British Forum for Ethnomusicology

Mystical Numbers and Manchu Traditional Music: A Consideration of the Relationship

between Shamanic Thought and Musical Ideas
Author(s): Lisha Li
Reviewed work(s):
Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 2 (1993), pp. 99-115
Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology
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VOL. 2 BRITISHJOURNALOFETHNOMUSICOLOGY 1993

Mystical numbers and

Manchu traditional music:
A considerationof the relationshipbetween
shamanicthoughtandmusical ideas

Lisha Li

This paperexaminesthe significanceof certainmysticalnumberswhicharefrequently

usedin Manchumusicandmusicalperformances. It suggeststhatthesenumbers,which
relateto shamanism,play an importantrole in structuringmusicalpatternsandmusical
performances in correspondence withculturalpatternsandbehaviour.It also arguesthat
shamanicthoughtpermeatesManchumusicalideasconcerningcreatingandperforming
music, but that these ideas are also relatedto the individual'spersonaland social
background.Thispaperconsidersonlythosemusicalideasthatare particularlyassociated
withshamanicmysticaloddnumbers.

1 Introduction
The Manchu form one of the largest minority groups in China. They were the
ruling people during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the last dynasty in China.
The Manchu originated in Manchuriaand now live in many areas of China,
particularlyin the north. The Chinese language began to be widely used by
Manchu people only from the beginning of this century. Manchu folk songs
collected so far can be classifiedlinguisticallyinto threecategories:1. Manchu;2.
Chinese; 3. a mixtureof Manchuand Chinese. The musical difference between
the first and second categories is quite large. Some of the songs with Chinese
lyrics are very similar to Chinese folk songs. Generallyspeaking, however, the
first category of Manchu folk songs have retainedmore of their own musical
characteristics.Of those Manchu songs known to me, 75% belong to the first
category.Thereforethe analysisin this paperis based on the first categoryof folk

99

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100 BritishJournalofEthnomusicology,
vol.2 (1993)

songs,1 as these are assumedto be more distinctively Manchu,and on types of

instrumentalmusic which are also generally considered more traditional.The
paperdeals first with the questionof the significanceof certainmysticalnumbers
in shamanismand Manchu shamanisticrituals. It then points to a relationship
between shamanisticand musical thoughtthrougha detailedexaminationof how
the mysticalodd numbersrelateto the music andits performance.

2 Mystical numbers and shamanism

Odd numbersare very importantin many aspects of the indigenous cultures of
North Asia (Li 1992). The cosmological levels and the gods often appearin odd
numbers.Odd numbersare also used in many other contexts. Most importantly
for this paper, certain odd numbers play a very important role in Manchu
shamanicrituals.
According to Manchushamanism,there are threeregions of the cosmos with
three levels in each. The upperregion is called the "light region", inhabitedby
Abukaanduli2(the God of the Sky), the gods of the stars,the sun and thunder,
the God of Fire, ancestorgods and othernaturegods, includinganimaland plant
gods. The middleregion is the humanworld,inhabitedby man, animalsand other
beings. The lower region, the "darkregion",is inhabitedby Banaji (the God of
the Ground),other gods such as the gods of night, Omosi mama (the God for
Descendants,andvariousevil spiritsanddemons.
This cosmologicalconceptionis reflectedin manyManchumyths and in ritual
texts of variousclans. In some clans the upperregion, the sky, is furtherdivided
into five, seven, or nine levels. The cosmology of most otherindigenouspeoples
in North Asia also divides the universe into three cosmic regions (Eliade
1964:259-79),althoughthe detailsmay be slightlydifferent.The levels of the sky
are always odd-numbered,althoughthe division may vary from one ethnic group
to another(for examplessee Li 1992).
In many Manchuclans, from the earliest times three Cosmic Goddesses have
been worshipped.An image of the threeearliestCosmic Goddesses, theirlinked
bodies standinginside a case representingthe cosmos, was found by the Chinese
anthropologistFu Yuguangin the 1960s being worshippedamongstthe Manchu
Namuduluclan in the Hunchunareaof centralManchuria.The Goddesses were
made of wood, while the cosmos was made of a piece of birchskin with a pattern
representingthe cosmic tree (illustratedin Li 1992:fig. 7). This reflects not only
the Manchu and their ancestors' early polytheistic non-hierarchicalconception

1Thesourcesof the folk songswhichI analysedforwritingthispaperare:the originalmaterials

of my fieldworkcarriedoutduring1980-86,1990and1991;all songswithManchutextsin The
Collection of ChineseFolk Music, Vol.2 of the Jilin Provincevolumes (Li et al. 1987); and some
othersongsfromunpublished volumesof LiaoningandHeilongjiang provinces.
2 Throughoutthis paperI use the Chinesepinyin romanization systemfor both Chineseand
Manchu.BothManchuandChineselanguagesareusedby theManchupeople.Mostpeoplecan
only speakChinese.It is sometimesdifficultto distinguishwhetheroriginallya wordbelonged
to Manchuor Chinese.

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 Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic 101

concerninggods but also their conceptionof odd numbersin relationshipto the

gods.
During my fieldwork in the Ning'an area of Heilongjiangprovince in 1990, I
discovered several illustrations of the three Goddesses drawn by different
generationsof the Zang clan in differentperiods.Successive generationsbuilt on
the work of those precedingthem, copying the basic threefigures of the central
themewhile addingdetailsof dressand otherdecorationin contemporaryfashion.
On the latercopies the figuresare sittinginside a house and one of the figureshas
become a man. There are also other idols and symbols, created in increasing
numbersby different generationsof the clan. However, it is interestingto note
that the total numberof figures worshippedin differentperiods is always odd.
This characteristicfeature demonstratesthat although Manchu concepts con-
cerninggods has changedwith the changefroma hunting,nomadicway of life to
a more settledexistence basedon arablefarmingandfrom a female-dominantto a
male-dominantsocial life, the significance of mystic odd numbersremains the
same from generationto generation.
In contemporaryshamanicrituals, representationsof gods in most clans are
made of pieces of cloth which are placed on the altar.According to the time at
which the rituals are held for differentgods, Manchuclassify their home gods3
into three types: morninggods, afternoongods and night gods. The total number
of gods invoked by the same ritual is often odd. Figure 14 is a view of a home
ceremony held by the Yiergenjueluoclan in Ning'an in 1990. Seven represen-
tationsof afternoongods areplacedon the altar.Two shamansin frontof the altar
are singingritualsongs for the gods.
Just as there are odd numbersof gods, the sacrificial food is also prepared
accordingto a system of odd numbers.Each pig sacrificedin the ceremonyis cut
into several partsin an odd number;after cooking, the partsare re-assembledin
the originalshape.
As for souls, the Manchu conceive of the soul as being composed of three
elements that are given to childrenby Omosi mama:the "truesoul", which may
be compared with "consciousness"and which cannot leave the body without
causing death; the "soul that precedes",which may temporarilyleave the body
duringdreamsand soul loss, andwhichreturnsto Omosi mamaafterdeathso that
she may give it to anotherchild; and the "externalsoul", which returnsto Ilmun
Han in the underworldafterdeath,afterwhich it may be reincarnatedinto another
personor animal(Shirokogoroff1935:207-26).The Hezhenalso believe thatman

3 There are two majorkinds of Manchushamanicceremony.Oneis thejiaji (homeceremonyor

tamedceremony)whichis held mainlyindoorsfor the homegods (mainlyancestorgods), for
which the home shamansperform.The otherkind is the yeji (wild ceremonyor untamed
ceremony)whichis heldmainlyoutdoorsforthewildgods(mainlyanimalgods)andherogods;
in this the mainshaman(who canbe possessedby gods whilehe or she is in a trance)andthe
assistantshaman(whodealswiththepossessedmainshaman)playthemostimportant roleEach
ceremonyconsistsof severalritualswhichareheldfordifferentkindsof gods.
4 Thephotograph wastakenby the author.

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102 BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,
vol.2 (1993)

has three souls: the or~n (the soul of life), given by the God of Life, which will
leave the body after death;the hani (the soul of thinking),which can leave the
body temporarilyduring sleep and communicatewith spirits or souls of others;
andthefajaku (the soul of rebirth),given by the God of Rebirth,which will leave
the body afterdeathandenteranothernew-bornbody (Ling 1934:102-3).
Duringthe process of traininga new shaman,the learnershouldprojecther or
his soul, in trance,at least three times into the differentregions of the cosmos.
Only when the learneris able to do this can she or he become a shaman. An
experiencedshamancan projectheror his soul moreoften andinto morelevels of
the cosmos: five, seven or nine times and five, seven or nine levels, dependingon
technique.
Odd numbersalso appearin many other cases among different groups, for
examplein the design of shamaniccostumesanddrums(see Dolgikh 1978 for the
Nganasanshamanicdrumsandcostumes,Czaplicka1914 for some othertribesin
Siberia and Li 1992 for the Manchu drums). It is not difficult to see the
significance of certain numberssuch as 3, 5, 7 and 9 which are related to the
cosmos levels. Many shamans whom I met in Manchuria stated that these
numbers are cosmic numbers.The explanationreflects the strong influence of
shamaniccosmology on people.

Fig. 1 A Manchuritualof "sacrificeto theAfternoon

Gods",heldbythe
clan
Yiergenjuelo in Ning'an,Manchuria, 1990
;If~I~9
~:

's`? ?1
i~
"il .,..
.u
"'
n I-?R~,?''

)1 ~k~:?i

"i`
f.
'lie~P~~?L?i*~S~~ i~?r
i \ ,u

r Pt~
?.*?C! ?
Iltx?S~E~r?. .
Is '"'?Y;r 'i

? ~t~ lu
.` i

?'II

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 Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic 103

Even numbersare not used very often, but they have meaningsas well. They
are usually linked with the middle and lower regions of the cosmos but not the
upper region. In particular,in some cases they are related to evil spirits. For
example(Eliade 1964: 277):

Amongthe Buryatthe numberof gods is threetimesas great:ninety-ninegood

evil onesin thenortheastern.
godsin the southwestregionsandforty-four

Since odd numbersare used more frequentlythan even ones and have more
significance in Manchu music, discussion in this paper concerns odd numbers
only. The aim here is to demonstratehow these mystic numbersembodyreligious
thought and play an active role in structuringmusical patterns and musical
performancesin correspondencewith culturalpatternsandbehaviour.

3 Rhythmicpatternswithodd numbersof accents

Certainrhythmicpatternswith odd numbersof accentsare used very frequentlyin
Manchushamanicdrumming(Li 1992). These patternsare called by the people
themselves "One-accented Patterns","Old Three-accented Patterns", "Five-
accented Patterns","Seven-accentedPatterns"and "Nine-accented Patterns".
Examples of these patterns are shown in figure 2. The two important
characteristicsof these patternsare that the total numberof accents in each is
always an odd number, and that all other patterns shown in figure 5 are the
combinations of the "Old Three-accented Patterns"plus the "One-accented
Patterns".These particularrhythmpatternsare used in many clans which I have
visited. Many shamansand people can clearly distinguishthem. The "OldThree-
accentedPatterns",in particular,are used in every ceremonyof differentclans.
Obviously,these patternsare carefullydesignedbased on certainodd numbers
even for each minimal unit. The purposeof the formationcan be seen clearly if
we examine their particularmeaningsand functionsin rituals.According to the
explanationof some old shamanswhom I met duringfieldwork,5the "OldThree-
accentedPatterns"are used to worshipthe gods, the "Five-accentedPatterns"are
used to communicatethe intentionof the gods to the people, the "Seven-accented
Patterns"are used to drive away demonsandthe "Nine-accentedPatterns"are for
dealing with all living beings in different regions of the cosmos, i.e. humans,
gods, demons etc. On the other hand, the "One-accentedPatterns"are usually
used between otherdrummingpatternsto representa transitionbetween different
regions of the cosmos or differentspirits.

5 Explanationsare especiallyfromFu Yingren,a home shamanof Fuchaclan in Ning'an,

Heilongjiangprovince;andfromYangShicang,a mainshamanof Nimachaclan, and Guang
Yungang,a homeshamanof Guaerjia clan,bothin Jiutai,Jilinprovince.(Thelattertwo shamans
died a few yearsago.) They also explainedthe meaningsof the threepositionsof drumming
(section5).

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Fig. 2 Typicalrhythmicpatternsof drummingin Manchurituals.(Collectedby the auth
1982-92; afterLi 1992.) The notation indicatesforms of the Old Three-accented
Patternsappearingin otherpatterns. ,.
The Old Three-accented Patterns

2 3 1
2 3

I 2 3

n~n inn n

The Five-accented Patterns

2 3 4 5

J"5 •(1+1+3)
2 ."•.• 3 4

? i" C (3+1+1)
" ~'•
"• "
The Seven-accented Patterns
2 3 4 5 6 7

?
i xI
,
xI J]
i(1+1+1+1+3)
1 3 4 5 6 ,•
7

S
ix K
,(3+3+1)
•x
.-
The Nine-accented Patterns
2 3 4 5 7 9

. _ ._ . . ._ __ _ J . 2 (3+1+1+1+1+1
S3 4 5 6 7 8

_
_(3+3+3)

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 Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic 105

All these drumming patterns are related to the cosmology of Manchu

shamanism,in which the cosmos has nine levels dividedinto threeregions. Gods,
humansand demons are thoughtto live in differentlevels (see section 2). Just as
the drumis the symbol of a vehicle used for the shamanicjourney,so its rhythms,
in association with other elements of the drum such as its appearanceand the
methodsof drumming(see section 5), can enable the shamanto contactdifferent
beings in differentlevels of the cosmos.
It is clearthatthe idea of creationbehindthese rhythmicpatternsis limitedand
supportedby the shamaniccosmological thoughtbehind the mystic numbers.It
also shows the conceptions of Manchupeople concerningthe capacity of their
music to influence other beings in the cosmos. They believe that different
rhythmsusing the mystical numberscan transmitdifferentmeaningsto different
listenersin differentregions of the cosmos.6
These particularrhythmicpatterns,related to shamaniccosmology, are not
only the foundationof the drumrhythmsthemselves, but also among the most
importantrhythmic components of Manchu shamanic songs, and even of all
Manchu traditionalmusic. According to my analysis, in about 80% of the first
categoryof Manchufolk songs (includingshamanicsongs)7the rhythmicpatterns
are related to the patterns shown in figure 2, especially to the "Old Three-
accented Patterns".The rhythms of certain songs, especially in the pieces for
which the drumis also played, are similarto the drumrhythm(fig. 3), sometimes
being the same as the rhythmof the drumbeats(fig. 4), and this suggests thatthe
mystical numbers have a significance in forming the rhythms not only of the
drum but also of the songs. This enables the songs and the drum, working
togetherin rituals,to transmitmeaningsbetweenthe differentworlds.
Figure5 is anotherexampleof Manchushamanicsong. The song begins with a
repeated"OldThree-accentedPattern";this is similarto the rhythmicpatternsof
the drumshown in figure 2, in which every patternstartsor finishes with an "Old
Three-accentedPattern".This may show the influenceof the drumpatternson the
rhythms of songs. This phenomenonalso appearsin the music of some other
peoples, for example, in a song of the Lamut,MaritimeTungus(see Li 1992, ex.
8). The explanationis thatthe drumand its rhythmsused in shamanicritualsplay
a role more importantthanmere accompanimentbecausethey are associatedwith
mystical odd numbersand shamanicjourneys.

6Some of the rhythmicpatternsused in the ritualsof other peoples in North Asia have
similaritiesto those of the Manchu.This may supportthe hypothesisthatreligiousmystical
numbersplay an important rolein formingrhythmicpatternsin Manchupractice.Forexamples
see Li 1992.
7 See Section1 andfootnote1 forthesourcesof thefolksongsthatI analysed.Thesamesources
wereusedforfigures8, 9 and10.

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106 vol.2 (1993)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

Fig. 3 Extractfrom Manchushamanicsong of Fucha clan in Ning'an,

Manchuria(recordedby the authorin 1990; afterLi 1992)

Song I t - ----
--? --Tj--B - .. .. ---
I<- . . . . ... . .. . . .. ... .
-... ,,v .---•----- ... ~-,7 -
_:i
Drum
- I - ,

I = note is slightly higher in pitch

Fig. 4 Shamanicchantingsongfrom Jilin province,Manchuria(recordedby the

authorin 1986; afterLi 1992)
[

Song

Drum ,, '
-
=
,

Fig. 5 Extract from Manchu shamanic song from Jilin Province, Manchuria (Li
1986)
Song • r-*-, ---- --•--' • , .• ,. -• --•--C-•-

I 2 3 I 3

__ __ J_ _ > - ____

Song

." - - -
Drum _

Figures 6 and 7 provide some evidence that the odd-numberedrhythmsalso

appear in non-religious music. This may show that even for creating secular
music, mysticalnumbersmay have potentialinfluenceon people's musical ideas
althoughthe religious meaningsand functionsmay be lost or changed.We shall
not discuss whetherreligious music influences secular music or the other way
round. Even if these particularrhythmicpatternsoriginate from secular music
(though this is not likely, since their meaningsand functions seem to show that
they were createdfor theirparticularreligious purposes),it still can be said that
the mysticalnumbershave a stronginfluenceon people's chosen musicalpatterns
and ideas of formingreligiousmusic for religiouspurposes.

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 Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic 107

Fig. 6 Manchufolksong,"Thesongfrom the descendants"(Shi and Li 1990)

1 2 3

-.% - ~??

Fig. 7 Qing Dynastycourtmusic: "Qinglongdance music"(Shi and Li 1990)

1 2 3 4 5
?I ~ r I ~?

I r I rl I I ~?

In contrast to the preferencefor odd numbersin Manchu,some even numbers

play a very importantrole in traditionalChineseculture,in which two, eight, ten
etc. are the most preferredauspiciousnumbers.This contrastmay resultfrom the
different practices of ancient Taoist philosophical thought-yin and yang, the
bagua (EightTrigrams)etc. which formthe basis of the divinationrecordedin the
Chineseclassic Yjing (Book of Changes).Althoughin both Manchushamanistic
thoughtand Chineseancientphilosophicalthoughtcertaineven and odd numbers
both have significance, the preferrednumbers in practice are different. For
example, Yin is relatedto the odd numberswhich are very importantin theory,
but the even numberswhich are relatedto Yang are actually emphasisedin the
practiceof society in laterperiods.This may be because of the preferencefor the
Yang principle (related to males) which began at an early period in the male-
dominatedChinesesociety.
In contrastto Manchuritualsin which particularodd-number-accented patterns
are used, particulareven-number-accented patternsareused in those Chinesefolk
ritualsin Manchuriawhose forms are similarto those of the Manchufolk rituals.
These patterns also have their own names-"Four-accented Patterns","Six-
accentedPatterns","Eight-accentedPatterns"etc.-and play an importantrole in
rituals. The contrasts between rhythmic patterns based on odd and on even
numbers may reflect ethnic contrasts, namely the desire to be deliberately
differentfrom one's neighbours.They also supportthe suggestionthat particular
symbolic numbersassociated with religious thoughtcan affect people's chosen
musicalpatternsand musicalideas.

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108 vol.2 (1993)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

4 Melodies withthree dominantnotess

No Manchu notation has been found. Nowadays the Chinese numbernotation
system is used. Manchumusic is based on the pentatonicsystem. There are five
modes in music, Kung, Shang, Chiao, Chih, and Yu (these are the equivalentof
do re mi sol la), and seven notes in each mode, kung,shang, chiao, pien-chih,yu
andpien-kung (these are the equivalent of do re mi fa sol la ti). The fa and ti
appearrarelyin music. The kung note plays the most importantrole in the Kung
mode, the shang note plays the most importantrole in the Shangmode and so on.
The modes most frequentlyused are the Kung and the Shang modes. The Yu
mode and the Chiaomode are also used, while the Chihmode is rarelyused.
An importantcharacteristicof the melodiesof Manchutraditionalmusic is that
each piece of music usuallyconsists of threedominantnotes plus a few subsidiary
notes. Some pieces consist of threenotes only. For example,figure4 is formedby
only three notes, whereasfigure 3 is constitutedof do re mi plus sol. There are
interestingcharacteristicsin both figures 3 and 4: first, the rhythmicpatternsof
the two songs are almost the same as those of the drum, and the positions of
accents of the melody are the same as those of the Old Three-accentedPattern
used in each song (three accents within each bar);second, the melodies employ
basically only three differentnotes. This may demonstratethat the odd number
threeplays an importantrole in melodies of the songs (pitches and rhythm)as it
does in the rhythmsof drumming.
The melodies have also meaningsassociatedwith the mysticalnumberthreein
Manchu shamanicrituals. For example, the songs sung in rituals are normally
used to contactgods and spiritsanddo not have muchto do with drivingaway the
demons. With regardto the meaningof drumming,underwhich the "OldThree-
accented Patterns"have more to do with respecting the gods, this may explain
why only the numberthree is emphasizedin songs. Many chanting songs are
related to the names of differentgods and spirits. The shamaninvites gods and
sings theirnames. Songs of this kindnormallyconsist of a melody with only three
notes and a repeatedOld Three-accentedPattern.Thus the mysticalnumberthree
has significancein both the melody andthe rhythm.
Figure8 shows the typicalscales or note sequencesdistributedin each mode as
used in Manchutraditionalmusic. This is summarisedfrom most songs of the
first category of Manchufolk songs.9It also indicatesthe positions of the three
dominantnotes in each note sequenceto show how the numberthree appearsin
the note and scale systemof Manchufolk music. For example,figure 3 belongs to
the Kung mode because the kung (do) note plays the most importantrole in the
song. The note sequenceis 1, 2, 3, 5 (do re mi sol), but the dominantnotes are 1,
2, 3 (do re mi).

8 "Dominantnotes"refersto thenoteswhichareusedmostfrequently andarenormallystressed.

9 No musical instrumentsare used in shamanic ceremonies except percussion. The
of othertypesof musicincludinginstrumental
characteristics music(foran examplesee fig. 7)
areverysimilarto thoseof thefirstcategoryof folksongs.

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 Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic 109

Figure 9 summarisesthe percentagesof different songs with three different

dominantnotes in the firstcategoryof folk songs. If we makea sequenceof these
three-notegroups by the naturalorderin pitch, the orderin frequency of these
groupsused in the songs is as in figure 10. Thereseems to be an extension from
inside to outside. This may show the importanceof the three notes do re mi. In
addition, 80% of the songs which only use three notes consist of do re mi.
ShamanYang Shicang explained that the chantingsongs with do re mi are the
basic kind of shamanic song. Just as the "Old Three-accentedPatterns"play a
more importantrole in the rhythmicsystem (even its name is differentfrom other
patterns), so the three notes do re mi may play a more importantrole in the
melodic system thanotherdominantnotes.
This phenomenon also appearsin the use of pitch in figure 8. Most of the
sequencesin figure 8 seem to be enlargedfromthe dominantnotes by one or two
notes either lower or higher. This makes the melodic range of these songs very
narrow.In otherwords, the narrowmelodic range of these songs is caused by he
emphasising the dominantnotes which relate to the mystical numberthree. It
suggests that the limitationin the use of notes and the melodic style indicates a
relationshipbetween the melodic creation of Manchutraditionalmusic and the
indigenousManchureligion,shamanism.
Moreoverin considerationof the meaningsof the rhythmicpatternswhich are
related to the Manchu shamanic cosmology, the situation shown in figure 10
reminds one of the Manchucosmology in which there are three regions of the
cosmos with threelevels in each (see section 2). If the do re mi three-notegroup
symbolises the threeregions of the cosmos, in each of the regions there are three
levels which may be symbolised by one other three-note group. However, I
cannot make a definitive statement:furtherresearchand fieldwork are needed,
especially concerningindigenousexplanations.
My analysis is an attemptto point out that the forms of melodies and scales
which emphasise differentgroupsof three dominantnotes (especially do re mi)
have a melodic basis limitedby the mysticalnumberthree.Mysticalnumbersplay
an importantrole in formingnot only the rhythmicpatternsof Manchutraditional
music but also its melodicpatterns.
Figure 11 is one of a few more complex pieces which I did not include in the
numericalanalysis for Figs. 8 and 9 because it has three types of key and mode
change (summarisedin figure 12). The emphasis is placed on three dominant
notes in differentkeys and modes with a gradualmelodic progressionto a higher
range.This shows the Manchuconceptionsconcerningcomplicatednotes, modes
and key system, but the arrangementof the song purposefullyemphasises the
groupsof threedominantnotes. It also supportsthe point thatthe idea of creation
is limitedand supportedby the mystic numberthree.

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 110 BritishJournal vol.2 (1993)
ofEthnomusicology,

Fig. 8 Pitch material used in modes ofManchufolksongs (see note on following page)

notes
3 notes 4 notes 5 notes 6 notes
modes in song
kung 123 6123 6111231 6123t45
1235 6123t4 712345
1...2.35 L?12 ?4
171235
123t45
12356
shang 123 6123 56123 6123t45
6?123 6t1235
1235 1?1235
?1235 t12345
2356 23t456
chiao 235 1235 1235t?5 1112356
356 123t5 3t4567
2356
chih 561 3561. 35612
5__1_2
5.123
yu 561 5612 35612 5671t12
612 6123 56112
61235

Fig. 9 Frequencyof occurrenceof songs with threedominantnotes (see note on

following page)

Dominantnotes 1 2 3 4 5 others sum

do,re,miIre,mi,sol la,do,re sol,la,do mi,sol,la
Sum of the songs 97 46 42 29 19 15 248
Percentages 39.1 18.5 16.9 11.7 7.7 6.1 100

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 Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic 111

Note to Figs. 8 and 9:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 = do remi fa sol la si = kung,shang,chiao,pien-chih,chih,yu, pien-kung.
Thenoteswithdirectionsignsmeantheyareslightlyhigherin pitch.
Noteswithdotsareanoctavelower.
Theunderlined notesarethedominantnotesof the songs.In all casesthedominantnotesof a
songcomprisea three-notegroup(doremi, remi sol, mi sol la, sol la do, la do re).
Theproblemis thata minorthirdplusa majorsecondcanbe writtenas eithermi sol la or la
do rein a differentkey andmode.Forexample,a songconstituted by thethreenotesE, G andA,
wheretheE playsthemostimportant role,canbelongto the Chiaomodeas mi sol la in C major,
andcanalsobelongto the Yu modeas la do rein G major.Thenotesremi sol (la)on the Shang
mode,C majorkey amre also sol la do (re)on the Chihmode,G majorkey. I haveputeachsong
consistingof thistypeof notegroupintotwo differentmodesrespectivelyin figure 8 andI treat
themin the sameway for the statisticsof the frequencyof songswithdifferentdominantnote
groupsin figure 9. Becauseof thiskindof song,thetotalnumberof songsin thenextdiagramis
12 pieces morethanthe actualnumberof songs.These 12 pieces increasethe numberof the
songswithre mi sol, sol la do andla do re,mi sol la as dominantnotes.Butthe frequencyof use
of do remi dominantnotesin songsis still in thefirstposition.

Fig. 10

w w
I I I o lI
chih yu kung shang chiao chih yu

5 6 1 2 3 5 6

(sol) (la) (do) (re) (mi) (sol) (la)

I
I NI I I
N~ I

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112 vol.2 (1993)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

Fig. II Shamanic ritual song of Shiteli clan: a song for Anba Manni (hero god
of the Shiteli clan)

The sequenceof notesusedin

thesong.Thepositionof three
dominantnotes
(solo) (chorus) a (solo) (chorus)

(solo) (chorus) CKun chiao mode (mi)

(solo) (chorus)

(solo) (chorus) IFKung shangmode(re)

(solo) (chorus)

I FKung chiaomode(mi)
(solo) (chorus)
SCKun yumode(la)

(solo) (chorus)

(solo) (chorGKune shangmode(re)

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 Li:MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic 113

Fig. 12 thesamekungsystem
different tonics
different modes
different kung systems different kung systems
different tonics different kung systems the same tonic
different modes different tonics different modes
different modes

a b c d

ICKungIe chiao mode Ig san mde

,IFun a chiao mode
mode ashangmode
FKung g shang (mi) G7 ung a shangmode
(mi) (re) (re)
a Yu mode
(K
(la)

5 Musicalperformancesrelatedto the odd numbers

Mystical odd numbersnot only play a dynamic role in Manchumusic but also
have a great significance in performancesin which the music is presented.For
example, the special ways of drummingand singing in shamanic rituals are
relatedto the mysticalnumberthree.
Accordingto the Manchushamans(see footnote 5 for names), there are three
importantkinds of drummingwith particularnames used in Manchu shamanic
ceremonies(Li 1992). Each of themhas a particularmeaning:

1. "Drumming on the higherroad".Thedrumis beatentowardsthe sky andheld

higherthantheplayer'sheadto contactthegodswholive in the sky,usingonly
the"OldThree-accented Patterns".
2. "Drumming on themiddleroad".Thedrumis heldin frontof theplayer'schest
to contactthe gods who have come to the ritualplace or to pass the gods'
intentionto people.To contactthe godswho havecometo theritual,the"Old
Three-accented Patterns" arealso usedandtheplayershouldrespectthe altar.
To pass the gods' intentionto the people,the "Five-accented
Patterns"
should
be used.
3. "Drumming on the lowerroad".The drumis held in a lowerpositionandis
beatentowardsthe groundto driveawaydemons,usingthe "Seven-accented
Patterns"."Drumming on themiddleroad",however,is themostcommonstyle
in ceremonies(fig. 1).

It is obvious that "drummingon the three roads"is based on shamanicideas:

differenttypes of beings live in the threeregions of the cosmos; the threeregions
are connectedwith one another;the shamanis a mediumbetweenpeople and the
other world, who can pass the gods' messages to people and can also travel to
different regions of the cosmos. The term "road"used by the shamans also
embodies the Manchuconceptionconcerningthe ways in which shamanscontact
the other world. There are differentroads for the shamanto travel to different

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114 vol.2 (1993)
BritishJournalof Ethnomusicology,

regions of the cosmos throughthe shamanicjourney with the shaman'svehicle,

the drum.The shamanassumesdifferentexpressionalmodes of performanceand
moves the druminto differentpositionsfor dealingwith gods, people anddemons
from differentregions of the cosmos (Li 1992). This shows the shamanicattitude
towardsdifferentbeings of the cosmos andthe conceptionsof the Manchupeople
concerning other beings in the cosmos. The Manchu believe that gods and
demons also have senses and can give and receive information during the
shaman'sperformance.These conceptionsare all relatedto the shamanisticidea
thateverythingin the cosmos has a soul or spirit.
Associated with the three ways of drumming,there are also three ways of
singing:

1. In singing the special kind of chanting songs involving the names of the gods,
the shamanadoptsa kneelingpositionin a secretivemannerand sings very
weakly to avoid the song being heardby others. As explained by Fu Yongji, a
home shamanof Fucha clan in Ning'an, "It is disrespectfulto read the sacred
names of gods loudly. We shouldreadthem inside the heart."
2. In singing the songs which are especially for the gods living far away, such as
the God of the Sky who lives in the sky and Goddess of the earth who lives
underthe earth,the shamanadopts a very solemn manner(in a sitting position
insidetheroomfor theEarthGodanda standingpositionoutsidetheroomfor
theSkyGod)andsingsveryloudlyto makesurethatthegodscanhear.
3. In singing the songs for the gods who have come to the altar,the shamanstands
in frontof thealtarandsingswithnormalvolumein a relaxedmanner.

Both the ways of drumming and the ways of singing demonstrate the
importanceof the musical performance.The meaningand the function of music
which is related to the mystical numberscan only be presented and fulfilled
through a significant musical performancewhich is also related to the mystic
number.
Some other examples demonstratethatmusical performanceis also relatedto
certain other mystical numbers.For example, some short pieces of shamanic
songs used in ritualarerepeatedan odd numberof times-three, five, seven, nine
or more. Before singing songs to differentgods, shamansmust make a "drum-
salute"to the particulargods to whom they will sing: severalshamansbeat drums
simultaneouslyan odd numberof times towardsthe altar).
All examples analysed in this section can support the point that shamanic
thought lives behind the relationshipbetween shamanic odd numbers and the
musicalperformance.

6 Conclusion
The shamanicmysticalodd numbersareembodiedin differentaspectsof Manchu
traditionalmusic, especially in the shamanicmusic and musical performances
analysed in the paper.For example, the odd-numberedrhythmicpatternswhich
are the foundationof the Manchurhythmicsystem; the odd-numbereddominant
notes which are the basis of the Manchu melodic system; the odd-numbered

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 Li: MysticalnumbersandManchutraditionalmusic 115

drummingpositions, odd-numberedways of singing, odd numberof times which

the songs are sung and so on are the fundamentalforms of Manchu musical
performance.
According to the result of detailed analysis of Manchu music and musical
performances, especially of those in shamanic rituals, and in consideration of the
explanations of the people themselves, this paper suggests that certain mystical
odd numbersplay an essentialrole in Manchutraditionalmusicalpatternsand in
the creating and performing of music, in accordance with Manchu cultural
patternsand behaviour. Mystical odd numbersalso have great significance in
creating and transmittingmeanings between different worlds. The paper also
argues that behind the relationshipbetween the mystical odd numbersand the
forms of music and musical performance,shamanicthoughtpermeatespeople's
musicalideas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am gratefulto my supervisorsDr. H. LaRue,Dr. H. Morphyand Dr. C. Humphreyfor
their academic help on my DPhil study which is related to this paper; to Oxford
University, St. Hugh's College and all other trustsfor their scholarshipswhich enabled
me to do my research and fieldwork; to all the shamansand other informantswhom I
met, for theirgreathelp in providingvaluableevidence for this study;and to Dr. C. Pegg
andProfessorG. Staryfor theiruseful suggestions.

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