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Mechanisms of Formation Damage anhydrite, pyrobitumen, etc.). Generally, fines migration tends to
be more of an issue in clastic formations due to the higher con-
Figure 2 provides a chart summarizing many of the common centration of potentially transportable materials (such as clays).
formation damage mechanisms to which a reservoir may be sus- The problem can also be present in carbonates though, so careful
ceptible. Upon first glance, evaluating formation damage appears
daunting with the large number of mechanisms present. How can
one discern what might be the primary and secondary damage
mechanisms that may be operable in a given reservoir with such a
vast array of conceivable candidates to choose from?
The prospect becomes less disconcerting when formation dam-
age is considered from a mechanistic point of view. As can be seen
in Figure 2, there are four primary mechanisms of formation dam-
age:
1. Mechanical
2. Chemical
3. Biological
4. Thermal
Fines Migration
This refers to the motion of naturally existing particulates in the
pore system caused by high fluid shear rates. These may include
various types of uncemented clays (dominantly kaolinite and den- FIGURE 3: Effect of wettability on fines migration (illustration
dritic illite, quartz or carbonate fines and rock fragments, mica, shows a water wet case).
Clay Swelling
This is another “classic” mechanism of formation damage and
involves the interaction and hydration of hydrophilic materials, FIGURE 5: Illustration of polymer adsorption effects and low and
such as smectite or mixed layer clays, by reaction with fresh or low high permeability porous media.
FIGURE 6: Water-oil emulsion types. Alteration of wettability to a more oil wet state in a water injec-
tion and disposal well may also have the benefit of isolating reac-
tive and migratable clay in a non-mobile hydrocarbon phase. This
Wettability Alterations may reduce problems significantly with clay reactions and migra-
Many additives to oilfield fluids, particularly many surfactants, tion in the near wellbore area as illustrated in Figure 9.
defoamers, corrosion inhibitors, and some biocides, have polar
adsorptive tendencies which may cause them to establish an oil Biological Damage
wetting condition in the region of the reservoir in which they
invade. Figure 7 illustrates the phenomenon of a near wellbore This type of damage refers to problems created by the introduc-
wettability alteration. Water wet rock, due to surface frictional tion of viable bacteria and nutrient streams into a reservoir.
drag effects associated with the motion of the water phase, tends to Although most commonly associated with water injection opera-
have fairly low endpoint relative permeability. Conversely if a tions, bacterial contamination has the potential to occur any time a
rock is oil wet, the water can move easily through the central por- water-based fluid is introduced into a formation. Most bacteria
tion of the pore system, and effective endpoint relative permeabil- grow best at temperatures less than 90˚ C. However, long-term
ity and water mobility are often much higher. If a formation is ini- injection of large volumes of water into deep, hot formations may
tially water wet, transition to an oil wet condition is akin to plac- result in a reduction in bottom hole temperature to the point where
ing a semi-permeable membrane around the wellbore which tends bacteria may survive and propagate. The three major damage
to hold oil back and preferentially let water through. This may mechanisms associated with bacterial entrainment include:
16. MONAGHAN, GA, SALATHIEL, RA., MORGAN, B.E., and 26. PIRO, G., et aI., Experimental Study on Asphaltene Adsorption onto
KAISER JR, AD., Laboratory Studies of Formation Damage in Sands Formation Rock: An Approach to Asphaltene Formation Damage
Containing Clays; Transactions ofAIMME, II 62-G, 1959. Prevention; paper SPE 30109, presented at the European Formation
Damage Conference, The Hague, The Netherlands, May 15 - 16, 1995.
17. ZHOU, Z., et aI., Clay Swelling Diagrams: Their Applications in
Formation Damage Control; paper SPE 3II23, presented at the 27. JORDAN, M.M., et aI., Scale Inhibitor Adsorption and Desorption
International Symposium on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Versus Precipitation: The Potential for Extended Squeeze Life While
LA, February 14 - 16, 1996. Minimizing Formation Damage; paper SPE 30106, presented at the
European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague, The
18. ZAITOUN, A. and BERTON. N., Stabilization of Montmorillonite Netherlands, May 15 - 16, 1995.
Clay in Porous Media by Polyacryclamide; paper SPE 3II09, present-
ed at the International Symposium on Formation Damage Control, 28. CROWE, c., et aI., Scale Inhibition in Wellbores; paper SPE 27996,
Lafayette, LA, February 14 - 16, 1996. presented at the University of Tulsa Centennial Celebration, Tulsa,
OK, August 29 - 31, 1994.
19. MUNGAN, N., Permeability Reduction Through Changes in pH and
Salinity; Journal of Petroleum Technology, December 1965. 29. BENNION, D.B., CHAN, M., SARIOGLU, G., COURTNAGE, D.,
WANSLEEBEN, J., and HIRATA, T., The In Situ Formation of
20. SCHUERMAN, R.F and BERGERSEN, B.M., Injection Water Bitumen-Water Stable Emulsions in Porous Media During Thermal
Salinity, Formation Pretreatment, and Well Operations Fluid Selection Stimulation; Petroleum Soctiety of CIM paper 93-46, presented at the
Criteria; Journal of Petroleum Technology, SPE 18461, July 1990. 1993 ATM, Calgary, AB, May 9 - 12, 1993.
21. BAZIN, B., et aI., Control of Formation Damage by Modelling 30. SHARMA, M.M. and WUNDERLICH, RW., The Alteration of Rock
Water/Rock Interactions; paper SPE 27363, presented at the Properties Due to Interactions with Drilling Fluid Components; paper
International Symposium on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, SPE 14302, presented at the 60th ATC of the SPE, Las Vegas, NV,
LA, February 7 - 10, 1994. September 22 - 25, 1985.
22. HAYATDAVOUDI, A. and GHALAMBOR, A., Controlling 31. BALLARD, T.I. and DAWE, R.I., Wettability Alteration Induced by
Formation Damage Caused by Kaolinite Clay Minerals - Part I; paper Oil Based Drilling Fluids; paper SPE 17160, presented at the
SPE 31II8, presented at the International Symposium on Formation Formation Damage Control Symposium, Bakersfield, CA, February
Damage Control, Lafayette, LA, February 14 - 16, 1996. 8 - 9, /987.
23. HAMMANI, A., et aI., Paraffin Deposition from Crude Oils: 32. CUIEC, L., Effect of Drilling Fluids on Rock Surface Properties; SPE
Comparison of Laboratory Results to Field Data; paper SPE 38776, FE, SPE 15707, March 1989.
presented at the ATC, San Antonio, TX, October 5 - 8, 1997.
33. SANNER, D.O. and AZAR, U., Alteration of Reservoir Rock
24. STRAUB, T.I, AUTRY, S.w., and KING, G.E., An Investigation into Wettability and its Flow Properties Caused by Oil Based and Water
the Practical Removal of Downhole Paraffin by Thermal Methods and Based Drilling Muds; paper SPE 27354, presented at the International
Chemical Solvents; paper SPE 18889, presented at the Production Symposium on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, LA, February
Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, OK, March 13 - 15, 1989. 7-10, /994.