speed:
Range:

72
 BLITZKRIEG

MK V I LIGHT TANK ( 1 9 3 6 )
I i g h t tanks had been
developed from the 1930s
based on the Carden-Loyd
tankette concept and the Mk VI
was the second British tank of
this type to have a three man
crew. It saw action in France,
the Balkans and North Africa.
Though it was agile and fairly
Armament:
reliable, the armour was thin
and armament light. After 1942 Armour:
the light tanks were withdrawn Crew:
Dimensions:
and replaced by Stuarts.
Surviving vehicles were used for
training. Weight:
Powerplant:
Speed:
Range:

M 4 (EARLY SHERMAN)
Using the same hull and
suspension as the M3
Medium tank the Americans
produced a tank that,
though less well armoured
than other designs and
prone to catch fire when
hit, it became a war winner
simply by dint of the
numbers that were built.
When production ceased in
1941, s h a d made
null was used
for many variants including Armament:

a mine clearing tank, Armour:

bridge layer, recovery Crew:
vehicle and rocket launcher. Dimensions

It would soldier on after the

wi Weight:
modified suspension into Powerplant:

the late 1960s. Speed:

Range:
BLITZKRIEG
BIRTH OF T H E
" T o : The Commander-in-Chief, Middle
East Forces
From: Lieutenant D. Stirling, 8 Commando
Subject: A Special Service Unit
a The enemy is exceedingly vulnerable to
attack along the line of his coastal
communications and various transport parks,
aerodromes and other targets strung out
along the coast. The role of 8 Commando
which has attempted raids on these targets is
most vulnerable.
b The scale on which the Commando raids
are planned, i.e. the number of troops
employed on the one hand and the scale of
equipment and facilities on the other,
prejudices surprise beyond all possible
compensating advantages in respect of the
defensive and aggressive striking power
afforded. Moreover, the Navy has to provide
to lift the force which results in the risking of
naval units valuable out of all proportion
even to a successful raid,
c There is great advantage to be gained in
establishing a Special Service unit based on
the principle of the fullest exploitation of
surprise and of making the minimum
demands on manpower and equipment. The
application of this principle will mean, in
effect, the employment of a small sub-unit to
cover a target previously requiring 4 or 5
troops of a Commando, i.e. about 2 0 0 men.
If an aerodrome or transport park is the
objective of an operation, then the
destruction of 5 0 aircraft or units of transport
will be more easily accomplished by just one
of my proposed sub-units than a force of 2 0 0
men. It follows that 2 0 0 properly selected,
trained and equipped men, organised into
SAS
these sub-units, will be able to attack up to
10 different objectives at the same time on
the same night as compared to only one
objective using the current Commando
technique. So, only 2 5 % success in the
former is equivalent to many times the
maximum result in the latter.
d The corollary of this is that a unit operating
on these principles will have to be so trained
as to be capable of arriving on the scene of
operation by every practicable method, by
land, sea or air; and furthermore the facilities
for the lift must not be of a type valuable in
tactical scale operations. If in any particular
operation a sub-unit is to be parachuted it
will be from an aircraft conveniently available
without any modifications; if by sea, then the
sub-unit will be transported either by
submarine or caiques, and trained in the use
of folboats (a six foot long, two man
collapsible canoe made of a wooden frame
with rubberised canvas cover); if by land, the
unit will be trained either to infiltrate on foot
or be carried within 10 or 15 miles of the
target by another experienced unit,
e The unit must be responsible for its own
training and operational planning and
therefore the Commander of the Unit must
operate directly under the order of the
Commander-in-Chief. It would be fatal for the
proposed unit to be put under any existing
branch or formation for administration. The
head of any such branch or formation would
be less experienced than me or my successor
in the strategic medium in which it is
proposed to operate.
f It is no secret that an offensive is being
planned for November 1 9 4 1 . Attached is my
plan for the use of the unit in that offensive.
 BLITZKRIEG

FOR THE NOVEMBE

"1 Target: Enemy fighter and bomber minus 1) each party will carry out its raid so
landing grounds at TMIMI and GAZALA. as to arrive on the target at the same time.

2 Method: In the night of D minus 2, 5
sections to be parachuted on to drop zones
some 12 miles south of the objectives; this
will preserve surprise. Each section is of 12
men (i.e. 3 sub-sections of 4). As cover a
heavy raid is required on GAZALA and
TMIMI using as many flares as possible to
aid navigation to the drop zones.
3 After re-assembly on the drop zones each
section will spend the balance of the night D
minus 2 in getting to pre-arranged lying-up
points from which they will observe the
targets the next day. The following night (D
4 Each party will carry a total of about 6 0
incendiary-cum-explosive bombs equipped
with 2-hour, V2-hour and 10-minute time
pencils in addition to a 12-second fuse. The
time pencils will be used on a time de-
escalating basis to ensure almost
simultaneous detonation.
5 After the raid each party will retire
independently into the desert to a
prearranged meeting place south of the TRIG
EL ABD to rendezvous with a patrol of the
Long Range Desert Group."

were reduced to 320 tanks of which nearly

half were Italian. The attack initially achieved
complete surprise but Rommel's quick reac-
tions nearly destroyed the British plan. On
November 24 Rommel ordered his tanks to
thrust eastwards to cut off the 8th Army. This
panicked General Cunningham who wanted to
call off the offensive. Auchinleck overrode him
and replaced him by his Deputy Chief of Staff
General Neil Ritchie. By now Rommel was low
on fuel and on December 4 the 8th Army
punched through to relieve Tobruk as the
Afrika Korps withdrew to Gazala. On January
17 Bardia was recaptured by the British. By
now both sides were exhausted. The Axis had
suffered 30,000 casualties and the 8th Army

RIGHT: A wounded French survivor of the fighting

at Bir Hacheim waits for evacuation by air.
Normally lightly wounded would be carried in
ambulances or trucks.

75
BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: A PzKpfw IV drives past a captured 8th BELOW: Rommel's counter thrust in 1 9 4 2 that took
A r m y Bren Gun Carrier. The Afrika Korps made him deep into Egypt. In C a i r o a n d A l e x a n d r i a
extensive use of captured vehicles, equipment nervous British officials and staff officers began
a n d even artillery. burning classified documents.
 BLITZKRIEG

LEFT: An Afrika Korps M G 3 4 crew in a rocky

emplacement. The Western Desert included rocks
as well as sand.

ABOVE: Rommel with Hauptmann Dr "Pappa" Wil

Bach and Afrika Korps staff at Solium. Bach, a
former Pastor c o m m a n d i n g 1st Bn If Rgt 1 0 4 ,
though cut off, had held Halfaya Pass until
relieved by 1 5th Panzer Div on July 1 7 , 1 9 4 1 .
For this spirited defence Bach was a w a r d e d the
Knight's Cross.
BLITZKRIEG

18,000 and each side had lost 300 tanks.

As part of Operation Crusader, on the night
of November 17-18 the first operation of the
Special Air Service was launched to attack
Luftwaffe bases. It was a failure but the oper-
ation marks the origins of the British Army's
elite special forces regiment. Earlier David
Stirling, the youthful commander of the
formation, had mapped out the regiment's
role in a memorandum presented to Generals
Auchinleck and Ritchie. The 24-year-old
Scots Guards officer, who had served with
Layforce, was given permission to raise and
train a force of 60 men.
Stirling had provisionally named the force
62 Commando but was told that it would be
called L Detachment Special Air Service
(SAS) Brigade. The title SAS Brigade was
chosen in order to convince German intelli-
gence that the 8th Army had an airborne
force in the theatre.
The 1st SAS Brigade had been created as a
"ghost" unit by Lt Col Dudley Clarke. With
two officers and ten other ranks Clarke
commanded "Advanced HQ 'A Force" which
was a strategic deception organisation. The
idea for the airborne unit had been developed
following the battle of Sidi Barrani in
December 1940 when the captured diary of
an Italian officer had revealed fears that the
British paratroops might land behind Axis
lines.
The distinctive cap badge, motto "Who
Dares Wins" and parachute wings were

ABOVE RIGHT: Afrika Korps engineers make the

final checks on a b r i d g e across the anti-tank ditch
that protected Tobruk. The Italian-built defences
for the port were w e l l constructed.

RIGHT: Sunken ships and wrecked vehicles at

Tobruk harbour after it had been captured by the
Afrika Korps. The Germans also secured huge
stocks of food and fuel.

78
 BLITZKRIEG

HANS-JOACHIM
MARSEILLE
(1909 - 1942)

G erman fighter ace who, with 158 kills,

ranked number 2 9 . Significantly these
were against experienced British and
Commonwealth pilots in the Western Desert
- even after his death he remained the top
scoring German ace in the West.
Nicknamed the "Star of Africa" his untidy
good looks and bohemian style made him
almost as popular as a singer or film star
with women in Germany. He was killed
when his Me Bf109 caught fire and his
parachute malfunctioned when he bailed
out. He was awarded the Knight's Cross
with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds.
BLITZKRIEG

Type: Army co-operation/liaison

FIESELER Fi156C-2 STORCH (STORK) Crew: 2
Power Plant: One 240hp Argus As 10C

T he Storch entered service in 1937 and served

throughout the war as a liaison aircraft and air
ambulance. It had a very low stalling speed that
Performance:

Normal range:
Maximum speed at sea
level 175km/h (109mph)
385km (239 miles)
Weights: Empty 930kg (2,050lb)
allowed it to virtually hover, while its short take-off and Loaded 1,320kg (2,910lb)
landing capability made it superb in cramped landing Dimensions: Wing span 1 4.25m
grounds. About 4 0 captured aircraft were used by the (46ft 9in)
Length: 9.90m (32ft 5in)
Allies and during the war Germany and subsidiary Height: 3.05m (10ft 0in)
factories in occupied Europe produced 2,549 aircraft. Armament: One 7.92mm MG15 in
rear cockpit glazing.
 BLITZKRIEG

devised by members of the SAS during
moments of leisure in Egypt. What was enter-
taining for them was very useful for Clarke
since reports of an airborne unit in Egypt
were picked up by agents working for the
Germans.
The SAS would develop raiding techniques
against Axis airfields that would destroy more
ABOVE: A Storch lifts off from a rough airstrip. It
was used for observation a n d liaison w o r k .
than 250 aircraft on the ground, more than
the RAF achieved in the air. Among the
targets were the invaluable Ju52 transport
aircraft. Rommel said of the SAS that it
"caused us more damage than any other

LEFT: The dramatic

manoeuvre that took
Panzerarmee Afrika
around the 8th A r m y
defences a n d into the
Battle of Knightsbridge on
June 1 3 - 1 8 , 1 9 4 2 .

RIGHT: A n Italian soldier of

the Bersaglieri guards
British prisoners.
BLITZKRIEG

British unit of equal strength".

On January 21 Rommel attacked and the
21st Panzer Division seized Mersa Brega
while 15th Panzer to its south advanced to
Wadi Faregh and swung north to Agedadia.
The British were taken by surprise and on
January 22 they withdrew from Agedadia.
The DAK captured Msus on January 25 and
Benghazi four days later. The British had lost
1,400 men and 100 tanks.
At the start of February 1942 the 8th Army
dug itself into positions in Gazala. The
defences consisted of a series of wired-in
positions with minefields that were called
"Boxes" that extended 80.4km (50 miles)
inland. The weakness in these positions was
that they were not mutually supporting and
so could be reduced one at a time. The box
at Bir Hacheim to the south was held by a
Free French force commanded by the charis-
matic General Marie-Pierre Koenig and
included men of the Foreign Legion.
In an operation code named Venezia, the
8th Army was attacked on May 27-28 by
combined German and Italian forces. On
May 31 in the Battle of the Cauldron Rommel Churchill later referred to this as "one of
outmanoeuvred the 8th Army, Operation the heaviest blows I can recall during the
Aberdeen was then launched by Ritchie to war" and had to face a censure motion in the
destroy the DAK supply lines. Using the House of Commons. In Berlin there was
phenomenal tank-killing power of the 8.8cm delight. Rommel was promoted to Field
Flak gun Rommel halted the 8th Army attacks. Marshal and lionised by the Nazi propaganda
On June 11 Bir Hacheim had been under machine.
constant attack for ten days and the Free Ritchie's intention was to make a "do or
French forces finally withdrew. Their defence die" stand at Mersa Matruh but Auchinleck
did much to restore the standing of French saw the priority to keep the 8th Army intact.
forces with the British following the defeat of He sacked Ritchie on June 25 and took
1940. command. Auchinleck planned to stop
With only 100 tanks left the 8th Army was Rommel at El Alamein but was also prepared
finally forced to retreat from Cyrenaica. This to fight on in Palestine. On June 26 Field
time Rommel was able to take Tobruk, now Marshal Albert Kesselring OB Sud (C-in-C
held by the 2nd South African Division, on South), Count Ugo Cavallero, the Italian
June 21. He attacked from the south-east, an Chief of Staff in Rome, and Marshal Ettore
approach that was unexpected, and took Bastico arrived at Rommel's HQ and gave him
55,000 prisoners and vast stocks of supplies. grudging permission to push on for Egypt.
 BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE LEFT: General Claude Auchinleck (left)

confers with General N e i l Ritchie. Though Ritchie
was relieved of the command of the 8th A r m y he
c o m m a n d e d the XII Corps of the British 2 n d A r m y
in Europe with distinction.

ABOVE: Rommel in his SdKfz 2 5 0 / 3 "Griffon",

one of the vehicles in which he exercised front
line command in North A f r i c a . Radio signals from
this half track w o u l d have been deciphered by
the ULTRA teams.

LEFT: C r a m p e d in a trench, Afrika Korps soldiers

w a i t for the order to attack at Tobruk in 1 9 4 2 .
BLITZKRIEG
The Italians saw the ruthless approach to
war causing mounting casualties among
their forces and Rommel as a commander
over which they had no control. Though he
was a brilliant and aggressive leader, his
drive to lead from the front meant that he was
often out of contact with his HQ and staff.
On June 27 the DAK outflanked the Mersa
Matruh position and a day later captured Fuqa.
When Mersa Matruh fell on June 29 the Axis
forces again captured huge stocks of supplies.
Optimism among Axis leaders was high and
Mussolini arrived in Libya to prepare for his
triumphant entry into Cairo. In the desert
there was confusion as 8th Army vehicles and
Axis mingled in the move eastwards. This
confusion was further compounded by the use
by the Afrika Korps of captured trucks, tanks
and artillery. When Rommel's forces arrived
at the Alamein area on June 50 they caused
panic in Cairo and moves to evacuate the city
and move HQs and staff to Palestine. June 30
was known as "Ash Wednesday" as staffs
began to burn classified papers.
Sandstorms, heavy artillery fire and attacks
by the Desert Air Force slowed down
Rommel's attacks on July 1. He mounted
further attacks against El Alamein and
Ruweisat Ridge but, exploiting ULTRA intel-
ligence, Auchinleck attempted a counter
stroke to the south.
In six weeks of confused fighting the 8th
Army fought the Axis forces to a standstill and
by July 3 the Afrika Korps had only 26 tanks
fit for action. Churchill, aware that comman-
ders in North Africa had access to ULTRA
intelligence, was impatient at the apparent
lack of progress and so on August 13 he
replaced Auchinleck with General Harold
Alexander as Commander in Chief Middle
East with General Bernard Montgomery in
command of the 8th Army.
 BLITZKRIEG

LEFT: N e w Z e a l a n d a n d British
troops w a i t in a PoW cage in
Libya. This cage had been set
up by the 8th A r m y a n d then
captured by the Afrika Korps.

RIGHT: A 17cm K 18 in

action. A Krupps-designed
g u n , it could fire a 6 8 k g
(150lb) shell to a maximum
range of 2 8 , 0 0 0 metres
( 3 0 , 5 2 0 y d ) and had a dual
recoil mechanism.

BELOW: Dust is kicked up by

an 8.8cm gun as it fires
against 8th A r m y tanks. The
barrel of the gun has white
"kill rings" to indicate how
many tanks it has destroyed.

85
BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: Afrika Korps logistics personnel fill metal

water containers that are distinguished by the
white cross on the black b a c k g r o u n d .

Rommel's final throw was the battle of

Alam Haifa that began on the night of August
50. He now had 200 German and 240 vulner-
able Italian tanks but with low fuel stocks he
was relying on capturing fuel from the 8th
Army. The 8th Army now had 700 tanks,
many of which were modern American
Grants or Shermans. Rommel planned a feint
to the north and then a hook round the flank
to the south. With the benefit of ULTRA
Montgomery anticipated this and the Axis
forces were halted in two attacks on August
31 and September 1, and by September 2 the
DAK were back to their start line.
The ability of the senior British comman-
 BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: A German 5cm Pak 38 anti-tank gun

behind a sandbag sangar. 25-PDR MARK 2
BELOW: An Axis patrol boat tied up at Tobruk
harbour. Submarines and patrol boats operated
extensively in the Mediterranean against shipping
T he British Twenty Five Pounder
gun/howitzer or Ordnance Q.F. 25-pdr
Mark 2 on Carriage 25-pdr Mark 1 had a
muzzle velocity of 5 3 2 m / s (1,745 feet a
second), a maximum range of 12,253m
(1 3,400yds) and fired a 11.34kg (25lb)
shell. Developed in the 1930s it first saw
action in Norway in 1940. In North
Africa, firing 9.07kg (20lb) steel shot,
gunners fought almost point blank actions
with Afrika Korps tanks. By 1945 the Royal
Ordnance Factories had produced 12,000
25-Pounders and the gun would serve
through the Korean war up to the conflict
in Oman. The definitive gun is the 25-
pounder Mark 3 which weighed 1 801 kg
(3,968 lb) and had a distinctive Solothurn
muzzle brake. All the guns were fitted with
an innovative feature, a detachable
circular platform on which the wheels
rested, which allowed the crew of six to
traverse the gun quickly through 360°
BLITZKRI EG

ders to second guess the Afrika Korps and

also to intercept vital convoys running
between Italy and North Africa led Rommel
to believe that there were traitors among the
Italian staff who were in contact with the
British. In reality, in North Africa, where the
huge distances made radio vital for commu-
nications, it also laid the Germans open to
interception and decryption. Just prior to
Alam Haifa the Axis had lost four out of six
supply ships that had sailed from Italy to
North Africa. Though their movements had
been tracked through ULTRA, the British
always ensured that there was a cover story

RIGHT: A captured South African soldier looks

glumly out of the cover of Die Wehrmacht.

BELOW: Rommel, with Lt Colonel Fritz Bayerlein,

his chief of staff, in the b a c k g r o u n d , receives a
front line b r i e f i n g .

ABOVE: A PzKpfw III protected by sandbags and
extra track links moves along a desert track. The
crew are seated on top to stay cool in the A f r i c a n
sun.
to explain the interception. It was normally
air reconnaissance - the aircraft would be
seen by the German and Italian crews who
would assume that was why they were subse-
quently attacked. Montgomery was criticised
for using ULTRA too obviously in his deploy-
m e n t s at Alam Haifa a n d p o s s i b l y
compromising it.
Stymied at Alam Haifa, the Afrika Korps dug
in to await the 8th Army counter attack.
89
BLITZKRIEG
By October 23, 1942, Rommel had 80,000
men and 540 tanks, of which 280 were Italian
and only 58 the superior PzKpfw IV.
Montgomery and Alexander, having
resisted pressure from Churchill for an
earlier attack, had amassed 230,000 men and
1,200 t a n k s , including 500 Grants or
Shermans. It was time for the final show
down between the 8th Army and the Afrika
Korps.
The Afrika Korps had developed a belt of
defences between the Mediterranean coast
and the Quattara Depression, an area of salt
marsh to the south that was reported to be
impassable to vehicles. Though there were
BLITZKRI EG

ABOVE: 8th A r m y lorried

infantry in a typical
vehicle laden with
personal kit a n d sand
channels for unditching in
soft sand, cross the
Egyptian-Libyan border.

RIGHT: Afrika Korps

soldiers examine a
knocked out L e e / G r a n t
tank. W i t h this American-
built vehicle the 8th A r m y
was at last fielding
reliable tanks with g o o d
armament that a l l o w e d
them to e n g a g e German
tanks at longer ranges.
 BLITZKRIEG

Type:
P-40B TOMAHAWK IIA Crew:
Power Plant:
Performance:

and the RAF. The fighter was a derivation Maximum range:

Weights:
of the P-36 Hawk and entered service in
1939. It was followed by the P-40B and Dimensions:
this type equipped RAF squadrons
operating in North Africa. The airframe
Armament:
was upgraded with improved powerplants
and enhanced armament, with the RAF
operating the P-40E as the Kittyhawk IA.
The P-40 played a significant role in the

natural obstacles in the desert -wadis, ridges
and escarpments - these presented less of a
threat to mobility than the deep minefields
that were laid by both sides.
German minefields were marked with
boards showing a skull, crossed bones, the
letter "M" or the warning Achtung Minen -
'Attention Mines'. Barbed wire might be
wrapped around fence posts in a distinctive
pattern to indicate the edge of the minefield.
Live minefields were marked with upright
lettering and dummy fields with slanting.
Throughout the war the markings were
changed to confuse Allied intelligence.
BLITZKRIEG
LiLI M A R L E E N
(LILLIMARLENE)
T he song was based on the poem
written by Hans Leip in Hamburg in
1923. Set to music in 1936 by Norbert
Schultze it was sung by the Swedish-born
singer Lale Anderson. Initially the Nazi
propaganda authorities decided that its
theme would be poor for morale and it
was not broadcast. It was discovered by
a presenter in German-controlled Radio
Belgrade and when it was broadcast to
the Afrika Korps it became an immediate
hit - with the British 8th Army as well as
German forces. It tells the story of the
love of a soldier for his girl who waits for
him outside the barracks. Translated, it
was sung by Anne Sheldon to British
troops, while the 1944 film Lilli Marlene
starred Marlene Dietrich.
92
MINE WARFARE
L andmines came in two types, anti-tank
(AT) and anti-personnel (AP). The former
were designed to explode when a tank or
wheeled vehicle depressed the mechanism
that operated the fuse. The latter were
designed to kill or injure men and might
disable a wheeled vehicle. AP mines fall
into two classes - blast or fragmentation.
In German use the former were designated
Schu-Minen and the latter Springen-Minen,
or Schrapnellmine or S mine. Mines were
usually buried 5 0 to 100mm (2-4in) below
the ground spaced at 2m (6ft 6in) interval
The S-Mine was a cylinder 5in (1 30mm)
high, 4in (100mm) in diameter and
weighed 4kg (9lb) It had a 395gm (14oz)
TNT filling with a propelling charge of
226gm (8oz) of powdered TNT. It operated
either by pressure of about 6.8kg (15lb) on
the three prongs of an S.Mi.Z 3 4 igniter or
by a pull on one of the two trip wires on
the Z.Z.35 igniter that had been screwed
into the top of the mine. This would release
a spring-loaded striker that would fire a
percussion cap. A delay of about 3.9
seconds would follow before the powdered
TNT blasted an inner cylinder about 0.9m
to 1.5m (3ft to 5ft) into the air. At this
height it exploded and 3 6 0 ball bearings
or chunks of mild steel rod were blasted in
all directions causing death up to 20m
(22yd) or injury up to 100.5m (1 10yd).
The Schuminen used the Z.Z.42 igniter
with a No 8 Detonator screwed into a
1928 Pattern 200gm (7oz) TNT Slab
Demolition Charge. The igniter and charge
were fitted into a black compressed fibre
container - the low metallic content would
have made it harder to detect with
 BLITZKRIEG

ABOVE: Tellermine 42.

electronic mine detectors. Under pressure the

Z.Z.42 igniter fired the detonator and when
the main charge exploded it had a blast area ABOVE: S mine with Y adaptor.
of 10m (10.9yd).
The S-Minen were buried at 4m (1 3ft)
intervals in lines while the Schu-Minen were
buried at 1m (3.2 ft) intervals.
The Tellermine, literally "plate mine"
because of its flat cylindrical appearance,
was also known as the T-Mine and was the
standard German anti-tank mine. During the
war four versions were produced: the
Tellermine 4 3 (Pilz) - "Mushroom", the
Tellermine 1 9 4 2 , the Tellermine 35 and the
Tellermine 29. They weighed 8.6kg (19lb), of
which 5kg (11 lb) was the TNT filling. T-Mines
operated under a pressure of 108.9kg to
1 81 kg (240lb to 400lb). The casing had
threaded slots to take anti-handling pull
switches, like the Zugzunder 35 that operated
on a pull of between 4kg and 5.8kg (9lbs and
13lbs) and would detonate the mine if it was
lifted by hand. The Entlastungszunder 4 4
pressure release device containing 226gm
(8oz) of TNT-PETN could be positioned beneath
the mine. It required a weight of 4.5kg (10lbs)
to hold it safely in the armed position. ABOVE: Tellermine 35.
BLITZKRI EG
The German minefields were in some
areas almost 8km (5 miles) deep and besides
a mixture of AT mines with AP mines to deter
8th Army engineers as well as kill or injure
infantry, the Afrika Korps had even dug in
250kg (5001b) aerial bombs as massive anti -
tank mines. In the dramatic language popular
at the time, these complex minefields were
dubbed "Devil's Gardens".
For Churchill a decisive British victory in
North Africa was vital for political reasons
before the United States became involved in
fighting on land and became the "senior
partner" in the war. Men and new machines
would be pitted against the Afrika Korps at
El Alamein. The high water mark of German
operations in North Africa.
ABOVE: The beginning of
the end for the Afrika
Korps as captured soldiers
are marched off to PoW
camps. They had fought a
hard but honourable
campaign.
LEFT: W r e c k e d by a mine
a n d possibly destroyed by
its crew before they
withdrew, is a gutted
PzKpfw III. Rommel was
now critically short of tanks.
 BLITZKRIEG

Berlin, 66, 82 El Alamein, 50, 82, 94 35,63

INDEX Bersaglieri, 81 ELAS, 54 H u m a n Torpedo, 11
AA guns, 37, 45, 49, 52 Bir Hacheim, 75, 82 Elevsis, 52 Hungary, 7, 23, 25
Aberdeen, Operation, 82 Black Watch, 59 E m m a n u e l , Ring Victor, 7
Abyssinia, 6 Blarney, 9 Illustrious, HMS, 9
Acropolis, 38, 43 BMW R75, 24, 35, 68 Fairey, Swordfish, 9, 18 Imperial, HMS, 62
Aegean, 37, 64 Bohme, 37 Fallschirmjager, 40, 58, Infantry Corps XLIX, 22
Afrika Korps, 67, 71, 75, Boris III, 26 59, 60, 63 Infantry Corps LI, 22
76, 77, 83, 88, 90, 94 Bren Gun, 40 Fallschirmjager Div VII, Iron Cross, 60
Agedadia, 82 Bren Gun Carrier, 76 61 Italy, 6, 66
Ajax, HMS, 62 Brenner Pass, 7 Fallschirmjager Rgt 1, 46 Italian, Julia Div, 8
Al Agheila, 71 Brevity, Operation, 71 Fallschirmjager Rgt 2, 40, Italian V Corps, 17
Alam Haifa, 88, 89 British Expeditionary 46 Italian VI Corps, 17
Albania, 7, 8, 9, 17, 23 Force, (BEF), 17, 28 Fallschirmjager Rgt 3, 46 Italian XI Corps, 17
Alexander, Harold, 84, 89 British 2nd Armoured Faregh, Wadi, 82
Alexandria, 11, 71, 76, 78 Div, 71 Fiat M13/40, 27 Judgement, Operation, 9
Aliakmon River, 32 Bulgaria, 7, 1 7 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 2 6 , Fiat BR20M, 23 Junkers Ju52, 36, 40, 46,
Aliakmon Line, 32 64 Fiat G50Bis Freccia, 23 49, 50, 52, 61, 65, 81
Andrew, Les, 59 Fiat L6/40, 26 Junkers Ju87 "Stuka", 45,
Armando Diaz, 11 Cairo, 76, 84 Fieseler Storch, 80, 81 46
Army Canea, 52, 61 Flak 8.8cm, 82, 85 Junkers Ju88, 16, 46, 57
British 2nd Army, 83 Cape Matapan, 12 Fleet Air Arm, 9, 18 Juno, HMS, 62
British 8th, 75, 7 6 , 8 5 , 8 6 , Cavallero, Count Ugo, 82 Fiorina, 32
89, 90, 94 Chios, 64 Foreign Legion, 82 Kalatch, 21
G e r m a n 2nd Army, 18, 20, Cincar-Marcovic, 22 Formidable, HMS, 12 Kar 98R, 56
22 Churchill, Winston, 82, Free French, 75, 82 Kashmir, HMS, 62
G e r m a n 12th, 28, 37 85,94 Freyberg, Bernard, 43, 50, Kastelli, 57, 59
Greek, 54 Clan Fraser, SS, 17 59,61 Kastoria Pass, 32
Greek 1st Army, 8, 32, 33 Clarke, Dudley, 78, 78, 81 Kelly, HMS, 62
Greek 2nd, 28, 29 Commandos, 61, 74 Galatas, 60 Kesselring, Albert, 82
Greek Army of Commando 8, 74 Gazala, 75, 82 Khalkis, 37
Macedonia, 8 Compiegne, 6 Gebirgsjager, 2 1 , 27, 52 Kharkov, 21
Italian 9th Army, 7 Conrad, 52 Gebirgsjager XVIII Corps, Kithira Channel, 62
Italian 10th Army, 12 Corinth, 52 29, 35 RleifM1941
Italian 11th Army, 7, 8 Corinth Canal, 37, 40 Gebirgsjager Div 5th, 46, flamethrower, 58
Yugoslav 2nd Army, 22 Corsica, 6 52, 54, 62 Kleist, von, 17, 20
Yugoslav 5th Army, 17 Croatia, 7, 22, 24, 43 Gebirgsjager Div 6th, 37 Klingenberg, 18
Yugoslav 7th Army, 17 Crete, 1 1 , 3 7 , 4 3 , 4 4 , 4 5 , Gebirgsjager Rgt 85th, 52 Klisura, 9
Athens, 13, 38, 40, 42, 43, 50, 55, 60, 63, 64 Gebirgsjager Rgt 100th, Knight's Cross, 77, 79
54, 60, 64 Croatia, 21 52 Knightsbridge, 81
Auchinleck, Claude, 71, Crusader, Operation, 69, Gelsos, 8 Koenig, Marie-Pierre, 82
78, 82, 83, 94 71,78 George II, Ring, 37 Kondor Legion, 46
Australia, 29 Cunningham, Andrew, 61, Glennie, Irvine, 61 Koritsa, 9
Australian 1st Corps, 9 63 Gloucester, HMS, 62 Korizis, Alexandros, 9
Australian 6th Div, 9 Cyprus, 64 Greece, 7, 9, 12, 42, 43 Kosovo, 23
Australian 7th Div, 9 Cyrenaica, 82 Greek Armed Forces, 9 Kozani, 30, 32
Australian 9th Div, 71 Greek Sacred Rgt, 54
Austria, 21 Dadion, 52 Grevena, 32 Larissa, 35, 40
Axis Pact, 6 Dalmatia, 22, 23 Greyhound, HMS, 62 Laycock, Robert, 61
Danube, 18 Group West, 46 Layforce, 78
Backa, 23 Demon, Operation, 37 Group Centre, 46, 48, 54 Lemnos, 64
Badoglio, Pietro, 9 Deutsches Afrika Korps Group East, 46, 62 Leonidas I, 30
Balkans, 23, 66 (DAK), 66, 71, 82, 86 Guns 15cm, 71 Leros, 64
Banat, 23 DFS 230, 40, 52 Guns 17cm, 83 Lesbos, 64
Bardia, 75 Don, 21 Guns 25pdr Mk 2, 87 Libya, 12, 66, 71, 84
Bastico, Marshal Ettore, Dornier Dol7z, 38, 46 List, Wilhelm von, 28
82 Dornier D o 2 l 5 , 46, 47 Haffner, 40 Lohr, Alexander, 16, 45
Bayerlein Fritz, 88 Draza Hrvatska Halfaya Pass, 71, 77 London, 61
Beda Fomm, 12 Nezvasina, 24 Hargest, James, 60
Beer Hall Putsch, 7 Duce, 7 Heinkel He111, 15 Long Range Desert
Belgrade, 14, 16, 17, 18, Heraklion, 52, 54, 59, 60, 63 Group (LRDG), 75
22 Egypt, 12, 45, 59, 71, 76, Hereward, HMS, 62 Luftwaffe, 17, 35, 37, 45,
Benghazi, 71, 82 82 Hitler, Adolf, 6, 7, 13, 14, 46, 48, 59, 60, 63, 78

95
BLITZKRIEG
Luftflotte IV, 16, 17, 22
Lupo, 62
Lustre, Operation, 9
Lyon, 6
M3 Lee/Grant, 72, 86, 89,
90
M3A1 Stuart, 72, 73
M4 Sherman, 73, 86
Macchi MC200 Saetta, 22
Macedonia, 17, 23, 43, 64
Maiale, 11
Maitland Wilson, 9
Maleme, 51, 57, 59, 60
Malta, 64, 70
March on Rome, 7
Maribor, 27
Marlene, Lilli, 92
Marseille, Hans-Joachim,
79
Matilda II, 12, 60
Megara, 52
Mediterranean, 6, 9,11, 64
Medjumurje, 23
Meindl, Eugene, 46, 52,
54
Mercury, 44
Merkur, Unternehmen, 44,
51
Mersa Brega, 71, 82
Mersa Matruh, 82, 84
Messerschmitt, Me109,
16, 45, 46, 79
Messerschmitt, Bf110, 38,
46,65
Metaxas, Ioannis, 7
Metaxas Line, 26, 28
Metsovon Pass, 33
Mezzi Navali d'Assalto, 11
MG 34, 29, 56, 77
Milan, 7
Milch, Erhard, 46
Milos, 62, 64
Mines, 91,92, 93, 94
Mitraglice Fiat 194/35, 8
Mk VI Light Tank, 72
Molos, 37
Monastir, 17
Monastir Gap, 29
Montenegro, 23
Montgomery, Bernard, 84,
86,89
Morava river, 17
Morshead, 71
Moscow, 64
Mostar, 22
Mountbatten, Lord, 62
MP38, 56, 62
MP40, 62
Mussolini, Benito, 6, 7, 9,
13,84
New Zealand, 57, 85
New Zealand Div, 9
New Zealand Bde 4th, 40 Ringel, Julius, 46, 52, 54 Tmimi, 75
Nofilia, 71 Ritchie, Neil, 75, 78, 82, TNT, 93
North Africa, 1 2 , 5 0 , 5 1 , 83 Tobruk, 71, 75, 78, 83, 87
72 Romania, 7, 10, 13 Topolis, 52
Rommel, Erwin, 66, 67, Trig el Abd, 75
Ohio, 70 69, 76, 77, 81, 82, 83, 88, Tripartite Pact, 7, 14
89 Tripolitania, 12
P-40B Tomahawk, 91 Royal Air Force (RAF), 45, Tunisia, 11
Pak 35/36, 26 78, Turkey, 64
Pak 38, 87 Royal Navy, 9, 12, 43, 55,
Palestine, 82 61, 62, 63, 64 ULTRA, 12, 37, 40, 45, 50,
Palten, 27 Rupul Gorge, 29 61, 71, 84, 86, 88, 89
Panzergruppe 1, 20, 22 Ruweisat Ridge, 84 United States, 94
Panzer Corps XIV, 17, 22 Upham, Charles, 50
Panzer Corps XL, 17 S Mine, 92, 93 Upholder, HMS, 11
Panzer Corps XLIX, 22 Salamis, 37 USSR, 64
Panzer Corps LI, 22 Salonika, 14, 15, 29
Panzer Div 2nd, 28 Sarajevo, 22 Vardar, 17
Panzer Div 5th, 37 Savoia-Marchetti SM81, Valentine, 70
Panzer Div 8th, 18, 20, 22 10 Valiant, HMS, 11
Panzer Division 9th, 29, 32 Savoia-Marchetti SM79- Valletta, 70
Panzer Div 11th, 20 11, 10 Veles, 23
Panzer Div 14th, 22 Schmeling, Max, 60 Venezia, Operation, 82
Panzer Div 15th, 66, 77, Schumine, 92 Vevi, 29, 30
82 SdKfz 222, 30 Victoria Cross (VC), 50,
Panzer Div 21st, 67, 82 SdKfz 231, 43, 67 60
Panzer Rgt 33rd, 30, 32 SdKfz 250, 68, 83 Vittorio Veneto, 12
Papadopoulos, 8 Short Sunderland, 35 Volos, 35
Paul, Prince, 14 Sidi Barrani, 78
Pavelic, Ante, 24 Signal, 4 1 , 60, 63 W Force, 9, 30, 32, 35, 37,
Pearl Harbor, 11 Simovic, Dusan, 15, 16 43
Petacci, Clara, 7 Skopje, 17, 23 Waffen-SS, 18, 29,
Peter, Prince, 15 Slovakia, 7 Waffen-SS regiment 1, 32
Phaleron, 52 Slovenia, 22, 43 Waugh, Evelyn, 61
Pindus Mountains, 32, 33 Soddu, Ubaldo, 9 Wavell, Archibald, 9, 12,
Piraeus, 9, 17, 37, 64 Solium, 77 45, 59, 67, 71
Ploesti, 13, 14 South Africa, 13, 88 Weichs, Freiherr von, 17,
Pogradaoc, 9 South African 2nd Div, 82 20, 22, 27
Point 107, 59 Spanish Civil War, 7, 10, White Mountains, 62
Pola, 12 46 World War I, 7, 67
Poland, 16, 71 Sparta, 30
Porto Edda, 9 Special Air Service (SAS), Yannina, 32
Port Said, 42 54, 74, 78, 81 York, HMS, 11
Prasca, Visconti-, 7 Sphakia, 55, 61, 62 Yugoslavia, 7, 12, 15, 22,
Prekmurje, 23 Spoleto, Duke of, 24 25,43
Ptolemais, 30 Stalingrad, 21
Punishment, Operation, Stirling, David, 74, 78, Zara, 23
15 Student, Kurt, 45, 58, 60,
PzKpfw I, 32 63
PzKpfw II, 15, 26, 32 Sturm, 40
PzKpfw III, 29, 89, 94 Suda Bay, 1 1 , 4 5 , 4 8 , 6 0 ,
PzKpfw IV, 29, 32, 69, 76, 61,64
89 Sussmann, Wilhelm, 46,
54
Quattara Depression, 89
Queen Elizabeth, HMS, 11 Tanagra, 52
Taranto, 11
Raphti, 40 Tavronitis, 59, 60
Resolution, HMS, 42 Tellermine, 93
Retimo, 48, 52, 54, 59, 60, Thermopylae, 30, 37
63 Thrace, 17, 28, 64
Rhodes, 64 Tiger, convoy, 71
Rhone, 6 Tirana, 9
ISBN 0-7110-2946-6