CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS RESEARCH

BUSINESS RESEARCH DEFINE

Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the
situation or phenomenon.

Business research therefore is a process through which businesses attempt to achieve

systematically and with the support of data the answer to a question, the resolution of a problem,
or a greater understanding of a phenomenon.

Simply put, Business Research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the truth
about business phenomena. The purpose of business research may be to define business
opportunities and problems, generate and evaluate ideas, monitor performance, and understand the
business process (Zikmund, 2010).

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Research has eight distinct characteristics:

1. Research originates with a question or problem.

2. Research requires a clear articulation of a goal.
3. Research follows a specific plan of procedure.
4. Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable subproblems.
5. Research is guided by the specific research problem, question, or hypothesis.
6. Research accepts certain critical assumptions.
7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the
problem that initiated the research.
8. Research is, by its nature, cyclical; or more exactly, helical.

TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

Business research could be classified

 Applied research: Is to solve a current problem faced by the manager in the work setting,
demanding a timely solution.

1
 • Basic research (fundamental, pure): Is to generate a body of knowledge by trying to
comprehend how certain problems that occur in organizations can be solved. The findings
of such research contribute to the building of knowledge in the various functional areas of
business.

Basic Research

Basic (fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific

question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent
something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic
research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:

• How did the universe begin?

• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

• How do slime molds reproduce?

• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Applied Research

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to
improve the human condition.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

• improve agricultural crop production

• treat or cure a specific disease

• improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation

IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH TO THE MANAGER/RESEARCHER

Business research is important to the Manager/Research in the following areas:

• Solve problems

• Decision making tool

2
 • Competition

• Risk

• Investment

• Hire researchers and consultants more effectively

ETHICS AND BUSINESS RESEARCH

• Ethics in business research refers to a code of conduct or expected societal norm of

behavior while conducting research.

• Ethical conduct applies to the organization and the members that sponsor the research, the
researchers who undertake the research, and the respondents who provide them with the
necessary data.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH/RESEARCHER

 Thoroughness: in one's thinking, and in the verification of information and sources.

 Honesty: in disclosing the parameters, limits and caveats, and uses of one's research

 Precision: in use and definition of terms, and in attribution

 Criticality: in thinking and inquiring - not taking things at face value; using good judgment,
evaluation, discernment.

BUSINESS RESEARCH PROCESS

Step One: Formulating the Research Problem

Formulating a problem is the first step in the research process. In many ways, research starts with
a problem that management is facing. This problem needs to be understood, the cause diagnosed,
and solutions developed.

3
However, most management problems are not always easy to research. A management problem
must first be translated into a research problem. Once you approach the problem from a research
angle, you can find a solution. For example, “sales are declining” is a management problem.

Translated into a research problem, we may examine the expectations and experiences of several
groups: potential customers, first-time buyers, and repeat purchasers. We will determine if the drop
in sales is due to:

 Poor expectations that lead to a general lack of desire to buy, or

 Poor performance experience and a lack of desire to repurchase.

In this case management problem is clearly distinct from a research problem? Management
problems focus on an action such as: Do we advertise more? Do we change our advertising
message? Do we change an under-performing product configuration? If so, how?

Research problems, on the other hand, focus on providing the information the researcher needs in
order to solve the management problem.

Step Two: Method of Inquiry

The scientific method is the standard pattern for investigation. It provides an opportunity for the
researcher to use existing knowledge as a starting point and proceed impartially.

The scientific method includes the following steps:

1. Formulate a problem
2. Develop a hypothesis
3. Make predictions based on the hypothesis
4. Devise a test of the hypothesis
5. Conduct the test
6. Analyze the results

4
The terminology is similar to the stages in the research process. However, there are some
differences in the way the steps are performed. For example, the scientific method is objective
while the research process can be subjective. Objective-based research (quantitative research)
relies on impartial analysis.

The facts are the priority in objective research. On the other hand, subjective-based research
(qualitative research) emphasizes personal judgment as data is collected and analyzed.

Step Three: Research Method

In addition to selecting a method of inquiry (objective or subjective), the research process also
includes selection of a research method.

There are two primary methodologies that can be used to answer any research question -
experimental research and non-experimental research.

Experimental research gives the investigator advantage of controlling extraneous variables and
manipulating one or more variables that influences the process being implemented. Non-
experimental research, on the other hand allows observation but not intervention. That is to say,
the researcher simply observes and reports on the findings.

Step Four: Research Design

The research design is a plan or framework for conducting the study and collecting data. It is
defined as the specific methods and procedures you use to acquire the information you need.

Step Five: Data Collection Techniques

Data collection techniques are used to develop the research design in as much detail as possible.
There are many ways to collect data. Two important methods to consider are interviews and
observation.

Interviews require the investigator to ask questions and receive responses. Common modes of
research communication include interviews conducted face-to-face, by mail, by telephone, by
email, or over the Internet. This broad category of research techniques is known as survey research.
These techniques are used in both non-experimental research and experimental research.

5
Another way to collect data is by observation. Observing a person’s or company’s past or present
behavior can predict future purchasing decisions. Data collection techniques for past behavior can
include analyzing company records and reviewing studies published by external sources.

In order to analyze information from interview or observation techniques, the researcher must
record his/her results. Due to the vital nature of the recorded results, measurement and
development are closely linked to which data collection techniques the investigator decides on.

The way the data is recorded changes depends on which method is used use. This suggests that the
choice of method has significant effect on the outcome of a research.

Step Six: Sample Design

Practically, research project rarely examines an entire population. It is more practical to use a
sample (i.e. a smaller but accurate representation of the greater population). In order to design the
sample, the researcher must find answers to these questions:

1. From which base population is the sample to be selected?

2. What is the method (process) for sample selection?
3. What is the size of the sample?

Once the relevant population is established (completed in the problem formulation stage), the
researcher now has a base for the study’s sample. This will allow the investigator to make
inferences about a larger population.

There are two methods of selecting a sample from a population: probability or non-probability
sampling. The probability method relies on a random sampling of everyone within the larger
population. Non- probability is based in part on the judgment of the investigator, and often employs
convenience samples, or by other sampling methods that do not rely on probability.

The final stage of the sample design involves determining the appropriate sample size. This
important step involves cost and accuracy decisions. Larger samples generally reduce sampling
error and increase accuracy, but also increase costs.

Step Seven: Data Collection

6
Depending on the mode of data collection, this part of the process can require large amounts of
personnel and a significant portion of budget. Personal (face-to-face) and telephone interviews
may require the use of a data collection agency (field service).

Internet surveys require fewer personnel, are lower cost, and can be completed in days rather than
weeks or months.

Regardless of the mode of data collection, the data collection process introduces another essential
element to the research project - the importance of clear and constant communication.

Step Eight: Analysis and Interpretation

In order for data to be useful, it must be analyzed. Analysis techniques vary and their effectiveness
depends on the types of information you are collecting, and the type of measurements you are
using. Since they are dependent on the data collection, analysis techniques should be decided
before this step.

Step Nine: The Research Report

The business research process climaxes with the research report.

This report will include all of the information, including an accurate description of the research
process, the results, conclusions, and recommended courses of action. The report should provide
all the information the decision maker needs to understand the project.

It should also be written in language that is easy to understand. It is also important to find a balance
between completeness and conciseness. You don’t want to leave any information out; however,
you cannot also let the information get so technical that it overwhelms the reading audience.

One approach to resolving this conflict is to prepare two reports: the technical report and the
summary report. The technical report discusses the methods and the underlying assumptions. In
this document, you discuss the detailed findings of the research project.

The summary report, as its name implies, summarizes the research process and presents the
findings and conclusions as simply as possible.

7
Another way to keep the findings clear is to prepare several different representations of the
findings. PowerPoint presentations, graphs, and face-to-face reports are all common methods for
presenting the research information.

Along with the written report for reference, these alternative presentations will allow the decision
maker to understand all aspects of the project.

CHAPTER TWO
RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES

Research philosophy deals with the source, nature and development of knowledge (Saunders et.
al., 2012). Although the idea of knowledge creation may appear to be profound, one engages in
knowledge creation as part of writing a research or dissertation. Research involves collection of

8
secondary and primary data and engagement in data analysis to answer the research question, and
this answer contribute to the creation of new knowledge.

Addressing research philosophy in a research or dissertation writing involves being aware and
formulating the researcher’s beliefs and assumptions. The identification of the research
philosophy is positioned at the outer layer of the ‘research onion’; accordingly it is the first topic
to be clarified in research methodology chapter of a dissertation.

Each stage of the research process is based on assumptions about the sources and the nature of
knowledge.

ONTOLOGY

The word ontology is derived from the Greek words ‘ontos’ which means being and ‘logos’ which
means study. It tries to pin point things around us that actually exist. It is the study of the nature
of being or becoming existence and their differences and similarities. It tries to answer questions
that begin with ‘What’.

The scope of ontology can be generalized from philosophy to other fields like medicine,
information science or even advanced physics. Ontology helps us to understand questions like
what is God, what is a disease, what happens after death, what is artificial intelligence etc. The
field is dedicated towards understanding whether things exist or don’t exist.

Ontology also studies how various existing entities can be grouped together on the basis of similar
characteristics and it tries to find out those similarities. The field also tries to find a relation
between the objects that exist. People who deal in ontology try to understand why a particular thing
occurs how it is related to other things.

EPISTEMOLOGY

Epistemology as a branch of philosophy deals with the sources of knowledge. Specifically,

epistemology is concerned with possibilities, nature, sources and limitations of knowledge in the

9
field of study. Alternatively, epistemology can be branded as the study of the criteria by which the
researcher classifies what does and does not constitute the knowledge.

In research philosophy there are many different sources of knowledge. Sources of knowledge
related to business research in particular can be divided into the following four categories:

Epistemology has many branches and includes essentialism, historical perspective, perennialsm,
progressivism, empiricism, idealism, rationalism, constructivism and others. Empiricism and
rationalism can be specified as the two major constructing debates within the field of
epistemological study that relates to business studies. Empiricism accepts personal experiences
associated with observation, feelings and senses as a valid source of knowledge, whereas according
to rationalism relies on empirical findings gained through valid and reliable measures as a source
of knowledge.

In research philosophy there are many different sources of knowledge. Sources of knowledge
related to business research in particular can be divided into the following four categories:

1. Intuitive knowledge is based on intuition, faith, beliefs etc. Human feelings plays greater role
in intuitive knowledge compared to reliance on facts.

2. Authoritarian knowledge relies on information that has been obtained from books, research
papers, experts, supreme powers etc.

3. Logical knowledge is a creation of new knowledge through the application of logical

reasoning.

4. Empirical knowledge relies on objective facts that have been established and can be
demonstrated.

Within the scope of business studies in particular there are four main research philosophies:
 Pragmatism
 Positivism
 Realism
 Interpretivism (Interpretivist)

10
The choice of a specific philosophy for a research is influenced by practical implications. There
are important philosophical differences between studies that focus on facts and numbers such as
an analysis of the impact of foreign direct investment on the level of GDP growth; and qualitative
studies such as an analysis of leadership style on employee motivation in organizations.

The choice between positivist and interpretivist research philosophies or between quantitative and
qualitative methods has traditionally represented a major point of debate. However, the latest
developments in the practice of conducting studies have increased the popularity of pragmatism
and realism philosophies as well.
Moreover, as it is illustrated in Table 1.1 below, there are popular data collection methods
associated with each research philosophy.

Table 1.1: Choice of Philosophy and Data Collection Method

Pragmatism Positivism Realism Interpretivism
Popular data Mixed or multiple Highly structured, Methods chosen Small samples, in-
collection large samples, must fit the subject depth
method designs, investigations,
method(s) measurement, matter, quantitative
qualitative
quantitative and quantitative, but can or qualitative
qualitative use qualitative

As it is illustrated in Figure 1.1 below, the identification of the research philosophy is positioned
at the outer layer of the ‘research onion’, accordingly it is the first topic to be clarified in research
methodology chapter of your dissertation.

11
Figure 1.1 Research Philosophies in the ‘Research Onion’ (Collis, J. & Hussey, R, 2014)

POSITIVISM

As a philosophy, positivism adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge gained through
observation (the senses), including measurement, is trustworthy. In positivism studies the role of
the researcher is limited to data collection and interpretation through objective approach, and the
research findings are usually observable and quantifiable.

Positivism depends on quantifiable observations that lead themselves to statistical analysis. It has
been noted that “as a philosophy, positivism is in accordance with the empiricist view that
knowledge stems from human experience. It has an atomistic, ontological view of the world as
comprising discrete, observable elements and events that interact in an observable, determined and
regular manner”.

12
Moreover, in positivism studies the researcher is independent form the study and there are no
provisions for human interests within the study. Crowther and Lancaster (2008) aver that as a
general rule, positivist studies usually adopt deductive approach, whereas inductive research
approach is usually associated with a phenomenology philosophy. Moreover, positivism relates to
the viewpoint that researcher needs to concentrate on facts, whereas phenomenology concentrates
on the meaning and has provision for human interest.

Researchers warn that “if you assume a positivist approach to your study, then it is your belief that
you are independent of your research and your research can be purely objective. Independent
means that you maintain minimal interaction with your research participants when carrying out
your research.” In other words, studies with positivist paradigm are based purely on facts and
consider the world to be external and objective.

The five main principles of positivism philosophy can be summarized as the following:

1. There are no differences in the logic of inquiry across sciences.

2. The research should aim to explain and predict.
3. Research should be empirically observable via human senses. Inductive reasoning should
be used to develop statements (hypotheses) to be tested during the research process.
4. Science is not the same as the common sense. The common sense should not be allowed to
bias the research findings.
5. Science must be value-free and it should be judged only by logic.

SHORTCOMINGS OF POSITIVISM

Positivism as an epistemology is associated with the following set of disadvantages:

Firstly, positivism relies on experience as a valid source of knowledge. However, a wide range of
basic and important concepts such as cause, time and space are not based on experience.

Secondly, positivism assumes that all types of processes can be perceived as a certain variation of
actions of individuals or relationships between individuals.

13
Thirdly, adoption of positivism in business studies and other studies can be criticized for reliance
to status quo. In other words, research findings in positivism studies are only descriptive, thus they
lack insight into in-depth issues.

REALISM RESEARCH PHILOSOHY

Realism research philosophy relies on the idea of independence of reality from the human mind.
As a branch of epistemology, realism is based on the assumption of a scientific approach to the
development of knowledge. Realism can be divided into two groups: direct and critical.

Direct Realism and Critical Realism

Direct realism can be described as “what you see is what you get”. In other words, direct realism
portrays the world through personal human senses. Critical realism, on the other hand, argues
that humans do experience the sensations and images of the real world. According to critical
realism, sensations and images of the real world can be deceptive and they usually do not portray
the real world.

Direct realists would state that squares A and B have different colors, because this is what they
see. Critical realists, on the other hand, recognize that our senses and other factors may get in the
way between us as researchers and researched reality. Therefore, direct realists my notice that
squares A and B are actually the same color.

Direct realists accept the world as relatively unchanging. They concentrate on only one level only
be it individual, group or an organization. Critical realists, on the other hand appreciate the
importance of multi-level study. Specifically, as a researcher following critical realism research
philosophy you have to appreciate the influence and interrelationship between the individual, the
group and the organization.

There is a consensus among researchers that critical realist is more popular and appropriate than
direct realist approach due to its ability to capture the fuller picture when studying a

14
phenomenon. Accordingly, if you have chosen realism as your research philosophy you are
advised to assume the role of critical realist, rather than direct realist.

INTERPRETIVISM (INTERPRETIVIST) RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Interpretivism, also known as interpretivist involves researchers to interpret elements of the study,
thus interpretivism integrates human interest into a study. Accordingly, “interpretive researchers
assume that access to reality (given or socially constructed) is only through social constructions
such as language, consciousness, shared meanings, and instruments”. Development of
interpretivist philosophy is based on the critique of positivism in social sciences.

Interpretivism is “associated with the philosophical position of idealism, and is used to group
together diverse approaches, including social constructivism, phenomenology and hermeneutics;
approaches that reject the objectivist view that meaning resides within the world independently of
consciousness”. According to interpretivist approach, it is important for the researcher as a social
actor to appreciate differences between people. Moreover, interpretivism studies usually focus on
meaning and may employ multiple methods in order to reflect different aspects of the issue.

Interpretivist approach is based on naturalistic approach of data collection such as interviews and
observation. Secondary data research is also popular with interpretivism philosophy. In this type
of studies, meanings emerge usually towards the end of the research process.

The most noteworthy variations of interpretivism include the following:

 Hermeneutics: refers to the philosophy of interpretation and understanding. Hermeneutics

mainly focuses on biblical texts and wisdom literature and as such, has a little relevance to
business studies.

 Phenomenology: is “the philosophical tradition that seeks to understand the world through
directly experiencing the phenomena”.

15
 Symbolic interactionism: accepts symbols as culturally derived social objects having shared
meanings. According to symbolic interactionism symbols provide the means by which reality
is constructed

In general interpretivist approach is based on the following beliefs:

1. Relativist ontology. This approach perceives reality as intersubjectively that is based on

meanings and understandings on social and experiential levels.

2. Transactional or subjectivist epistemology. According to this approach, people cannot be

separated from their knowledge; therefore there is a clear link between the researcher and research
subject.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POSITIVISM AND INTERPRETIVISM

The key features of positivism and social interpretivism (constructionism) philosophical

approaches are presented in the following table by Ramanathan (2008)

Table 1.2 Differences between Positivism and Interpretivism

Positivism Social Constructionism

16
 Is part of what is being
The observer Must be independent
observed

Are the main drivers of

Human interests Should be irrelevant
science

Aim to increase general

Explanations Must demonstrate causality
understanding of the situation

Research progresses Gather rich data from which

Hypotheses and deductions
through ideas are induced

Need to be operationalized so Should incorporate

Concepts
that they can be measured stakeholder perspectives

Should be reduced to simplest May include the complexity

Units of analysis
terms of ‘whole’ situations

Generalization through Statistical probability Theoretical abstraction

Large numbers selected Small numbers of cases

Sampling requires
randomly chosen for specific reasons

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POSITIVISM AND PHENOMENOLOGY

The key features of positivism and paradigms are best illustrated by Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

17
Table 1.3 Differences between Positivism and Phenomenology
POSITIVIST
The world is perceived as external
and objective
Basic notions
Independency of the observer
Value-free approach to science
Focusing on facts
Causalities and fundamental laws
are searched
Responsibilities of researcher Phenomenon are reduced to the
simplest elements
Hypotheses formulation and
testing them
Concepts have to be
Most suitable research methods
operationalized
Sampling Samples have to be large
CHPATER THREE
SELECTING A TOPIC, WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL, ABSTRACT AND
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
18
PHENOMENOLOGY
The world is perceived to be
socially constructed and subjective
Observer is considered a part of the
object of observation
Human interests drives science
To be focusing on meanings
Aiming to understand the meaning
of events
Exploring the totality of each
individual case
Ideas are developed by induction
from data
Using several methods in order to
different aspects of phenomena
Small samples are analyzed in a
greater depth or over longer period
of time
SELECTING A RESEARCH TOPIC

The first challenge facing a researcher is how to choose an interesting research topic. Since
research starts with a choice of a topic, it is critical to give attention to what is an interesting topic
how to select it.
An interesting topic is one that you might find relevant, researchable and can have needed
information to carry out right to the end.

Selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to be interesting,
yet broad enough to find adequate information. Before selecting a topic, make sure you know what
your final project should look like. Each school, class or instructor will likely require a different
format or style of research project.

The ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill. An instructor may assign you a
specific topic, but most often instructors require you to select your own topic of interest. When
deciding on a topic, there are a few things that you will need to do:

 brainstorm for ideas

 choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature
 ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available
 make a list of key words
 be flexible
 define your topic as a focused research question
 research and read more about your topic
 formulate a thesis statement

SOME STEPS TO FOLLOW IN SELECTING A GOOD RESEARCH TOPIC

Step 1: Brainstorm for Idea

19
To choose a topic that interests you, use the following questions to help generate topic ideas:

 Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or political controversy?

 Did you read or see a news story recently that has piqued your interest or made you angry
or anxious?

 Do you have a personal issue, problem or interest that you would like to know more about?

 Do you have a research paper due for a class this semester?

 Is there an aspect of a class that you are interested in learning more about?

Step 2: Read General Background Information

Read relevant and if possible more current articles on the top two or three topics you are
considering. Reading a broad summary enables you to get an overview of the topic and see how
your idea relates to broader, narrower, and related issues. It also provides a great source for finding
words commonly used to describe the topic. These keywords may be very useful to your later
research. If you can’t find an article on your topic, try using broader terms and ask for help from a
librarian.

Step 3: Focus on Your Topic

Keep it manageable. A topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or narrow. One way
to narrow a broad topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic. Some common ways to
limit a topic are:

 By geographical area - Example: What environmental issues are most important in the
Southwestern United State
 By culture: Example: How does the environment fit into the Navajo world view?
 By time frame: Example: What are the most prominent environmental issues of the last 10
years?
 By discipline: Example: How does environmental awareness affect business practices
today?
 By population group: Example: What are the effects of air pollution on senior citizens?

Step 4: Make a List of Useful Keywords

20
Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic

 Look for words that best describe your topic

 Look for them in when reading encyclopedia articles and background and general
information

 Find broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key concepts for key words to widen your
search capabilities

 Make note of these words and use them later when searching databases and catalogs

Step 5: Be flexible

It is common to modify your topic during the research process. You can never be sure of what you
may find. You may find too much and need to narrow your focus, or too little and need to broaden
your focus. This is a normal part of the research process. When researching, you may not wish to
change your topic, but you may decide that some other aspect of the topic is more interesting or
manageable.

Keep in mind the assigned length of the research paper, project, bibliography or other research
assignment. Do appreciate the depth of coverage needed and the due date. These important factors
may help you decide how much and when you will modify your topic.

Step 6: Define Your Topic as a Focused Research Question

You will often begin with a word, develop a more focused interest in an aspect of something
relating to that word, and then begin to have questions about the topic.

Step 7: Research and Read More About Your Topic

Use the key words you have gathered to research in the catalog, article databases, and Internet
search engines. Find more information to help you answer your research question.

21
You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final topic. Can you find
enough information to answer your research question? Remember, selecting a topic is an important
and complex part of the research process.

Step 8: Formulate a Thesis Statement

Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research question and/or a
way to clearly state the purpose of your research. Your thesis statement will usually be one or two
sentences that states precisely what is to be answered, proven, or what you will inform your
audience about your topic.

The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the thesis statement.

The title of your paper may not be exactly the same as your research question or your thesis
statement, but the title should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your research.

WRITING A RESAECRH PROPOSAL

A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed research. It sets out
the central issues or questions that you intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within
which your research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge and any recent debates on
the topic.

It is a document that is typically written by a scientist or researcher which describes the ideas for
an investigation on a certain topic. The research proposal outlines the process from beginning to
end and may be used to request financing for the project, certification for performing certain parts
of the research of the experiment, or as a required task before beginning a college dissertation.

A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research project
and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal
should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficient
information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.

22
Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must
address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and how you
are going to do it.

The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have an
important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues,
and that your methodology is sound.

The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your proposed project,
but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research project may run the risk of
rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing is
coherent, clear and compelling

WHAT TO INCLUDE IN PROPOSAL WRITING

Title

It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation of . . ." could be
omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly
indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an informative
but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also predisposes him/her
favorably towards the proposal

RESEARCH ABSTRACT

23
It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research question, the
rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings. Descriptions of
the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used

Introduction

The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for your
research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal
writing

If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review, then the
research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in
the context of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become evident

Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame your research question just as there
is no prescription on how to write an interesting and informative opening paragraph. A lot depends
on your creativity, your ability to think clearly and the depth of your understanding of problem
areas

However, try to place your research question in the context of either a current "hot" area, or an
older area that remains viable. Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical
backdrop. Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which your proposed research question
occupies the central stage. Finally, identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant and
representative publications. In short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and at
the same time bring out its significance

The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a
specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed study.
The introduction generally covers the following elements:

1. State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study

2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show
its necessity and importance

24
 3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing

4. Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research

5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively,
specify the phenomenon you want to study

6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, you
may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null
hypothesis.)

7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear
focus

8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)

RESEARCH ABSTRACT

An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less, the major aspects of the
entire paper in a prescribed sequence that includes: 1) the overall purpose of the study and the
research problem(s) you investigated; 2) the basic design of the study; 3) major findings or trends
found as a result of your analysis; and, 4) a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions.

An abstract is a concise summary of a larger project (a thesis, research report, performance,

service project, etc.) that concisely describes the content and scope of the project and identifies the
project’s objective, its methodology and its findings, conclusions, or intended results.

Remember that your abstract is a description of your project (what you specifically are doing)
and not a description of your topic (whatever you’re doing the project on). It is easy to get these
two types of description confused. Since abstracts are generally very short, it’s important that you
don’t get bogged down in a summary of the entire background of your topic.

As you are writing your abstract, stop at the end of every sentence and make sure you are
summarizing the project you have undertaken rather than the more general topic.

25
WHAT TO INCLUDE IN AN ABSTRACT

Abstracts vary somewhat from discipline to discipline. However, every abstract should include
four main types of information.

1. It should state the main objective and rationale of your project,

2. It should outline the methods you used to accomplish your objectives,
3. It should list your project’s results or product (or projected or intended results or
product, if your project is not yet complete),
4. It should draw conclusions about the implications of your project

TYPES OF ABSTRACT

Critical Abstract

A critical abstract provides, in addition to describing main findings and information, a judgment
or comment about the study’s validity, reliability, or completeness. The researcher evaluates the
paper and often compares it with other works on the same subject. Critical abstracts are generally
400-500 words in length due to the additional interpretive commentary. These types of abstracts
are used infrequently.

Descriptive Abstract

A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments
about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key
words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research.
Essentially, the descriptive abstract only describes the work being abstracted. Some researchers
consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very
short, 100 words or less.

Informative Abstract

26
The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or evaluate a work, they
do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That
is, the researcher presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and
evidence in the paper. An informative abstract includes the information that can be found in a
descriptive abstract [purpose, methods, scope] it but also includes the results and conclusions of
the research and the recommendations of the author. The length varies according to discipline, but
an informative abstract is rarely more than 300 words in length.

Highlight Abstract

A highlight abstract is specifically written to attract the reader’s attention to the study. No pretence
is made of there being either a balanced or complete picture of the paper and, in fact, incomplete
and leading remarks may be used to spark the reader’s interest. In that a highlight abstract cannot
stand independent of its associated article, it is not a true abstract and, therefore, rarely used in
academic writing.

WRITING BACKGROUND TO A STUDY

Background information identifies and describes the history and nature of a well-defined research
problem with reference to the existing literature. Background information in your Introduction
should indicate the root of the problem being studied, its scope, and the extent to which previous
studies have successfully investigated the problem, noting, in particular, where gaps exist that your
study attempts to address. Introductory background information differs from a literature review
in that it places the research problem in proper context rather than thoroughly examining pertinent
literature.

Background information can also include summaries of important, relevant research findings. The
key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you
conduct your analysis. This is accomplished with a general review of the foundational research
literature (with citations) that report findings that inform your study's aims and objectives.

27
A good background study should help the reader appreciate and have relevant answers to the
following:
 What have been studied in the area (existing knowledge/findings)?
 What is yet to be studied in the area?
 What gap the background information brings about?
 What the study is going to consider?

WRITING BACKGROUND INFORMATION

As you might appreciate from the discussions of selecting a topic, background information is very
important as a starting point of every research. Background information identifies and describes
the history and nature of a well-defined research problem with reference to the existing literature.
Background information in your Introduction should indicate the root of the problem being
studied, its scope, and the extent to which previous studies have successfully investigated the
problem, noting, in particular, where gaps exist that your study attempts to address. Introductory
background information differs from a literature review in that it places the research problem in
proper context rather than thoroughly examining pertinent literature.

Background information expands upon the key points stated in your introduction but is not the
main focus of the paper. Sufficient background information helps your reader determine if you
have a basic understanding of the research problem being investigated and promotes confidence
in the overall quality of your analysis and findings.

Background information provides the reader with the essential context needed to understand the
research problem. Depending on the topic being studied, forms of contextualization may include:

Cultural: the issue placed within the learned behavior of specific groups of people. For example,
youth, customers, Ghanaians, tertiary students, mobile users etc.

Economic: information is of or relating to systems of production and management of material

wealth and/or business activities.

28
Historical: the time in which something takes place or was created and how that influences how
you interpret it.

Philosophical: clarification of the essential nature of being or of phenomena as it relates to the

research problem (read research philosophies this book).

Physical/Spatial: reflects the space around something and how that influences how you see it.

Political: concerns the environment in which something is produced indicating its public purpose
or agenda.

Social: the environment of people that surrounds something's creation or intended audience,
reflecting how the people around something use and interpret it.

Temporal: reflects issues or events of, relating to, or limited by time.

Background information can also include summaries of important, relevant research findings. The
key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you
conduct your analysis. This is accomplished with a general review of the foundational research
literature (with citations) that report findings that inform your study's aims and objectives.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER IN WRITING THE BACKGROUND

Given that the structure and writing style of your background information can vary depending
upon the complexity of your research and/or the nature of the assignment, the following are some
questions to consider while writing:

29
 1. Are there concepts, terms, theories, or ideas that may be unfamiliar to the reader and, thus,
require additional explanation?
2. Are there historical elements that need to be explored in order to add needed context, to
highlight specific people, issues, or events, or to lay a foundation for understanding the
emergence of a current issue or event?
3. Is the research study unusual in some way that requires additional explanation, such as, a)
your study uses a method never applied before to the research problem you are
investigating; b) your study investigates a very technical or complex research problem; or
c) your study relies upon analyzing unique texts or documents, such as archival materials
or primary documents like diaries or personal letters, that do not represent the established
body of source literature on the topic.

A careful reading and analysis of a background helps in appreciating the following.

 What have been studied in the area (existing knowledge/findings)
 What is yet to be studied in the area
 What gap the background information brings about
 What the study is going to consider

CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH PROBLEM

RESEARCH PROBLEM

30
After choosing an interesting topic, you have to identify and define the research problem (focusing
on the research problem), outline the research objectives and determine the relative research
questions. This should be followed by research objectives, research questions and/or research
hypothesis if necessary. These are subsequently discussed.

A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a

condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in
scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that point to a need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation.

A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or
present a value question.

In the business research, the research problem establishes the means by which you must answer
the "So What" question. The "So What" question refers to a research problem surviving the
relevancy test [the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy].
Note that answering the "So What" question requires a commitment on your part to not only show
that you have researched the material, but that you have thoroughly considered its significance.

TYPES AND CONTENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

There are four general conceptualizations of a research problem in the business and social sciences
fields:

31
 1. Casuist Research Problem -- this type of problem relates to the determination of right
and wrong in questions of conduct or conscience by analyzing moral dilemmas through the
application of general rules and the careful distinction of special cases.
2. Difference Research Problem -- typically asks the question: “Is there a difference
between two or more groups or treatments?” This type of problem statement is used when
the researcher compares or contrasts two or more phenomena. This a common approach to
defining a problem in the clinical social sciences or behavioral sciences.
3. Descriptive Research Problem -- typically asks the question, "what is...?" with the
underlying purpose to describe the significance of a situation, state, or existence of a
specific phenomenon. This problem is often associated with revealing hidden or
understudied issues.
4. Relational Research Problem -- suggests a relationship of some sort between two or more
variables to be investigated. The underlying purpose is to investigate
qualities/characteristics that are connected in one way or the other.

SOURCES OF PROBLEM FOR INVESTIGATION

The identification of a problem to study can be challenging, not because there's a lack of issues
that could be investigated, but due to the challenge of formulating an academically relevant and
researchable problem which is unique and does not simply duplicate the work of others (to fall
victim to plagiarism). To facilitate how you might select a problem from which to build a research
study, consider these sources of inspiration:

Deductions from Theory

This relates to deductions made from social philosophy or generalizations embodied in life and in
society that the researcher is familiar with. These deductions from human behavior are then placed
within an empirical frame of reference through research. From a theory, the researcher can
formulate a research problem or hypothesis stating the expected findings in certain empirical
situations. The research asks the question: “What relationship between variables will be observed
if theory aptly summarizes the state of affairs?” One can then design and carry out a systematic

32
investigation to assess whether empirical data confirm or reject the hypothesis, and hence, the
theory.

Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Identifying a problem that forms the basis for a research study can come from academic
movements and scholarship originating in disciplines outside of your primary area of study. This
can be an intellectually stimulating exercise. A review of pertinent literature should include
examining research from related disciplines that can reveal new avenues of exploration and
analysis. An interdisciplinary approach to selecting a research problem offers an opportunity to
construct a more comprehensive understanding of a very complex issue that any single discipline
may be able to provide.

Interviewing Practitioners

The identification of research problems about particular topics can arise from formal interviews or
informal discussions with practitioners who provide insight into new directions for future research
and how to make research findings more relevant to practice. Discussions with experts in the field,
such as, teachers, social workers, health care providers, lawyers, business leaders, etc., offers the
chance to identify practical, “real world” problems that may be understudied or ignored within
academic circles. This approach also provides some practical knowledge which may help in the
process of designing and conducting your study.

Personal Experience

Don't undervalue your everyday experiences or encounters as worthwhile problems for

investigation. Think critically about your own experiences and/or frustrations with an issue facing
33
society, your community, your neighborhood, your family, or your personal life. This can be
derived, for example, from deliberate observations of certain relationships for which there is no
clear explanation or witnessing an event that appears harmful to a person or group or that is out of
the ordinary.

Relevant Literature

The selection of a research problem can be derived from a thorough review of pertinent research
associated with your overall area of interest. This may reveal where gaps exist in understanding a
topic or where an issue has been understudied. Research may be conducted to: 1) fill such gaps in
knowledge; 2) evaluate if the methodologies employed in prior studies can be adapted to solve
other problems; or, 3) determine if a similar study could be conducted in a different subject area
or applied in a different context or to different study sample [i.e., different setting or different
group of people]. Also, authors frequently conclude their studies by noting implications for further
research; read the conclusion of pertinent studies because statements about further research can be
a valuable source for identifying new problems to investigate. The fact that a researcher has
identified a topic worthy of further exploration validates the fact it is worth pursuing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in which your research is centered,
gradually leading the reader to the more specific issues you are investigating. The statement need
not be lengthy, but a good research problem should incorporate the following features:

1. Compelling Topic

Simple curiosity is not a good enough reason to pursue a research study because it does not indicate
significance. The problem that you choose to explore must be important to you, your readers, and
to the larger academic and/or social community that could be impacted by the results of your study.
The problem chosen must be one that motivates you to address it.

34
2. Supports Multiple Perspectives

The problem must be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the
generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule of thumb in the social
sciences is that a good research problem is one that would generate a variety of viewpoints from
a composite audience made up of reasonable people.

3. Researchability

This isn't a real word but it represents an important aspect of creating a good research statement.
It seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in the midst of investigating a complex
research project and realize that you don't have enough prior research to draw from for your
analysis. There's nothing inherently wrong with original research, but you must choose research
problems that can be supported, in some way, by the resources available to you. If you are not sure
if something is researchable, don't assume that it isn't; if you don't find information right away--
seek help from an expert

WAYS TO FORMULATE THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Specify the Research Objectives

A clear statement of objectives will help you develop effective research.

35
It will help the decision makers evaluate your project. It is critical that you have manageable
objectives. (Two or three clear goals will help to keep your research project focused and relevant.)

Review the Environment or Context of the Research Problem

As a researcher, you must work closely with your team. This will help you determine whether the
findings of your project will produce enough information to be worth the cost.

In order to do this, you have to identify the environmental variables that will affect the research
project.

Explore the Nature of the Problem

Research problems range from simple to complex, depending on the number of variables and the
nature of their relationship.

If you understand the nature of the problem as a researcher, you will be able to better develop a
solution for the problem.

To help you understand all dimensions, you might want to consider focus groups of consumers,
sales people, managers, or professionals to provide what is sometimes much needed insight.

Define the Variable Relationships

Business plans often focus on creating a sequence of behaviors that occur over time, as in the
adoption of a new package design, or the introduction of a new product.

Such programs create a commitment to follow some behavioral pattern in the future.

Studying such a process involves:

 Determining which variables affect the solution to the problem.

 Determining the degree to which each variable can be controlled.
 Determining the functional relationships between the variables and which variables are
critical to the solution of the problem.

36
During the problem formulation stage, you will want to generate and consider as many courses of
action and variable relationships as possible.

The Consequences of Alternative Courses of Action

There are always consequences to any course of action. Anticipating and communicating the
possible outcomes of various courses of action is a primary responsibility in the research process.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

A "Problem Statement" is a description of a difficulty or lack that needs to be solved or at least

researched to see whether a solution can be found. It can also be described as either a gap between
the real and the desired or a contradiction between principle and practice.

The ultimate goal of a problem statement is to transform a generalized problem (something that
bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem (one that can be resolved
through focused research and careful decision-making).

Writing a Problem Statement should help you clearly identify the purpose of the project you will
propose. Often, the Problem Statement will also serve as the basis for the introductory section of
your final proposal, directing your readers’ attention quickly to the issues that your proposed
project will address and providing the reader with a concise statement of the proposed project
itself. A problem need not be long and windy. Half a page, to maximum one page is more than
enough for a good problem statement.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

A good problem statement should at best:

1. address a gap
2. be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3. be one that will lead to more research

37
 4. render itself to be investigated via collection of data
5. be interesting to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time and resources and be ethical

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION/DEFINITION

Problem Identification refers to seeing a problem before you can try solving it and it is the first
strategy for solving a problem. The best reply to a problem is by recognizing that a problem exists
and phrase it accurately to facilitate looking for a precise answer. Identification must show that the
problems:

 are measurable - quantifiable/testable

 are well-defined - no ambiguous language
 are useful in decision-making or in answering the overall problem
 are directly connected to one another--hypothesis is not only a plausible answer to the
research question but also directly answers the research question
 encompass the full scope of the problem - Have all the important or relevant questions been
asked?

THE PROBLEM-DEFINITION PROCESS

The problem-definition process involves the following interrelated steps:

 Identify key symptoms (Situation analysis)

 Identify key problem(s) from symptoms

38
  Write managerial decision statement and corresponding research objectives
 Determine the unit of analysis
 Determine the relevant variables
 Write research questions and/or research hypotheses

Identifying Symptoms (Situation Analysis)

Interviews with key decision makers can be one of the best ways to identify key problem
symptoms. Recall that all problems have symptoms just as human disease is diagnosed through
symptoms (for example, just as feverishness is a symptom of malaria; customer complaints may
be a symptom of customer dissatisfaction). Once symptoms are identified, then the researcher must
probe to identify possible causes of these changes. Probing is an interview technique that tries to
draw deeper and more elaborate explanations from the discussion. This discussion may involve
potential problem causes. This probing process will likely be very helpful in identifying key
variables that are prime candidates for study.

One of the most important questions the researcher can ask during these interviews is, “what has
changed?” Then, the researcher should probe to identify potential causes of the change. At the risk
of seeming repetitiveness, it is important that the researcher repeat this process to make sure that
some important change has not been left out. In addition, the researcher should look for changes
in company documents, including financial statements and operating reports. Changes may also
be identified by tracking down news about competitors and customers.

Identifying the Relevant Issues from the Symptoms

Anticipating the many influences and dimensions of a problem is impossible for any researcher. It
is always useful to translate the decision situation into a working problem definition by focusing
on symptoms. The probing process begins this process. However, the researcher needs to be more
certain that the research addresses real problems and not superficial symptoms. For instance, when

39
a firm has a problem with advertising effectiveness, the possible causes of this problem may be
low brand awareness, the wrong brand image, use of the wrong media, or perhaps too small a
budget. Certain occurrences that appear to be the problem may be only symptoms of a deeper
problem.

Writing Managerial Decision Statements and Corresponding Research Objectives

The situation analysis ends once researchers have a clear idea of the managerial objectives from
the research effort. Decision statements capture these objectives in a way that invites multiple
solutions. Multiple solutions are encouraged by using plural nouns to describe solutions. In other
words, a decision statement that says in what “ways” a problem can be solved is better than one
that says in what “way” a problem can be solved. Ultimately, research may provide evidence
showing results of several ways a problem can be addressed.

Determine the Unit of Analysis

The unit of analysis for a study indicates what or who should provide the data and at what level
of aggregation. Researchers specify whether an investigation will collect data about individuals
(such as customers, employees, and owners), households (families, extended families, etc.),
organizations (businesses and business units), departments (sales, finance, etc.), geographical
areas, or objects (products, advertisements, etc.). In studies of home buying, for example, the
husband/wife typically together is the unit of analysis rather than the individual because many
purchase decisions are made jointly by husband and wife.

Researchers who think carefully and creatively about situations often discover that a problem can
be investigated at more than one level of analysis. For example, a lack of worker productivity
could be due to problems that face individual employees or it could reflect problems that are
present in entire business units. Determining the unit of analysis should not be overlooked during
the problem-definition stage of the research.

Determine Relevant Variables

40
There are several key terms that help describe types of variables. The variance in variables is
captured either with numerical differences or by an identified category membership. In addition,
different terms describe whether a variable is a potential cause or an effect. A continuous variable
is one that can take on a range of values that correspond to some quantitative amount. Consumer
attitude toward different airlines is a variable that would generally be captured by numbers, with
higher numbers indicating a more positive attitude than lower numbers.

Each attribute of airlines’ services, such as safety, seat comfort, and baggage handling can be
numerically scored in this way. Sales volume, profits, and margin are common business metrics
that represent continuous variables.

A categorical variable is one that indicates membership in some group. The term classificatory
variable is sometimes also used and is generally interchangeable with categorical variable.
Categorical variables sometimes represent quantities that take on only a small number of values
(one, two, or three). However, categorical variables more often simply identify membership. For
example, people can be categorized as either male or female. A variable representing biological
sex describes this important difference. The variable values can be an “M” for membership in the
male category and an “F” for membership in the female category. Alternatively, the researcher
could assign a “0” for men and a “1” for women. In either case, the same information is
represented.

A dependent variable is a process outcome or a variable that is predicted and/or explained by other
variables. An independent variable is a variable that is expected to influence the dependent
variable in some way. Such variables are independent in the sense that they are determined outside
of the process being studied. That is another way of saying that dependent variables do not change
independent variables. For example, average customer loyalty may be a dependent variable that is
influenced or predicted by an independent variable such as perceptions of restaurant food quality,
service quality, and customer satisfaction.

Write Research Objectives and Questions

41
Both managers and researchers expect problem-definition efforts to result in statements of research
questions and research objectives. At the end of the problem-definition stage, the researcher should
prepare a written statement that clarifies any ambiguity about what the research hopes to
accomplish.

CHAPTER FIVE

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES, QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES, LIMITATIONS,

DELIMITATIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE

WRITING THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

42
Research objectives are a specification of the ultimate reason for carrying out research in the first
place. Objectives help in developing a specific list of information needs. Only when the researcher
knows the problem that the study wants to solve can the research project be designed to provide
the pertinent information.

Research objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem and summarize what
the researcher hopes to achieved by the study. For example, if the problem identified is low
employee productivity, the general objective of the study could be to investigate the reasons for
this low productivity, in order to find ways of improving it.

USEFULNESS OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Writing your research objectives clearly helps to:

 Define the focus of your study

 Clearly identify variables to be measured

 Indicate the various steps to be involved

 Establish the limits of the study

 Avoid collection of any data that is not strictly necessary.

DISTINGUISHING GENERAL FROM SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

Objectives can be general or specific. The general objective of your study states what you expect
to achieve in general terms. Specific objectives break down the general objective into smaller,
logically connected parts that systematically address the various aspects of the problem. Your
specific objectives should specify exactly what you will do in each phase of the study, how, where,
when and for what purpose.

43
Research objectives must be stated using action verbs that are specific enough to be measurable.
For example: to compare, to calculate, to assess, to determine, to verify, to calculate, to describe,
to explain, to identify, to establish, to develop, to analyze, etc.

It is not advisable to use vague non-active verbs such as: to appreciate, to understand, to believe,
to study, etc. This is because it is difficult to evaluate whether they have been achieved. Objectives
should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and timely, so that research problem could be
explored effectively.

EXAMPLE

A research study meant to assess the accessibility and acceptability of the Voluntary Counseling
and Testing (VCT) Services for HIV infection in Ghana had the following general and specific
objectives:

General Objective: To identify factors that affects the acceptability of VCT services and to assess
community attitudes towards comprehensive care and support for people living with HIV/AIDS.

Specific objectives:

 To assess the attitude of the community towards HIV/AIDS and VCT services.

 To evaluate the practice of the community towards HIV/AIDS and VCT services.

 To identify barriers related to VCT and its uptake.

 To assess the awareness and perception of the study community regarding comprehensive
care and support for people living with HIV/AIDS.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, complex and arguable question around which a
research is centered. A research question is a question that can be answered directly through
scientific research. Research question should be stated about issues that the researcher finds
relevant and interesting. Research questions help investigators focus their research by providing
a path through the research and writing process. The specificity of a well-developed research

44
question helps researchers avoid the “general knowledge” paper and work toward supporting a
specific, arguable, measurable, solvable, answerable and well-articulated project.

HOW TO DEVELOP GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

 Researchers should begin by identifying a broader subject of interest that lends itself to
investigation. For example, a researcher may be interested in employee commitment.
 The next step is to do preliminary research on the general topic to find out what research
has already been done and what literature already exists. How much research has been
done on employee commitment? What types of studies? Is there a unique area that is yet
to be investigated or is there a particular question that may be worth replicating?
 Then begin to narrow the topic by asking open-ended "how" and "why" questions. For
example, a researcher may want to consider the factors that are contributing to employee
commitment or the success rate of motivational programs. Create a list of potential
questions for consideration and choose one that interests you and provides an opportunity
for exploration.
 Finally, evaluate the question by using the following list of guidelines:
o Is the research question one that is of interest to the researcher and potentially to
others? Is it a new issue or problem that needs to be solved or is it attempting to
shed light on previously researched topic.
o Is the research question researchable? Consider the available time frame and the
required resources. Is the methodology to conduct the research feasible?
o Is the research question measureable and will the process produce data that can be
supported or contradicted?
o Is the research question too broad or too narrow?

EXAMPLE OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS

For example, if you choose juvenile delinquency (a topic that can be researched), you might ask
the following questions:

45
 a) What is the 2010 rate of juvenile delinquency in Ghana?
b) What can we do to reduce juvenile delinquency in Ghana?
c) Does education play a role in reducing juvenile delinquents' return to crime?

Once you complete your list, review your questions in order to choose a usable one that is neither
too broad nor too narrow. In this example, the best research question is "c."

 Question "a" is too narrow, since it can be answered with a simple statistic.
 Question "b" is too broad; it implies that the researcher will cover many tactics for reducing
juvenile delinquency that could be used throughout the country.
 Question "c," on the other hand, is focused enough to research in some depth.

RESEARCH PROPOSITIONS AND HYPOTHESES

The terms proposition and hypothesis both refer to the formulation of a possible answer to a
specific research question. In particular, a proposition deals with the connection between two
existing concepts. The main difference between the two is that a hypothesis must be testable,
measurable and falsifiable, while a proposition deals with pure concepts for which no laboratory
test is currently available.

46
PROPOSITIONS

A proposition is similar to a hypothesis, but its main purpose is to suggest a link between two
concepts in a situation where the link cannot be verified by experiment. As a result, it relies heavily
on prior research, reasonable assumptions and existing correlative evidence. A researcher can use
a proposition to spur further research on a question or pose one in hopes that further evidence or
experimental methods will be discovered that will make it a testable hypothesis. For example, we
might propose that treating our employees better will make them more loyal employees. This is
certainly a logical link between managerial actions and employee reactions.

By suggesting a link between two concepts, a scientific proposition can suggest promising areas
of inquiry for researchers. In areas of study where valid hypotheses can rarely be made, a
proposition may serve as a common assumption that can support further speculation. This can
occur in extremely complex systems, such as those dealt with by sociology and economics, where
an experimental test would be prohibitively expensive or difficult. Propositions are also valuable
in areas of study in which little hard evidence remains, such as archeological studies in which only
fragments of evidence have been discovered.

HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or

event. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may include a prediction. A hypothesis
should not be confused with a theory. Theories are general explanations based on a large amount
of data. For example, the theory of motivation applies to all types of motivation and is based on
wide range of observations. However, there are many things about motivation that are not fully

47
understood such as gaps in the process and content theories of motivation. Many hypotheses have
been proposed and tested in this area to contribute to the understanding of the theory.

Usually, a hypothesis is based on some previous observation such as noticing that in December
many products’ prices go up and the average purchases drop. Are these two events (price and
quantity purchase) connected? How?

Hypothesis is an educated guess based on research and working knowledge. For a hypothesis to
be considered valid, it must make a prediction that scientists can test using a repeatable experiment.
If a hypothesis cannot be falsified through experimentation, it cannot be considered part of a valid
scientific theory.

STEPS TO WRITING A HYPOTHESIS

The best way to develop a hypothesis is in a three-step process. This will help you to narrow things
down, and is the most reliable method to correctly achieve a testable hypothesis:

 The general hypothesis states the general relationship between the major variables.
 The directional hypothesis refines the general hypothesis by stating the direction of the
difference or relationship.
 The measurable hypothesis finalizes the direction in more specific terms and uses the
correct If...then...because format. It avoids using words like I, think, believe, all, never,
and sometimes because these words may either personalize it or are too vague and will
result in too broad of an area to research.

EXAMPLE OF A THREE-STEP HYPOTHESES

Hetty has noticed that JHS 3 girls seem to get better grades on Life skills tests such as written

quizzes:

Hetty writes a general hypothesis which states:

48
"Boys and girls receive different grades on organizational skills tests."

Do you notice how general this hypothesis is? Do you see that it does not state the direction of the
difference?

Hetty later writes a directional hypothesis which states:

"Girls get better grades than boys on tests of organizational abilities."

Do you see that she has now given a direction of the relationship, i.e. girls do better than boys?
However, this hypothesis is not measurable in its current form.

Hetty finally writes a measurable hypothesis in the correct If...then...because format.

The measurable hypothesis states:

"If JHS 3 girls take written quizzes, then they will receive significantly higher grades than
eighth grade boys because eighth grade girls have better writing skills."

Do you see that Hetty has added specific details that make the hypothesis measureable? What
difference will you measure? The differences in scores on written quizzes between JHS boys and
JHS 3 girls. You should also see that the hypothesis is specific to JHS.

ERRORS IN HYPOTHESES

Type I (Also Known As ‘α’) And Type II (Also Known As ‘β’) Errors

An investigator’s conclusion may not always be right. Sometimes, by chance alone, a sample is
not representative of the population. Thus the results in the sample do not reflect reality in the
population, and the random error leads to an erroneous inference. This leads to an error in
hypothesis.

49
A type I error (false-positive) occurs if an investigator rejects a null hypothesis that is actually true
in the population.

A type II error (false-negative) occurs if the investigator fails to reject a null hypothesis that is
actually false in the population.

Although type I and type II errors can never be avoided entirely, the researcher can reduce their
likely occurrence by increasing the sample size (the larger the sample, the lesser is the likelihood
that it will differ substantially from the population).

False-positive and false-negative results can also occur because of bias (observer, instrument,
recall, etc.). It is worthy to note that errors due to bias, however, are not referred to as type I and
type II errors.) Such errors are troublesome, since they may be difficult to detect and cannot usually
be quantified.

In a hypothesis test, a type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact
true; that is, H0 is wrongly rejected. For example, in a test marketing of a new drug, the null
hypothesis might be that the new drug is no better, on average, than the current drug; that is H 0:
there is no difference between the two drugs on average. A type I error would occur if the
researcher concludes that the two drugs produced different effects when in fact there was no
difference between them. This probability of a type I error can be precisely computed as:

P (type I error) = significance level = α

In a hypothesis test, a type II error occurs when the null hypothesis H0, is not rejected when it is
in fact false. For example, in a test marketing of a new drug, the null hypothesis might be that the
new drug is no better, on average, than the current drug; that is H0: there is no difference between
the two drugs on average. A type II error is frequently due to sample sizes being too small. The
probability of a type II error is symbolized by β and written:

P (type II error) = β (but is generally unknown).

50
 LIMITATION AND DELIMITATION OF RESEARCH

The limitations and delimitations section of a research project describes situations and
circumstances that may affect or restrict the methods and analysis of research data (while some
will expect these to be in the introductory chapter, others shall like it at the concluding chapter).

LIMITATION

51
They are influences that the researcher cannot control. They are the shortcomings, conditions or
influences that cannot be controlled by the researcher that place restrictions on the outcome of the
study. Limitations are conditions that restrict the scope of the study or may affect the outcome and
cannot be controlled by the researcher. An example of a limitation is that a school district might
only allow the researcher to collect data during a certain time of the school year, or that selected
participants might not answer truthfully or at all (this is likely to affect the data collection as the
right people may not be available at those times to answer the questions). Any limitations that
might influence the results should be mentioned by the research.

In qualitative research certain limitations might mean that the findings cannot be generalized to
the larger population. This is especially true when the definition of the population is broad
(e.g.: elderly women).

Delimitations define the parameters of the investigation. In business research the delimitations will
frequently deal with such items as population/sample, theory(ies), setting, and methodology.

DELIMITATIONS

They are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned. Delimitations are restrictions
or boundaries that researchers impose prior to the inception of the study to narrow the scope of a
study. For example, the study might be delimited to Southern Ghana or to survey only female
students in tertiary institutions in Ghana.

Delimitations describe the boundaries that the research has set for the study. The delimitation of
the study captures:

 the things that you are not doing (and why you have chosen not to do them).
 the literature you will not review (and why not).
 the population you are not studying (and why not).
 the methodological procedures you will not use (and why you will not use them).

52
SIGNIFICANCE OF A RESEARCH

The significance of a study should include how the research project benefits or impacts others in
part or whole. It may include such issues as:

 What people or groups of people might benefit from reading your research.
 How the project is significant to developing a body of knowledge.
 How the investigation will contribute to a portion of a larger investigation (describe that
larger investigation as well).

 If you are doing basic research, then you are doing research to construct new knowledge
for the sake of theory. Its design is not controlled by the practical usefulness of the
findings. It is experimental and theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge
without looking for long-term benefits other than the advancement of knowledge.
 If you are doing applied research, then you are doing research to show how the findings
can be applied or summarized into some type of methodology in order to solve practical
problems.
 If you are doing practical research, then you are going one step beyond applied
research and applying the findings of your research to a specific "practical" situation like
an action research project or a clinical trial.

Some questions to help write the significance of a research may include:

 Why is this work important?

 What are the implications of doing it?
 How does it link to other knowledge?
 How does it stand to inform policy making? Save money? Improve or reduce something?
 Why is it important to our understanding of the world?
 What new perspective will you bring to the topic?
 What use might your final research paper have for others in this field or in the general
public?
 Who might you decide to share your findings with once the project is complete?

53
Significance may also concern itself with issues such as how the project:

 may resolve lingering questions or gaps in knowledge in your field of study

 may develop better theoretical models in your area
 may influence public policy
 may change the way people do their jobs in a particular field, or may change the way people
live.

CHAPTER SIX

LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature review is always an important aspect of a research project. Sometimes the literature
review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most researchers prefer a separate
section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature.

54
A literature review is a text of a scholarly paper, which includes the current knowledge including
substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic.
Literature reviews are secondary sources, and do not report new or original experimental work.

The aim of a literature review is to show the reader that you have read, and have a good grasp of
the main published work concerning a particular topic or question in the field under study. This
work may be in any format, including online sources. It may be a separate assignment, or one of
the introductory sections of a report, dissertation or thesis. In the latter cases in particular, the
review will be guided by your research objective or by the issue or thesis you are arguing and will
provide the framework for your further work.

Review should not be simply a description of what others have published in the form of a set of
summaries, but should take the form of a critical discussion, showing insight and an awareness of
differing arguments, theories and approaches. It should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant
published work, linked at all times to your own purpose and rationale.

In other words a literature review is not a catalogue of literature in which you summarize briefly
each article or book that you have reviewed. While a summary of what you have read is contained
within the literature review, it goes well beyond merely summarizing professional literature.

According to Caulley (1992), the literature review should:

• compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue

• group authors who draw similar conclusions
• criticize aspects of methodology
• note areas in which authors are in disagreement
• highlight exemplary studies
• highlight gaps in research
• show how your study relates to previous studies
• show how your study relates to the literature in general
• conclude by summarizing what the literature says

PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

55
The purpose of a literature review is to:

 Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem
being studied.
 Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
 Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
 Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
 Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
 Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
 Locate your own research within the context of existing literature

IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

 Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel"

 Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research
 Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem
 Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your
research question
 Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information
 Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature
 Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework
for your research
 Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial
contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major
gap in the literature).

TYPES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Argumentative Review

56
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose
is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden
nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control],
argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of
discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make
summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review

Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on
a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated.
The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research
problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard
to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review

Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on
examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept,
theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a
discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-
of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review

A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying
what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of
understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and
data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge

57
ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of
ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling,
interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which
you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.

Systematic Review

This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research
question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise
relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the
review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-
effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review

The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an
issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what
theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have
been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help
establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining
new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a
whole theory or framework.

WAYS TO ORGANISE YOUR LITERATURE

Writing of literature may follow different styles depending of the requirement of your faculty or
professor.

Chronology of Events

If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to
when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research

58
building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological
order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about
the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union.

By Publication

Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more
important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of
brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of
the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies.

Thematic [“conceptual categories”]

Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of
time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. For
example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the
development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact
on American presidential politics, it will still be organized chronologically reflecting technological
developments in media. The only difference here between a "chronological" and a "thematic"
approach is what is emphasized the most: the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note
however that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A
review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according
to the point made.

Methodological
A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in
American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural
differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French
websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular

59
political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review
or the way in which these documents are discussed.

THEORY

A theory is a generalization about a phenomenon; an explanation of how or why something

occurs. Indeed, any statements that explain what is measured or described, any general statements
about cause or effect, are theory based, at least implicitly.

"What give a theory its power are not the declarative statements it consists of but rather the
relationship among those statements. It is the form of the relationship among statements rather
than the individual statements themselves that distinguish between theory and description."
Functions of theory are to Describe, Explain, Predict, or Control human phenomena in a variety
of contexts.

A theory can be built through a process of reviewing previous findings of similar studies, simple
logical deduction, and/or knowledge of applicable theoretical areas. For example, if a Marketer is
trying to decide what packaging is most effective in increasing online sales, he may first consult
previous studies examining the effects of label on package design and retail store design. He may
also find theories that deal with the wavelength of different packaging designs, affective response
to packaging, or those that explain retail atmospherics. This may lead to the specific prediction
that blue is the most effective background color for a package design.

CONCEPTS

Concepts are the building blocks of theory. In organizational theory, leadership, productivity, and
morale are concepts. In the theory of finance, gross national product, risk aversion, and inflation
are frequently used concepts. Accounting concepts include assets, liabilities, and depreciation. In
marketing, customer satisfaction, market share, and loyalty are important concepts. A concept or
construct is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that
has been given a name. If you, as an organizational theorist, were to describe phenomena such as

60
supervisory behavior or risk aversion, you would categorize empirical events or real things into
concepts.

Concepts are abstract reality. That is, concepts express in words various events or objects.
Concepts, however, may vary in degree of abstraction. For example, the concept of an asset is an
abstract term that may, in the concrete world of reality, refer to a wide variety of things, including
a specific punch press machine in a production shop.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Many students, both in the undergraduate and graduate levels, have difficulty discriminating the
theoretical from the conceptual framework. This requires a good understanding of both
frameworks in order to conduct a good investigation. This book explains the two concepts in easily
understandable language.

Any research topic has multiple perspectives to it. The researcher, however, cannot focus on all
the viewpoints simultaneously. He has to put forth a logical structure that the research will follow
by setting down the broad areas that will be covered. This is called the framework of the research.
The research framework, essentially, helps the researcher retain a sharp focus on the work. it may

61
be theoretical or conceptual. The difference between theoretical framework and conceptual
framework can be better appreciated in terms of their definition, objectives, components and scope.

When there is any topic to be researched, there are certain theories associated with it. These
theories are generalized observations of the researcher himself or well-established theories
propounded on the topic by earlier researchers.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A research framework based on theory is called a theoretical framework and consists of an

interrelated coherent set of ideas and models. It establishes the vantage point or perspective
through which the researcher views the problem. Conceptual framework is used by researchers to
guide their inquiry and presents the research in relation to the relevant literature.

The objective of forming a theoretical framework is to define a broad framework within which a
researcher may work. The theoretical framework enhances overall clarity of the research. It also
helps the researcher get through the research faster as he has to look only for information within
the theoretical framework, and not follow up any other information he finds on the topic.

A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing
theory/theories that are used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must
demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of
your research paper and that will relate it to the broader fields of knowledge in the discipline you
are considering.

IMPORTANCE OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways.

1. An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them

critically.

62
 2. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a
relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
3. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions
of why and how. It permits you to move from simply describing a phenomenon observed
to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
4. Having a theory helps you to identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical
framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest. It alerts you
to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.

HOW TO WRITE A GOOD THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

In writing this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your
study. This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field, who have conducted research on
the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the
formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively
unknown or it is borrowed from another discipline.

Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks,

concepts, models, or theories. There will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can
be used to help develop a framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why
the framework you have chosen is the appropriate one.

The present tense is used when writing about theory.

You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible. Later, your discussion
of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.

Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such
a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to
understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitations of the theoretical

63
framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation
because the theory does not explain a certain phenomena].

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The conceptual framework may summarize the major dependent and independent variables in the
research and the relation between them. Conceptual framework is the operationalization of the
theoretical framework.

The main objective in forming a conceptual framework is to help the researcher give direction to
the research. The conceptual framework identifies the research tools and methods that may be used
to carry out the research effectively.

A conceptual framework is a tool researchers use to guide their inquiry; it is a set of ideas used to
structure the research, a sort of map that may include the research question, the literature review,
methods and data analysis. Researchers use a conceptual framework to guide their data collection
and analysis.

A conceptual framework enables the researcher to find links between the existing literature and
his own research goals. If, for example, a researcher was looking at why women stay with violent
men then she might want to look at theories of identity to establish whether certain personality
types are more likely to be battered and why?

A conceptual framework is often represented by a model, which helps spell out the variables
worthy of consideration in the project. The example below is a model denoting a conceptual
framework of a research project, showing how knowledge may be developed and how it will
contribute to the field of knowledge.

64
 CHAPTER SEVEN

RESEARCH METHODS

INTRODUCTION

Methodology is the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study.
Typically, it encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model, phases and quantitative
or qualitative techniques.

The first thing to get absolutely clear is that research method and research methodology are not
the same thing! A research method is a way of conducting and implementing research. Research
methodology is the science and philosophy behind all research.

The method section describes the rationale for the application of specific procedures or techniques
used to identify, select, and analyze information applied to understanding the research problem,

65
thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. The
method section of a research project answers two main questions: How was the data collected or
generated? And, how was it analyzed? The writing should be direct and precise and always written
in the past tense.

There are two main groups of research methods in the social sciences:

1. The empirical-analytical group approaches the study of social sciences in a similar

manner that researchers study the natural sciences. This type of research focuses on
objective knowledge, research questions that can be answered yes or no, and operational
definitions of variables to be measured. The empirical-analytical group employs deductive
reasoning that uses existing theory as a foundation for formulating hypotheses that need to
be tested. This approach is focused on explanation.
2. The interpretative group of methods is focused on understanding phenomenon in a
comprehensive, holistic way. Interpretive methods focus on analytically disclosing the
meaning-making practices of human subjects [the why, how, or by what means people do
what they do], while showing how those practices arrange so that it can be used to generate
observable outcomes. Interpretive methods allow you to recognize your connection to the
phenomena under study but, because the interpretative group focuses more on subjective
knowledge, it requires careful interpretation of variables.

THE STRUCTURE OF METHODOLOGY

The writing for the method should be clear and direct, concise and straight to the point. The major
point is not to stray off into irrelevance, and this process is helped by making a few basic
assumptions.

Whilst there are slightly different variations according to the exact type of research, the
methodology can be divided into a few sections.

An effectively written methodology section should:

66
 Introduce the overall methodological approach for investigating your research
problem. Is your study qualitative or quantitative or a combination of both (mixed
method)? Are you going to take a special approach, such as action research, or a more
neutral stance?
 Indicate how the approach fits the overall research design. Your methods should have
a clear connection with your research problem. In other words, make sure that your
methods will actually address the problem. One of the most common deficiencies found in
research papers is that the proposed methodology is not suitable to achieving the stated
objective of your paper.
 Describe the specific methods of data collection you are going to use, such as, surveys,
interviews, questionnaires, observation, archival research. If you are analyzing existing
data, such as a data set or archival documents, describe how it was originally created or
gathered and by whom.
 Explain how you intend to analyze your results. Will you use statistical analysis? Will
you use specific theoretical perspectives to help you analyze a text or explain observed
behaviors? Describe how you plan to obtain an accurate assessment of relationships,
patterns, trends, distributions, and possible contradictions found in the data.
 Provide background and a rationale for methodologies that are unfamiliar for your
readers. Very often in the social sciences, research problems and the methods for
investigating them require more explanation/rationale than widely accepted rules
governing the natural and physical sciences. Be clear and concise in your explanation.
 Provide a justification for subject selection and sampling procedure. For instance, if
you propose to conduct interviews, how do you intend to select the sample population? If
you are analyzing texts, which texts have you chosen, and why? If you are using statistics,
why is this set of statistics being used? If other data sources exist, explain why the data you
chose is most appropriate to addressing the research problem.
 Describe potential limitations. Are there any practical limitations that could affect your
data collection? How will you attempt to control for potential confounding variables and
errors? If your methodology may lead to problems you can anticipate, state this openly and
show why pursuing this methodology outweighs the risk of these problems cropping up.

67
RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is a detailed outline of how an investigation will take place. A research design
will typically include how data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed, how the
instruments will be used and the intended means for analyzing data collected.

Thus research design begins with identifying the types of research to undertake, then continuous
with the data to be collected for the study.
Thus research design begins with identifying the types of research to undertake, then continuous
with the data to be collected for the study.

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to effectively
address the research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social sciences research, obtaining
evidence relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed
to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe a phenomenon.

However, researchers can often begin their investigations far too early, before they have thought
critically about what information is required to answer the study's research questions. Without
attending to these design issues beforehand, the conclusions drawn risk being weak and
unconvincing and, consequently, will fail to adequately address the overall research problem.

The length and complexity of research designs can vary considerably, but any good design will do
the following things:

 Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,

 Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
 Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem
selected,
 Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the hypotheses
and explain how such data will be obtained, and
 Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining whether
or not the hypotheses are true or false.

68
The choice of research strategy, that is, how a piece of research will be carried out in practice is
fundamentally related to the nature of the research question(s) asked. For example, we may simply
be interested in what percentage of spectators between ages 20 and 30 attends to the stadium to
watch a football match but are not interested in why they go to the stadium. In this case we require
a simple descriptive research design which will be based upon collecting a very narrow set of data.

On the other hand, if we are also interested in why they go to the stadium, then we require, at the
very least, an exploratory research design which will include detailed surveys and analyses.
Therefore, the nature of the research questions largely determines how the research itself will be
implemented. The degree to which we are able to answer these questions will further depend on
the depth of the research.

It is worthy to note that there are various types of research design in social research. However this
book limits itself to discussion of a few of such designs.

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

Action Research Design

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an
exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are
made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out (the "action"
in Action Research) during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The
new interventional strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats, continuing until a
sufficient understanding of (or a valid implementation solution for) the problem is achieved. The
protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given
situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through
several interventions and evaluations.

Features of Action Research

 This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or
community situations.
69
  Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing
theories.
 When practitioners use action research, it has the potential to increase the amount they
learn consciously from their experience; the action research cycle can be regarded as a
learning cycle.
 Action research studies often have direct and obvious relevance to improving practice and
advocating for change.
 There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

Case Study Design

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical
survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field
of research into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also
useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real
world. It is a useful design when not much is known about an issue or phenomenon.

Features of Case Study Research

 Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed

contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
 A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and rely on a
variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
 Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous
research.
 Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine
contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and
theories and the extension of methodologies.
 The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.

Causal Design

70
Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional
statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to measure what impact a
specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal
explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect (homothetic perspective) occurs when
variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation
in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

Conditions necessary for determining causality:

 Empirical association -- a valid conclusion is based on finding an association between the

independent variable and the dependent variable.
 Appropriate time order -- to conclude that causation was involved, one must see that cases
were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation in the dependent
variable.
 Non-spuriousness -- a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a
third variable.

Features

 Causality research designs assist researchers in understanding why the world works the
way it does through the process of proving a causal link between variables and by the
process of eliminating other possibilities.
 Replication is possible.
 There is greater confidence the study has internal validity due to the systematic subject
selection and equity of groups being compared.

Cross Sectional Design

Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension; a reliance on
existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are selected based on
existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure
differences between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a

71
process of change. As such, researchers using this design can only employ a relatively passive
approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

Features

 Cross-sectional studies provide a clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics
associated with it, at a specific point in time.
 Unlike an experimental design, where there is an active intervention by the researcher to
produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-sectional designs focus on
studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects, or
phenomena.
 Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal studies
involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-sectional research
is focused on finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.
 Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the
sample rather than seeking random sampling.
 Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects and, unlike
observational studies, are not geographically bound.
 Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually taken from
the whole population.
 Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, they are
relatively inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where,
and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively
ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current
status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a
situation.

Features

72
  The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment.
True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal
behavior of the subject [a.k.a., the Heisenberg effect whereby measurements of certain
systems cannot be made without affecting the systems].
 Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitative research designs
with the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth
testing quantitatively.
 If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more focused
study.
 Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations in practice.
 Approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.

Experimental Design

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that
may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict
what may occur. Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a causal
relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will
always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic
experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control group. The independent
variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups
are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more
groups and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control,
randomization, and manipulation.

Features

 Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows
researchers to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?”
 Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to
distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.

73
  Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to
infer direct causal relationships in the study.
 Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.

Exploratory Design

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier
studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome. The focus is on gaining insights and
familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary stage
of investigation. Exploratory designs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to
proceed in studying an issue or what methodology would effectively apply to gathering
information about the issue.

The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:

 Familiarity with basic details, settings, and concerns.

 Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
 Generation of new ideas and assumptions.
 Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
 Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
 Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research
questions.
 Direction for future research and techniques get developed.

Feature

 Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.

 Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why,
how).
 Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
 Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise
research problems.

74
  In the policy arena or applied to practice, exploratory studies help establish research
priorities and where resources should be allocated.

Longitudinal Design

A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations. For
example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is interviewed at regular intervals,
enabling researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to variables that might explain
why the changes occur. Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help
establish the direction and magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each
variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in
variables over time. It is a type of observational study sometimes referred to as a panel study.

Features

 Longitudinal data facilitate the analysis of the duration of a particular phenomenon.

 Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations usually
attainable only with experiments.
 The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from one period
to another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
 Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon earlier factors.

Mixed Method Design

Mixed methods research represents more of an approach to examining a research problem than a
methodology. Mixed method is characterized by a focus on research problems that require:
 an examination of real-life contextual understandings, multi-level perspectives, and
cultural influences;
 an intentional application of rigorous quantitative research assessing magnitude and
frequency of constructs and rigorous qualitative research exploring the meaning and
understanding of the constructs; and,

75
  an objective of drawing on the strengths of quantitative and qualitative data gathering
techniques to formulate a holistic interpretive framework for generating possible solutions
or new understandings of the problem.

Tashakkori and Creswell (2007) and other proponents of mixed methods argue that the design
encompasses more than simply combining qualitative and quantitative methods but, rather,
reflects a new "third way" epistemological paradigm that occupies the conceptual space
between positivism and interpretivism.

Features

 Narrative and non-textual information can add meaning to numeric data, while numeric
data can add precision to narrative and non-textual information.
 Can utilize existing data while at the same time generating and testing a grounded theory
approach to describe and explain the phenomenon under study.
 A broader, more complex research problem can be investigated because the researcher is
not constrained by using only one method.
 The strengths of one method can be used to overcome the inherent weaknesses of another
method.
 Can provide stronger, more robust evidence to support a conclusion or set of
recommendations.
 May generate new knowledge new insights or uncover hidden insights, patterns, or
relationships that a single methodological approach might not reveal.
 Produces more complete knowledge and understanding of the research problem that can
be used to increase the generalizability of findings applied to theory or practice.

Observational Design

This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group, in
cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two general types of
observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are watching them.
Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying behavior where individuals do not know

76
they are being observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and
avoids the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project.

Features

1. Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured
around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe [data is emergent rather than pre-
existing].
2. The researcher is able to collect in-depth information about a particular behavior.
3. Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group interactions.
4. You can generalize your results to real life situations.
5. Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important before
applying other methods like experiments.
6. Observation research designs account for the complexity of group behaviors.

DATA COLLECTION METHOD

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can
impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.

Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this
continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are Qualitative methods
for data collection.

SOURCES OF DATA
Data are the facts and figures collected for records or any statistical investigation. Variable is the
characteristic of study which may vary, for example, age, gender, height, employment status,
income etc.

77
There are primarily two sources of information normally used for research purposes: primary and
secondary sources of data.

Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are those which are made available or have been collected for other research
purposes. Within secondary data exploration, a researcher should start first with an organization’s
own data archives. Reports of prior research studies often reveal an extensive amount of historical
data or decision-making patterns.

Secondary sources are usually studies by other researchers. They describe, analyze, and/or evaluate
information found in primary sources. By repackaging information, secondary sources make
information more accessible. A few examples of secondary sources are books, journal and
magazine articles, encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, periodical indexes, etc.

The advantages of using secondary data are:

 Large representative samples well beyond the resources of the individual researcher are
available.
 Good for examining longitudinal data and looking for trends.
 Supporting documentation and explanation of methodology, sampling strategy, data
codes are given.
 The researcher can concentrate on data analysis and interpretation.

The disadvantages of secondary data are:

 Data compatibility; does the information match what is required for your research?
 Data coverage; does the information cover all subjects or groups in your research?
 There can be depth limitation in that you may see a trend in a time series but there may be
no data available to allow investigation of the reasons or consequences.
 Does the information come from all time periods or are there gaps?
 Consistency of time series.
 Historical and therefore may not be relevant to current issues.
 Need to assess the quality of the data and the approach used in initial gathering of the data.
You must consider the authenticity of the data and the source.

78
Primary Sources

Primary sources are those in which we need to conduct a new survey for gathering information at
different levels with regard to the inquiry.

Primary sources are original works. These sources represent original thinking, report on
discoveries, or share new information. Usually these represent the first formal appearance of
original research. Primary sources include statistical data, manuscripts, surveys, speeches,
biographies/autobiographies, diaries, oral histories, interviews, works or art and literature, research
reports, government documents, computer programs, original documents(birth certificates, trial
transcripts...) etc.

Advantages are:

 Most reliable form of data

 Direct interaction with the customers
 Most unbiased form of data

Disadvantages are:

 Usually expensive

 Comprehension potential of the respondents a major issue

 Takes more time

 Will create false results if, not conducted properly

 Skill and expertise of researcher matters a lot

DATA COLLECTION METHOD

79
Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can
impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.

Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this
continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the continuum are Qualitative methods
for data collection.

QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLEC TION

Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.
Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection
methods. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys – online
surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone
interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations.

The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce
results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being able
to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants
may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect
data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence
on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants
to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.

Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:

 Experiments/clinical trials.
 Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of patients
waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.

80
  Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and telephone
interviews, questionnaires etc.

Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data
that can be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors,
and other defined variables – and generalize results from a larger sample population.

Interviews

In Quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than in Qualitative
research.

In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of questions and nothing more (Leedy
and Ormrod, 2001).

Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport
with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation. These interviews yield highest
response rates in survey research. They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and
when appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages include impractical when large
samples are involved time consuming and expensive. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has ready
access to anyone on the planet who has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the response rate is not
as high as the face-to- face interview but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The
sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the population about
whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but

instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held computer
to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time involved in processing
the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires.
However, this type of data collection method can be expensive to set up and requires that
interviewers have computer and typing skills.

81
QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION

A questionnaire is a series of questions asked to individuals to obtain statistically useful

information about a given topic. When properly constructed and responsibly administered,
questionnaires become a vital instrument by which statements can be made about specific groups
or people or entire populations.

Questionnaires are frequently used in quantitative marketing research and social research. They
are a valuable method of collecting a wide range of information from a large number of individuals,
often referred to as respondents. Adequate questionnaire construction is critical to the success of a
survey. Inappropriate questions, incorrect ordering of questions, incorrect scaling, or bad
questionnaire format can make the survey valueless, as it may not accurately reflect the views and
opinions of the participants.

A useful method for checking a questionnaire and making sure it is accurately capturing the
intended information is to pretest among a smaller subset of target respondents.

GUIDELINES FOR QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION

Developing good business research questionnaires is a combination of art and science. Few hard
and-fast rules exist in guiding the development of a questionnaire. Fortunately, research experience
has yielded some guidelines that help prevent the most common mistakes:

Avoid Complexity: Use Simple, Conversational Language

Words used in questionnaires should be readily understandable to all respondents. The researcher
usually has the difficult task of adopting the conversational language of people at the lower
education levels without talking down to better-educated respondents.
82
The technical jargon of top corporate executives should be avoided when surveying retailers or
industrial users.“Brand image,” “positioning,” “marginal analysis,” and other corporate language
may not have the same meaning for, or even be understood by, a store owner-operator in a retail
survey. The vocabulary used in the following question from an attitude survey on social problems
probably would confuse many respondents:

Avoid Leading and Loaded Questions

Leading and loaded questions are a major source of bias in question wording. A leading question
suggests or implies certain answers. A study of the dry cleaning industry asked this question:
Many people are using dry cleaning less because of improved wash-and-wear clothes. How do
you feel wash-and-wear clothes have affected your use of dry cleaning facilities in the past 4 years?
[ ] Use less [ ] No change [ ] Use less

It should be clear that this question leads the respondent to report lower usage of dry cleaning. The
potential “bandwagon effect” implied in this question threatens the study’s validity. Partial
mention of alternatives is a variation of this phenomenon:

Do accounting graduates who attended state universities, such as Washington State University,
make better auditors?

A loaded question suggests a socially desirable answer or is emotionally charged. Consider the
following question from a survey about media influence on politics:
 What most influences your vote in major elections?
 My own informed opinion
 Major media outlets such as CNN
 Newspaper endorsements
 Popular celebrity opinions
 Candidate’s physical attractiveness
 Family or friends

83
Avoid Ambiguity: Be as Specific as Possible

Items on questionnaires often are ambiguous because they are too general. Consider such indefinite
words as often, occasionally, regularly, frequently, many, good, and poor. Each of these words has
many different meanings. For one consumer, frequent reading of product magazine may be reading
all 12 issues in a year, while another might think 6, or even 3 issues a year is frequent. Earlier, we
used the following question as an example of a checklist question:

Please check which, if any, of the following sources of information about investments you regularly
use.

What exactly does regularly mean? It can certainly vary from respondent to respondent. How
exactly does hardly any differ from occasionally? Where is the cutoff? It is much better to use
specific time periods whenever possible.

Avoid Double-Barreled Items

A question covering several issues at once is referred to as a double-barreled question and should
always be avoided. Making the mistake of asking two questions rather than one is easy. For
example, “Do you feel our hospital emergency room waiting area is clean and comfortable?” What
do we learn from this question? If the respondent responds positively, we could likely infer that
our waiting area is clean and comfortable. However, if the response is negative, is it because the
room is not clean, or not comfortable? Or both? Certainly for a manger to make improvements it
is important to know which element needs attention. When multiple questions are asked in one
question, the results may be exceedingly difficult to interpret.

Avoid Making Assumptions

Consider the following question:

Should Electricity Company continue to pay its outstanding annual dividends?
[ ] Yes [ ] No

84
This question has a built-in assumption: that people believe the dividends paid by Electricity
Company are outstanding. By answering “yes,” the respondent implies that the program is, in fact,
outstanding and that things are fine just as they are. When a respondent answers “no,” he or she
implies that GE should discontinue the dividends.

The researchers should not place the respondent in that sort of bind by including an implicit
assumption in the question.

Avoid Burdensome Questions That May Tax the Respondent’s Memory

A simple fact of human life is that people forget. Researchers writing questions about past behavior
or events should recognize that certain questions may make serious demands on the respondent’s
memory. Writing questions about prior events requires a conscientious attempt to minimize the
problems associated with forgetting.

In many situations, respondents cannot recall the answer to a question. For example, a telephone
survey conducted during the 24-hour period following the airing of the ‘Miss Ghana’ might
establish whether the respondent watched the Miss Ghana and then ask, “Do you recall any
commercials on that program?” If the answer is positive, the interviewer might ask, “What brands
were advertised?” These two questions measure unaided recall, because they give the respondent
no clue as to the brand of interest.

TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE

Before constructing questions, you must be knowledgeable about each type of question used in
survey research. These basically include:

Closed-Ended Questions

Closed-ended questions limit the answers of the respondents to response options provided on the
questionnaire.

85
Advantages: time-efficient; responses are easy to code and interpret; ideal for quantitative type of
research

Disadvantages: respondents are required to choose a response that does not exactly reflect their
answer; the researcher cannot further explore the meaning of the responses

Some examples of close ended questions are:

 Dichotomous or two-point questions (e.g. Yes or No, Unsatisfied or Satisfied)

 Multiple choice questions (e.g. A, B, C or D)

 Scaled questions that are making use of rating scales such as the Likert scale (i.e. a type
of five-point scale), three-point scales, semantic differential scales, and seven-point scales

Open-Ended Questions

In open-ended questions, there are no predefined options or categories included. The participants
should supply their own answers.

Advantages: participants can respond to the questions exactly as how they would like to answer
them; the researcher can investigate the meaning of the responses; ideal for qualitative type of
research

Disadvantages: time-consuming; responses are difficult to code and interpret

Some examples of open-ended questions include:

 Completely unstructured questions- openly ask the opinion or view of the respondent

 Word association questions - the participant states the first word that pops in his mind
once a series of words are presented

 Thematic Apperception Test – a picture is presented to the respondent which he

explains on his own point-of-view

 Sentence, story or picture completion – the respondent continues an incomplete

sentence or story, or writes on empty conversation balloons in a picture

86
Matrix Questions

Matrix questions are also closed-ended questions but are arranged one under the other, such that
the questions form a matrix or a table with identical response options placed on top. The matrix
question type is similar to the multiple choice question type, but it is presented as a table of related
questions and answers. it is typically used to collect data that has identical answers (i.e., rate your
preference – poor, good, excellent).

Contingency Questions

Questions that need to be answered only when the respondent provides a particular response to a
question prior to them is called contingency questions. Asking these questions effectively avoids
asking people questions that are not applicable to them. For example:

Have you ever smoked a cigarette?

Yes [ ] No [ ]

If YES, how many times have you smoked cigarette?

Once [ ]

2-5 times [ ]

6-10 times [ ]

more than 10 times [ ]

The second question above is what we refer to as a contingency question following up a closed-
ended question.

Semantic Scales
Here the respondent is asked to mark his/her strength of feeling or opinion on a line which goes
from low to high. The researcher then gives the position on the line a mark, usually out of 10. This
can be done with a ruler, but it is our experience that judgment is sufficient.

87
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of
underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to
develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative Research is also used
to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.

Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some
common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and
participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to
fulfill a given quota.

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION

Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to
develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative Research is also used
to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.

Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some
common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and
participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to
fulfill a given quota.

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing
information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in
people’s perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve
the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis;

88
strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative
evaluation findings.

These methods are characterized by the following attributes:

 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers may change
the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants)
 they rely more heavily on iteractive interviews; respondents may be interviewed several
times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data
 they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers rely on
multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results)
 generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather each case
study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among
different studies of the same issue

Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of
time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly, accurately, and
systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means. The
data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research.

The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad
categories:

 in-depth interview
 observation methods
 document review
 Focus group

In-Depth Interview

89
In-depth interviewing is a qualitative research technique that involves conducting intensive
individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a
particular idea, program, or situation.

In-depth interviews are often used when an agency doesn’t know much about a population and
wants to get preliminary ideas from the participants. Some investigators use in-depth interviews
to obtain information that they can; then use to develop quantitative surveys once they have a better
handle on what’s going on with their participants. Others find that interviews give them all the
information they need without conducting a later survey.

When you obtain your data via in-depth interviews you usually have a smaller sample and do not
use random methods to select your participants. As a result, the results may not generalize to
people who were not interviewed.

HOW TO USE IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW

In-depth interviews can help:

 Provide a history of behavior. When conducted more than once or when conducted with
someone who has been in the community for a long time, interviews can show if any
change has occurred over time.
 Highlight individual versus group concerns. Topics that may not arise in a group
situation can be addressed in individual interviews.
 Reveal divergent experiences and “outlier” attitudes. Groups often do not allow you to
see that experiences may vary person to person.
 Provide a shortcut to community norms. Interviewing key community leaders
(bartenders, favorite teachers, police officers, sex club managers) can give a fast overview
of a community and its needs and concerns
 Develop other research tools. Results from an interview can be used to generate focus
group questions or help form questions for a survey. In-depth interviews can be different
from focus groups in several ways:
 Easier. It is often easier to speak to one person and keep her attention than to address a
group. You can also avoid major scheduling hassles with only one person.

90
  More detailed. In an interview you have a chance to follow-up on questions and probe for
meaning.

Observation
Is either an activity of a living being (such as a human), consisting of receiving knowledge of the
outside world through the senses, or the recording of data using scientific instruments. The
scientific method requires observations of nature to formulate and test hypotheses. It consists of
these steps:

 Asking a question about a natural phenomenon.

 Making observations of the phenomenon.
 Hypothesizing an explanation for the phenomenon
 Predicting a logical consequence of the hypothesis
 Testing the hypothesis by an experiment, an observational study, or a field study
 Creating a conclusion with data gathered in the experiment

To make observations more efficient, it is often wise to construct data collection sheets. An
example of one is shown in Figure 6.1, which has been used to aid in the observation of people’s
behavior in bars and restaurants. Similarly, in a human resource study one might be interested in
participation details in weekly meetings.

Focus Group

A focus group could be defined as a group of interacting individuals having some common interest
or characteristics, brought together by a moderator, who uses the group and its interaction as a way
to gain information about a specific or focused issue.

A focus group is a group interview of approximately six to twelve people who share similar
characteristics or common interests. A facilitator guides the group based on a predetermined set of
topics. The facilitator creates an environment that encourages participants to share their

91
perceptions and points of view. Focus groups are a qualitative data collection method, meaning
that the data is descriptive and cannot be measured numerically.

Advantages of Focus Groups are:

 Quick and relatively easy to set up.
 The group dynamic can provide useful information that individual data collection does not
provide.
 Is useful in gaining insight into a topic that may be more difficult to gather through other data
collection methods.

Disadvantages of Focus Groups are:

 Susceptible to facilitator bias.

 The discussion can be dominated or sidetracked by a few individuals.
 Data analysis is time consuming and needs to be well planned in advance.
 Does not provide valid information at the individual level.
 The information is not representative of other groups.

SAMPLING PLAN

Sampling is the process or technique of selecting a suitable sample for the purpose of determining
parameters or characteristics of the whole population. To carry out a study, one might bear in mind
what size the sample should be, and whether the size is statistically justified and lastly, what
method of sampling is to be used. As for all sampling, we need to think about the time and cost
for the survey, whether it is small-scale or large-scale.

A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be drawn. A simple example
of a sampling frame might be a list of all members of an institute or workers in a company or a
particular type of company. The sampling unit is a single element or group of elements subject to
selection in the sample. For example, if an airline wishes to sample passengers, every 20th name
on a complete list of passengers may be taken.

92
Sampling primarily falls under two categories, with each having its own tools. They include:

 Probability samples. With probability sampling methods, each population element has a
known (non-zero) chance of being chosen for the sample.

 Non-probability samples. With non-probability sampling methods, we do not know the

probability that each population element will be chosen, and/or we cannot be sure that each
population element has a non-zero chance of being chosen.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

The main types of probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified sampling,
cluster sampling, multistage sampling, and systematic random sampling. The key benefit of
probability sampling methods is that they guarantee that the sample chosen is representative of the
population. This ensures that the statistical conclusions will be valid.

Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling refers to any sampling method that has the following properties.

 The population consists of N objects.

 The sample consists of n objects.
 If all possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur, the sampling method is
called simple random sampling.

There are many ways to obtain a simple random sample. One way would be the lottery method.
Each of the N population members is assigned a unique number. The numbers are placed in a bowl
and thoroughly mixed. Then, a blind-folded researcher selects n numbers. Population members
having the selected numbers are included in the sample.

Stratified Sampling

With stratified sampling, the population is divided into groups, based on some characteristic. Then,
within each group, a probability sample (often a simple random sample) is selected. In stratified

93
sampling, the groups are called strata.

As a example, suppose we conduct a national survey. We might divide the population into groups
or strata, based on geography - north, east, south, and west. Then, within each stratum, we might
randomly select survey respondents.

Cluster Sampling

With cluster sampling, every member of the population is assigned to one, and only one, group.
Each group is called a cluster. A sample of clusters is chosen, using a probability method (often
simple random sampling). Only individuals within sampled clusters are surveyed.
Note the difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling. With stratified sampling, the
sample includes elements from each stratum. With cluster sampling, in contrast, the sample
includes elements only from sampled clusters.

Multistage Sampling

With multistage sampling, we select a sample by using combinations of different sampling

methods.

For example, in Stage 1, we might use cluster sampling to choose clusters from a population. Then,
in Stage 2, we might use simple random sampling to select a subset of elements from each chosen
cluster for the final sample.

Systematic Random Sampling

With systematic random sampling, we create a list of every member of the population. From the
list, we randomly select the first sample element from the first k elements on the population list.
Thereafter, we select every kth element on the list.

94
This method is different from simple random sampling since every possible sample of n elements
is not equally likely.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

A core characteristic of non-probability sampling techniques is that samples are selected based on
the subjective judgement of the researcher, rather than random selection
(i.e., probabilistic methods), which is the cornerstone of probability sampling techniques.

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the odds of any member being selected
for a sample cannot be calculated. It’s the opposite of probability sampling, where
you can calculate the odds. In addition, probability sampling involves random selection, while
non-probability sampling does not–it relies on the subjective judgement of the researcher.

TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

 Convenience Sampling: as the name suggests, this involves collecting a sample from
somewhere convenient to you: the mall, your local school, your church. Sometimes called
accidental sampling, opportunity sampling or grab sampling.
 Haphazard Sampling: where a researcher chooses items haphazardly, trying to simulate
randomness. However, the result may not be random at all and is often tainted by selection
bias.
 Purposive Sampling: where the researcher chooses a sample based on their knowledge about
the population and the study itself. The study participants are chosen based on the study’s
purpose. There are several types of purposive sampling.
 Expert Sampling: in this method, the researcher draws the sample from a list of experts in
the field.
 Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling: a type of sampling where you deliberately
choose members so that all views are represented. However, those views may or may not be
represented proportionally.
 Quota Sampling: where the groups (i.e. men and women) in the sample are proportional to
the groups in the population.

95
  Snowball Sampling: where research participants recruit other members for the study. This
method is particularly useful when participants might be hard to find. For example, a study
on working prostitutes or current heroin users.

SAMPLING PROCESS

To select a sample, the researcher goes through the basic steps of sampling:

1. Identify the population of interest. A population is the group of people that you want to make
assumptions about. For example, Brooke wants to know how much stress college students
experience during finals. Her population is every college student in the world because that's
who she's interested in. Of course, there's no way that Brooke can feasibly study every college
student in the world, so she moves on to the next step.

2. Specify a sampling frame. A sampling frame is the group of people from which you will draw
your sample. For example, Brooke might decide that her sampling frame is every student at
the university where she works. Notice that a sampling frame is not as large as the population,
but it's still a pretty big group of people. Brooke still won't be able to study every single student
at her university, but that's a good place from which to draw her sample.

3. Specify a sampling method. There are basically two ways to choose a sample from a
sampling frame: randomly or non-randomly. There are benefits to both. Basically, if your
sampling frame is approximately the same demographic makeup as your population, you
probably want to randomly select your sample, perhaps by flipping a coin or drawing
names out of a hat.

4. Determine the sample size. In general, larger samples are better, but they also require more
time and effort to manage. If Brooke ends up having to go through 1,000 surveys, it will
take her more time than if she only has to go through 10 surveys. But the results of her
study will be stronger with 1,000 surveys, so she (like all researchers) has to make choices
and find a balance between what will give her good data and what is practical.

5. Implement the plan. Once you know your population, sampling frame, sampling method,
and sample size, you can use all that information to choose your sample.

96
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY (INTERNAL CONSISTENCY)

In statistics and research, internal consistency is typically a measure based on the correlations
between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether
several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. For
example, if a respondent expressed agreement with the statements "I like to ride bicycles" and "I've
enjoyed riding bicycles in the past", and disagreement with the statement "I hate bicycles", this
would be indicative of good internal consistency of the test.

Cronbach's alpha

Internal consistency is usually measured with Cronbach's alpha, a statistic calculated from the pair-
wise correlations between items. Internal consistency ranges between negative infinity and one.
Coefficient alpha will be negative whenever there is greater within-subject variability than
between-subject variability.

A commonly accepted rule of thumb for describing internal consistency is as follows:

Cronbach alpha

α ≥ 0.9 Excellent

97
0.9 > α ≥ 0.8 Very Good

0.8 > α ≥ 0.7 Good

0.7 > α ≥ 0.6 Acceptable

0.6 > α ≥ 0.5 Poor

0.5 > α Unacceptable

Very high reliabilities (0.95 or higher) are not necessarily desirable, as this indicates that the items
may be entirely redundant. The goal in designing a reliable instrument is for scores on similar
items to be related (internally consistent), but for each to contribute some unique information as
well. An alternative way of thinking about internal consistency is that it is the extent to which all
of the items of a test measure the same latent variable.

VALIDITY

In the area of scientific research design and experimentation, validity refers to whether a study is
able to scientifically answer the questions it is intended to answer. Types of validity include:

Construct validity refers to the extent to which operations of a construct (i.e. practical tests
developed from a theory) do actually measure what the theory says they do. For example, to what
extent is an IQ questionnaire actually measure ‘intelligence’? Construct validity evidence involves
the empirical and theoretical and theoretical support for the interpretation of the construct.

Convergent validity: refers to the degree to which a measure is correlated with other measures
that it is theoretically predicted to correlate with.

Discriminant validity tests whether concepts or measurements that are supposed to be unrelated
are, in fact, unrelated.

98
Content validity is a non-statistical type of validity that involves "the systematic examination of
the test content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behavior domain to
be measured. For example, does an IQ questionnaire have items covering all areas of intelligence
discussed in the scientific literature?

Content validity evidence involves the degree to which the content of the test matches a content
domain associated with the construct. For example, a test of the ability to add two numbers should
include a range of combinations of digits. A test with only one-digit numbers, or only even
numbers, would not have good coverage of the content domain. Content related evidence typically
involves subject matter experts (SME's) evaluating test items against the test specifications.

Representation validity Representation validity, also known as translation validity, is about the
extent to which an abstract theoretical construct can be turned into a specific practical test

Face validity is an estimate of whether a test appears to measure a certain criterion; it does not
guarantee that the test actually measures phenomena in that domain. Measures may have high
validity, but when the test does not appear to be measuring what it is, it has low face validity.
Indeed, when a test is subject to faking (malingering), low face validity might make the test more
valid. Considering one may get more honest answers with lower face validity, it is sometimes
important to make it appear as though there is low face validity whilst administering the measures.

Face validity is very closely related to content validity. While content validity depends on a
theoretical basis for assuming if a test is assessing all domains of a certain criterion (e.g. does
assessing addition skills yield in a good measure for mathematical skills? To answer this you have
to know, what different kinds of arithmetic skills mathematical skills include) face validity relates
to whether a test appears to be a good measure or not. This judgment is made on the "face" of the
test, thus it can also be judged by the amateur.

RELIABILITY

Reliability is the overall consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high reliability if
it produces similar results under consistent conditions. For example, measurements of people’s

99
height and weight are often extremely reliable. There are several general classes of reliability
estimates:

 Inter-rater reliability assesses the degree of agreement between two or more raters in
their appraisals.
 Test-retest reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent from one test
administration to the next. Measurements are gathered from a single rater who uses the
same methods or instruments and the same testing conditions.[2] This includes intra-rater
reliability.
 Inter-method reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent when there
is a variation in the methods or instruments used. This allows inter-rater reliability to be
ruled out. When dealing with forms, it may be termed parallel-forms reliability.
 Internal consistency reliability assesses the consistency of results across items within a
test.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Reliability does not imply validity. That is, a reliable measure that is measuring something
consistently is not necessarily measuring what you want to be measuring. For example, while there
are many reliable tests of specific abilities, not all of them would be valid for predicting, say, job
performance. In terms of accuracy and precision, reliability is a more accurate way of describing
precision, while validity is a more precise way of describing accuracy.

While reliability does not imply validity, a lack of reliability does place a limit on the overall
validity of a test. A test that is not perfectly reliable cannot be perfectly valid, either as a means of
measuring attributes of a person or as a means of predicting scores on a criterion. While a reliable
test may provide useful valid information, a test that is not reliable cannot possibly be valid.

PILOT SURVEY

100
It is important that all surveys are tested before the actual survey is conducted. This is done to
ensure that the questionnaire is clear to respondents and can be completed in the way you wish.
Thus, it should be piloted on the sample to be used. It is best to observe respondents filling in the
questionnaires to understand what questions trouble them. Then they are interviewed on what they
thought about the questionnaire, how it could be improved and if anything is missing. If all is
reasonably well then the sample can often be incorporated into the final database.

The pilot survey tests the following:

 Wording of the questions.
 Sequence and layout of the questionnaire
 Fieldwork arrangements.
 Analysis procedures.

Additionally, the pilot survey can be used to train any fieldworkers you use and to help estimate
both response rates and completion times.
Remember to document the pilot process, what you have learned and what adjustments have to be
made. You should refer to the pilot process in your dissertation.

101
 CHAPTER TEN

DATA ANALYSIS METHODS

QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS METHOD

Quantitative and qualitative researches are commonly considered to differ fundamentally. Yet,
their objectives as well as their applications overlap in numerous ways.

Quantitative Research is considered to have as its main purpose the quantification of data. This
allows generalizations of results from a sample to an entire population of interest and the
measurement of the incidence of various views and opinions in a given sample. Yet, quantitative
research is not infrequently followed by qualitative research which then aims to explore select
findings further.

Qualitative research is considered to be particularly suitable for gaining an in-depth understanding

of underlying reasons and motivations. It provides insights into the setting of a problem. At the
same time, it frequently generates ideas and hypotheses for later quantitative research.
The main differences between quantitative and qualitative research consist in respect to data
sample, data collection, data analysis, and last but not least in regard to outcomes.

The decision of whether to choose a quantitative or a qualitative design is ultimately a

philosophical question. Which methods to choose will depend on the nature of the project, the type
of information needed the context of the study and the availability of resources (time, money, and
human).

102
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we move
from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of explanation, understanding or
interpretation of the people and situations we are investigating. Qualitative data analysis is usually
based on an interpretative philosophy. The idea is to examine the meaningful and symbolic content
of qualitative data. For example, by analyzing interview data the researcher may be attempting to
identify any or all of:

 Someone's interpretation of the world,

 Why they have that point of view,
 How they came to that view,
 What they have been doing,
 How they conveyed their view of their situation,
 How they identify or classify themselves and others in what they say,

The process of qualitative data analysis usually involves two things, writing and the identification
of themes. Writing of some kind is found in almost all forms of qualitative data analysis. Finding
themes is part of the overwhelming majority of qualitative data analysis carried out today.

Qualitative data analysis is:

 Often based on grounded theory practices (link to explanation of grounded theory)

 Answers the 'why?' questions
 Pays greater attention to individual cases

Steps in Qualitative Data Analysis

Suppose you are conducting a give research using qualitative research design and you choose
(purposively) to interview a certain number of participants using an in-depth, unstructured
interview guide. The following basic steps could be used to record and analyze your data:

103
  Conduct and audiotape your interview. As you are taping the interview it may help to
make written notes as well about aspects of the interaction that the audiotape will not pick
up (e.g. facial expressions or gestures). This can help with step number 2, to set the
transcript in context.

 Transcribe (Write) your data into a word processing package. Transcription involves
judgments about what level of detail to choose (e.g. omitting non-verbal dimensions of
interaction), data interpretation (e.g. distinguishing 'I don't, no' from 'I don't know') and
data representation (e.g. representing the verbalization 'hwarryuhh' as 'How are you?').
Representation of audible and visual data into written form is an interpretive process which
is therefore the first step in analyzing data. Different levels of detail and different
representations of data will be required for projects with differing aims and methodological
approaches. Remember that an interview lasting one hour, may take at least 6 hours to
transcribe!

 Code the data into themes: Coding means different things to different researchers but a
simple approach would involve looking for similar words or phrases mentioned by the
interviewees. Once you have these phrases, put them into categories/themes.

 Generalize from the themes about the phenomena in question and interpret in the light
of the available literature

SOURCES OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

We can gather qualitative data in a variety of ways, for example:

 Questionnaires/Surveys: a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of

gathering information from respondents..
 Interviews: a conversation between two or more people (the interviewer and the
interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the
interviewee.

104
  Focus Groups: a group of people are asked about their attitude towards a product, service,
concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging.
 Observation: a group or single participants are manipulated by the researcher, for
example, asked to perform a specific task or action. Observations are then made of their
user behavior, user processes, workflows etc, either in a controlled situation (e.g. lab based)
or in a real-world situation (e.g. the workplace).
 Discourse Analysis: a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written,
spoken or signed language use.

Content Analysis

Content analysis is '...a procedure for the categorization of verbal or behavioral data, for purposes
of classification, summarization and tabulation.'

The content can be analyzed on two levels:

1. Basic level or the manifest level: a descriptive account of the data i.e. this is what was
said, but no comments or theories as to why or how
2. Higher level or latent level of analysis: a more interpretive analysis that is concerned with
the response as well as what may have been inferred or implied

Content analysis involves coding and classifying data, also referred to as categorizing and indexing
and the aim of context analysis is to make sense of the data collected and to highlight the important
messages, features or findings.

ADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

 Provides depth and detail : looks deeper than analyzing ranks and counts by recording
attitudes, feelings and behaviors
 Creates openness: encouraging people to expand on their responses can open up new topic
areas not initially considered
 Simulates people's individual experiences: a detailed picture can be built up about why
people act in certain ways and their feelings about these actions

105
  Attempts to avoid pre-judgments: if used alongside quantitative data collection, it can
explain why a particular response was given

DIADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

 Usually fewer people studied: collection of qualitative data is generally more time
consuming that quantitative data collection and therefore unless time, staff and budget
allows it is generally necessary to include a smaller sample size.
 Less easy to generalize: because fewer people are generally studied it is not possible to
generalize results to that of the population. Usually exact numbers are reported rather than
percentages.
 Difficult to make systematic comparisons: for example, if people give widely differing
responses that are highly subjective.
 Dependent on skills of the researcher: particularly in the case of conducting interviews,
focus groups and observation.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

Quantitative data analysis is helpful in evaluation because it provides quantifiable and easy to
understand results. Quantitative data can be analyzed in a variety of different ways. In this section,
you will learn about the most common quantitative analysis procedures that are used in small
program evaluation. You will also be provided with a list of helpful resources that will assist you
in your own evaluative efforts.

Before you begin your analysis, you must identify the level of measurement associated with the
quantitative data. The level of measurement can influence the type of analysis you can use. There
are four levels of measurement:

MEASUREMENT SCALES

106
There are four measurement scales (or types of data): nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. These
are simply ways to categorize different types of variables. This topic is usually discussed in the
context of academic teaching and less often in the “real world.”

There are 4 scales of measurement, namely Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio, all variables fall
in one of these scales. Understanding the mathematical properties and assigning proper scale to
the variables is important because they determine which mathematical operations are allowed.

The 4 scales are in the order of Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio scale with Nominal having
least mathematical properties, followed by Ordinal and Interval, whereas Ratio having most
mathematical properties.

NORMINAL SCALE

From the Statistical point of view it is the lowest measurement level. Nominal Scale is assigned to
items that is divided into categories without having any order or structure, for instance Colors do
not have any assigned order, We can have 5 colors like Red, Blue, Orange, Green and Yellow and
could number them 1 to 5 or 5 - 1 or number them in a mix, here the numbers are assigned to color
just for the purpose of identification, and ordering them Ascending or Descending doesn’t mean
that Colors have an Order. The number gives us the identity of the category assigned. The only
mathematical operation we can perform with nominal data is to count. Another example from
research activities is a YES/NO scale, which is nominal. It has no order and there is no distance
between YES and NO.

ORDINAL SCALE

Next up the list is the Ordinal Scale. Ordinal Scale is ranking of responses, for instance Ranking
Cyclist at the end of the race at the position 1, 2 and 3. Not these are rank and the time distance
between 1 and 2 may well not be the same as between 2 and 3, so the distance between points is
not the same but there is an order present, when responses have an order but the distance between
the response is not necessarily same, the items are regarded or put into the Ordinal Scale. Therefore
an ordinal scale lets the researcher interpret gross order and not the relative positional distances.

107
Ordinal Scale variables have the property of Identity and Magnitude. The numbers represent a
quality being measured (identity) and can tell us whether a case has more of the quality measured
or less of the quality measured than another case (magnitude). The distance between scale points
is not equal. Ranked preferences are presented as an example of ordinal scales encountered in
everyday life.

INTERVAL SCALE

A normal survey rating scale is an interval scale for instance when asked to rate satisfaction with
a training on a 5 point scale, from Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree and Strongly Disagree,
an interval scale is being used. It is an interval scale because it is assumed to have equal distance
between each of the scale elements i.e. the Magnitude between Strongly Agree and Agree is
assumed to be the same as Agree and Strongly Agree. This means that we can interpret differences
in the distance along the scale. We contrast this to an ordinal scale where we can only talk about
differences in order, not differences in the degree of order i-e the distance between responses.

Interval scales have the properties of:

 Identity
 Magnitude
 Equal distance

Variables which fulfill the above mentioned properties are put in this scale. The equal distance
between scale points helps in knowing how many units greater than, or less than, one case is from
another. The meaning of the distance between 25 and 35 is the same as the distance between 65
and 75.

RATIO SCALES

A Ratio Scale is at the top level of Measurement. The factor which clearly defines a ratio scale is
that it has a true zero point. The simplest example of a ratio scale is the measurement of length
(disregarding any philosophical points about defining how we can identify zero length) or money.
Having zero length or zero money means that there is no length and no money but zero temperature

108
is not an absolute zero, as it certainly has its effect. Ratio scales of measurement have all of the
properties of the abstract number system.

Ratio scales have the properties of:

 Identity
 Magnitude
 Equal distance
 Absolute/true zero

These properties allow the application all possible mathematical operations that include addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. The absolute/true zero allows us to know how many times
greater one case is than another. Variables falling in this category and having all the above
mentioned numerical properties fall in ratio scale.

QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

There are many techniques for quantitative data analysis. This book is not able to discuss all at
once. Thus a few of the techniques have been discussed, but they are not exhaustive.

Frequency Distribution Technique

Frequency distribution is a simple data analysis technique which allows you to get a big picture of
the data. From frequency distribution, you can see how frequently the specific values are observed
and what their percentages are for the same variable. For example: for variable of “age,” you can
use frequency distribution to figure out how many people in the survey are aged 18 to 25, and how
many are aged 26 to 33, etc

Descriptive Technique

From the frequency distribution we can figure out the frequency of the values observed, as shown
in the “age example” above. We can use the measures of central tendency and dispersion to learn
more about the data for “age.”

109
Mean, median and mode are the three measures of central tendency. “Mean” is the average value.
It equals to the sum of all the values divided by the numbers of observations. It is the most popular
measure of central tendency, especially when the data set does not have an outlier. “Median” is
the value in the middle when all the values are lined in order (assuming there is an odd number of
values). If there are even numbers of values, the median is the average of the two numbers in the
middle. It is useful when the data set has an outlier and values distribute very unevenly. “Mode”
is the value which is observed most often. It is useful when the data is non-numeric or when asked
to find the most popular item.

Range and standard deviation are the basics measures of dispersion. The bigger the range and
bigger the standard deviation, the more dispersed the values are. “Range” is the difference of the
maximum value and the minimum value for the variable. For the “age example”, the maximum
value is 54 and the minimum value is 19. So the range is 35. “Standard deviation” shows how
much variation the value exits from the mean. Variance is the average of squared difference from
the mean. Standard deviation is the square root of variance.

Comparing Means

T-Tests are used to test if the difference of means is statistically significant. It tests if the sample
is representative of the populations. For example, if the mean for variable 1 is 20 and the mean for
variable 2 is 28, you may say the means are different. T-Tests may show you that they are not
significantly different, however, and you can’t base your conclusion on the means’ difference since
the difference in the sample is not representative for the population.

There are three types of t-Tests: t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means, t-Test: Two Sample
Assuming Equal Variances and t-Test: Two Sample Assuming Unequal Variances. Usually, we
only need to use t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means and t-Test: Two Sample Assuming Unequal
Variances.

Correlations

Correlations are used when you want to know about the relationship between two variables. For
example, you want to know consumers’ willingness to pay and their ratings for the product quality.

110
If the correlation is 1, meaning the willingness to pay and the ratings for the product quality are
completely positively correlated and if the correlation is 0, meaning there is no correlation between
these two variables. If the correlation is -1, it shows they are completely negatively correlated,
meaning the higher one variable, the lower the other variable. If the absolute value of the variables
is bigger than 0.5, they are usually significant.

Linear Regressions

Regression is a more accurate way to test the relationship between the variables compared with
correlations since it show the goodness of fit (Adjusted R Square) and the statistical testing for the
variables. The formulas for one-variable regressions is y = ax + b and for multiple regressions is y
= ax12 + bx2 + c.

For y = ax + b, y is the dependent variable, x is the causal variable and the intercept is a, indicating
the correlation between x and y. If “a” is 0.2 for example, it means when x variable increases 1
unit, y increases 0.2 units. If “a” is negative, meaning y decreases as x increases.

For y = ax12 + bx2 + c, y is the dependent variable, x1 is causal variable 1 and x2 is causal variable
2. “a” is the intercept for variable 1 and “b” for variable 2. For example, if y = 0.6 x 12 – 0.4 x2 +
0.23, it means when x1 increases 1 unit, y increases 0.6 units and when x2 increases 1 unit, y
decreases 0.4 units. (Given the variables are statistically significant.)

The Regression Equation

When you are conducting a regression analysis with one independent variable, the regression
equation is where Y is the dependent variable, X is the independent variable, a is the
constant (or intercept), and b is the slope of the regression line. For example, let’s say that GPA is
best predicted by the regression equation . If a student had an IQ of 130, then, his or
her Grade Average Point (GPA) would be 3.6 ( ).

111
When you are conducting a regression analysis in which you have more than one independent
variable, the regression equation is . For example, if we wanted

to include more variables to our GPA analysis, such as measures of motivation and self-discipline,
we would use this equation.

R-Square

R-square, also known as the coefficient of determination is a commonly used statistic to evaluate
the model fit of a regression equation. That is, how good are all of your independent variables at
predicting your dependent variable? The value of R-square ranges from 0.0 to 1.0 and can be
multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage of variance explained. For example, going back to our
GPA regression equation with only one independent variable (IQ)…Let’s say that our R-square
for the equation was 0.4. We could interpret this to mean that 40% of the variance in GPA is
explained by IQ. If we then add our other two variables (motivation and self-discipline) and the
R-square increases to 0.6, this means that IQ, motivation, and self-discipline together explain 60%
of the variance in GPA scores. Note that in the case of two or more independent variables the R-
square is overall measure of the strength of association, and does not reflect the extent to which
any particular independent variable is associated with the dependent variable. R-Square is also
called the coefficient of determination.

Regression analyses are typically done using statistics software, such as SPSS or SAS and so the
R-square is calculated for you.

Interpreting the Regression Coefficients (b)

The b coefficients from the equations above represent the strength and direction of the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. If we look at the GPA and IQ equation,
, 0.02 is the regression coefficient for the variable IQ. This tells us that the
direction of the relationship is positive so that as IQ increases, GPA also increases. If the equation

112
was , then this would mean that the relationship between IQ and GPA was
negative. This indicates that there is a -0.02 unit decrease in predicting GPA score.

Logistic Regression

Logistic regression is a common statistical technique used in sociological studies. It provides a

method for modeling a binary response variable, which takes values 0 and 1. Logistic regression
is very similar to linear regression, however linear regression uses a continuous variable as the
dependent variable in the model. In logistic regression, the dependent variable is binary. For
example, if you were interested in looking at how race/ethnicity, education, and gender predicted
respondents’ answers to a yes/no survey question, logistic regression would be a great method to
use. Keep in mind that while the dependent variable is always binary, the independent, or predictor,
variables can be either numerical or categorical.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

Analysis of Variance, or ANOVA for short, is a statistical test that looks for significant differences
between means. For example, say you are interested in studying the education level of athletes in
a community, so you survey people on various teams. You start to wonder, however, if the
education level is different among the different teams. You could use an ANOVA to determine if
the mean education level is different among the softball team versus the rugby team versus the
Ultimate Frisbee team.

ANOVA Models

There are four types of ANOVA models. Following are descriptions and examples of each.

One-way between groups ANOVA. A one-way between groups ANOVA is used when you want
to test the difference between two or more groups. This is the simplest version of ANOVA. The
example of education level among different sports teams above would be an example of this type
of model. There is only one grouping (type of sport played) that you are using to define the groups.

113
One-way repeated measures ANOVA. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA is used when you
have a single group on which you have measured something more than one time. For example, if
you wanted to test students’ understanding of a subject, you could administer the same test at the
beginning of the course, in the middle of the course, and at the end of the course. You would then
use a one-way repeated measure ANOVA to see if students’ performance on the test changed over
time.

Two-way between groups ANOVA. A two-way between groups ANOVA is used to look at
complex groupings. For example, the students’ grades in the previous example could be extended
to see if students abroad performed differently to local students. So you would have three effects
from this ANOVA: the effect of the final grade, the effect of abroad versus local, and the
interaction between the final grade and overseas/local. Each of the main effects are one-way tests.
The interaction effect is simply asking if there is any significant difference in performance when
you test he final grade and overseas/local acting together.

Two-way repeated measures ANOVA. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA uses the repeated
measures structure but also includes an interaction effect. Using the same example of one-way
repeated measures (test grades before and after a course), you could add gender to see if there is
any joint effect of gender and time of testing. That is, do males and females differ in the amount
of information they remember over time?

How an ANOVA is Done

 The mean is calculated for each of your groups. Using the example of education and sports
teams from the introduction in the first paragraph above, the mean education level is
calculated for each sports team.
 The overall mean is then calculated for all of the groups combined.
 Within each group, the total deviation of each individual’s score from the group mean is
calculated. This is called within group variation.
 Next, the deviation of each group mean from the overall mean is calculated. This is call
between group variations.

114
  Finally, an F statistic is calculated, which is the ratio of between group variation to the
within group variation.

If the between group variation is significantly greater than the within group variation, then it is
likely that there is a statistically significant difference between the groups. The statistical
software that you use will tell you if the F statistic is significant or not.

ADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

 Allow for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the
generalization of the results
 Can allow for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative methods
are designed to provide summaries of data that support generalizations about the
phenomenon under study. In order to accomplish this, quantitative research usually
involves few variables and many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to ensure
validity and reliability
 Using standards means that the research can be replicated, and then analyzed and compared
with similar studies. Kruger (2003) confirms that 'quantitative methods allow us to
summarize vast sources of information and facilitate comparisons across categories and
over time'
 Personal bias can be avoided by researchers keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects
and employing subjects unknown to them

DISADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

 Collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset

 Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative
and generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception

115
  The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level of
control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be in place
in the real world yielding laboratory results as opposed to real world results
 In addition preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject
and in some cases might just be the closest match.
 The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to 'structural' bias and false
representation, where the data actually reflects the view of them instead of the participating
subject.

CHAPTER TEN

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

DEVELOPING THE SUMMARY

The summary of any written paper that delves into a research related topic will provide the reader
with a high level snap shot of the entire written work. The summary will give a brief background
of the topic, highlight the research that was done, significant details in the work and finalize the
work’s results all in one paragraph. Only top level information should be provided in this section
and it should make the reader want to read more after they see the summary.

EXAMPLE OF SUMMARY

The authors in this study assessed the relationship between job performance in first-level managers
(as rated by their supervisors) and their affective commitment, continuance commitment, and job
satisfaction. Affective commitment is defined as an emotional attachment to the organization
(Meyer, Paunonen, Gellatly, Goffin, & Jackson, 1989). Alternatively, continuance commitment is
based on the costs that employees associate with leaving the organization.

Job performance was assessed according to 3 dimensions:

116
(1) Composite performance, according to an average on 6 specific activities

(2) Overall performance, based on a subjective rating given by the immediate supervisor, and

(3) Promotability.

The participants were 23 district managers and 65 unit managers from a large food service
organization.

The researchers found that affective commitment was positively related to overall performance
and promotability. The correlations between continuance commitment and all 3 performance
dimensions were negative and significant. What I learned from this article and these findings is
that supervisor ratings of performance and promotability increase as the employees’ affective
commitment increases; on the other hand, supervisor ratings of performance and promotability
decrease as continuance commitment increases.

CONCLUSION OF A RESEARCH

The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them
after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main
topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points and, if
applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most essays, one well-
developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, a two or three
paragraph conclusion may be required.

The purpose of the conclusion is to restate the main argument. It reminds the reader of the strengths
of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s).
Do this by stating clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem
you investigated in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. Make sure,
however, that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the
impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your essay.

A well-written conclusion provides the researcher with important opportunities to demonstrate to

the reader his/her understanding of the research problem. These include:

117
 1. Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper. Just as the introduction
gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting
impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key points in your analysis or results or
by noting important or unexpected implications applied to practice.
2. Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study. The
conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly answer the "So What?" question by placing the
study within the context of past research about the topic you've investigated.
3. Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed. The conclusion can be
where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [described in your
literature review section] has been filled by your research.
4. Demonstrating the importance of your ideas. Don't be shy. The conclusion offers you
the opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings.
5. Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem.
This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer
new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem
based on the results of your study.

GENERAL RULES FOR WRITING CONCLUSIONS

When writing the conclusion to your paper, you may follow these general rules:

 State your conclusions in clear, simple language. State how your findings differ or support
those of others and why.
 Do not simply reiterate your results or the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis
of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research
problem and the overall objectives of your study
 Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't already done so in the discussion
section of your paper. Highlighting the need for further research provides the reader with
evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem.

POINTS TO CONSIDER IN WRITING CONCLUSION

118
 1. If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the
argument for your reader.
2. If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings
or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points
and explain their significance.
3. Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context
provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data.

DEVELOPING A COMPELLING CONCLUSION

Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper
may include any of the following:

1. If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible
consequences of not attending to the problem.
2. Recommend a specific course or courses of action that, if adopted, could address a specific
problem in practice or in the development of new knowledge.
3. Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion already noted in your paper in order to lend
authority to the conclusion you have reached [a good place to look is research from your
literature review].
4. Explain the consequences of your research in a way that elicits action or demonstrates
urgency in seeking change.
5. Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to emphasize the ultimate point of your paper.
6. If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point with a
relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.
7. Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you presented in your introduction,
but add further insight derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of
results to recast it in new ways.
8. Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a strong, succinct statement that you want
the reader to remember about your study.

119
RECOMMENDATION OF A RESEARCH

1. Specifically stating what should be done, the steps required to implement the policy, and
the resources needed;

2. discussion of the benefits to the organization and what problems would be corrected or
avoided;

3. discussion of the feasibility of the proposed policy;

4. and general statement about the nature and timing of an evaluation plan that would be used
to determine the effectiveness of the proposed policy.

5. discuss the actions that future researchers should take as a result of your Project.

6. make a formal recommendation regarding the alternative that is best supported by the
study.

7. present and discuss the kinds of additional research suggested by your Project. If the
preferred alternative is implemented, what additional research might be needed?

120
 CHAPTER ELEVEN

PRINCIPLES, ETHICS AND PLAGARISM

INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS

Most societies have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical norms tend to be broader and more
informal than laws. Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards
and ethical and legal rules use similar concepts, ethics and law are not the same. An action may be
legal but unethical or illegal but ethical. We can also use ethical concepts and principles to criticize,
evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers have urged
citizens to disobey laws they regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful civil disobedience is an
ethical way of protesting laws or expressing political viewpoints.

Ethics may be defined as the disciplines that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy,
theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies
ethical standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or
perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues. For instance,
in considering a complex issue like global warming, one may take an economic, ecological,
political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine the cost and
benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine
the ethical values and principles at stake.

Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have standards for behavior that suit their
particular aims and goals. These standards also help members of the discipline to coordinate their
actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical

121
standards govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve
the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly
or creative activities. There is even a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these
norms. See Glossary of Commonly Used Terms in Research Ethics.
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research.

First, norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For
example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the
truth and minimize error.

Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many
different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that
are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright
and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed
to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want
to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed
prematurely.

Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the
public. For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human
subjects’ protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers
who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.

Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more
likely to fund a research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.

Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social
values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and
public health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal
subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial

122
may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines
relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and
safety of staff and students.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

There are a number of key phrases that describe the system of ethical protections that the
contemporary social and medical research establishment has created to try to protect better the
rights of their research participants. The following are some of the ethical issues that a researcher
might consider:

Informed Consent
The principle of voluntary participation requires that people not be coerced into participating in
research. This is especially relevant where researchers had previously relied on 'captive audiences'
for their subjects -- prisons, universities, and places like that.

Closely related to the notion of voluntary participation is the requirement of informed consent.
Essentially, this means that prospective research participants must be fully informed about the
procedures and risks involved in research and must give their consent to participate.

Risk of Harm
Ethical standards also require that researchers not put participants in a situation where they might
be at risk of harm as a result of their participation. Harm can be defined as both physical and
psychological.

Confidentiality
There are two standards that are applied in order to help protect the privacy of research participants.
Almost all research guarantees the participant’s confidentiality -- they are assured that identifying
information will not be made available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study.

123
Anonymity
The stricter standard is the principle of anonymity which essentially means that the participant will
remain anonymous throughout the study -- even to the researchers themselves. Clearly, the
anonymity standard is a stronger guarantee of privacy, but it is sometimes difficult to accomplish,
especially in situations where participants have to be measured at multiple time points (e.g., a pre-
post study).

Right to Service
Increasingly, researchers have had to deal with the ethical issue of a person's right to service. Good
research practice often requires the use of a no-treatment control group -- a group of participants
who do not get the treatment or program that is being studied. But when that treatment or program
may have beneficial effects, persons assigned to the no-treatment control may feel their rights to
equal access to services are being curtailed.

PLAGARISM

We suggest that plagiarism should be understood as "someone using someone else's intellectual
product (such as texts, ideas, or results), thereby implying that it is their own" and argue that this
is an adequate and fruitful definition.

HOW TO AVOID PLAGARISM

Paraphrase - So you have found information that is perfect for your research paper. Read it and
put it into your own words. Make sure that you do not copy verbatim more than two words in a
row from the text you have found. If you do use more than two words together, you will have to
use quotation marks. We will get into quoting properly soon.

Cite - Citing is one of the effective ways to avoid plagiarism. Follow the document formatting
guidelines (i.e. APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) used by your educational institution or the institution
that issued the research request. This usually entails the addition of the author(s) and the date of

124
the publication or similar information. Citing is really that simple. Not citing properly can
constitute plagiarism

Quoting - When quoting a source, use the quote exactly the way it appears. No one wants to be
misquoted. Most institutions of higher learning frown on “block quotes” or quotes of 40 words or
more. A scholar should be able to effectively paraphrase most material. This process takes time,
but the effort pays off! Quoting must be done correctly to avoid plagiarism allegations

Citing Quotes - Citing a quote can be different than citing paraphrased material. This practice
usually involves the addition of a page number, or a paragraph number in the case of web content

Citing Your Own Material - If some of the material you are using for your research paper was
used by you in your current class, a previous one, or anywhere else you must cite yourself. Treat
the text the same as you would if someone else wrote it. It may sound odd, but using material you
have used before is called self-plagiarism, and it is not acceptable.

Referencing - One of the most important ways to avoid plagiarism is including a reference page
or page of works cited at the end of your research paper. Again, this page must meet the document
formatting guidelines used by your educational institution. This information is very specific and
includes the author(s), date of publication, title, and source. Follow the directions for this page
carefully. You will want to get the references right.

125
 CHAPTER NINE
REFERENCING STYLE

INTRODUCTION

A referencing style is a specific format for presenting your in-text references (footnotes or
endnotes), and bibliography. There are hundreds of different referencing styles. There a quite a
few referencing styles. However, for the purpose of this book, and the fact the these two are the
most used by research practitioners and students alike, this book limit the discussion on the APA
and the Harvard Referencing Styles

APA REFERENCING STYLE

APA (American Psychological Association) style is most frequently used within the social
sciences, in order to cite various sources. This APA Citation Guide, revised according to the 6th
edition of the APA manual, provides the general format for in-text citations and the reference
page. For more information, please consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association, (6th ed.).

EXAMPLES

Books:

Surname, Initial(s). Date. Title. Edition. Place of Publication: Publisher. (Series.)

Example 1: Book with a single author:

Comfort, A. 1997. A good age. 2nd Edition. London: Mitchell Beazley.

Example 2: Book with 2 to 6 authors:

126
Wit, J. S., Poneman, D. B. & Gallucci, R. L. 2004. Going critical: the first North Korean nuclear
crisis. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press

Example 3: Book with more than 6 authors:

Roeder, K., Howdeshell, J., Fulton, L., Lochhead, M., Craig, K., Peterson, R., et.al. 1967. Nerve
cells and insect behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Book Chapters:

Surname, Initial(s). Date. Chapter title, in Book Title, edited by Editor first name. Editor Surname.
Place of Publication: Publisher: Pages in book.

Example:

Blaxter, M. 1976. Social class and health inequalities, in Equalities and inequalities in health,
edited by Carl J. Carter. London: Academic Press: 120-135.

Journal Articles:

Surname, Initial(s). Date. Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume(issue number): page
numbers.

Example:

Wharton, N. 1996. Health and safety in outdoor activity centers. Journal of Adventure Education
and Outdoor Leadership, 12(4): 8-9.

Article from a Database:

Surname, Initials. Date. Article Title. Journal Title, volume (issue number): page numbers. (Date
accessed, from Database).

127
Example:

Sopensky, E. 2002. Chocolate makes money, Business Journal. 3(1): 20-24. (Accessed April 14,
2004, from ProQuest database).

Website:

Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence:

Surname, initial(s). Date (last updated). Title of Website. [Online]. Publisher. Available: URL.
[Date you accessed the site].

Example:

Dawson, J., Deubert, K., Grey-Smith, S. & Smith, L. 2002. 'S' Trek 6: Referencing, not plagiarism.
[Online]. Available: http://lisweb.curtin.edu.au/guides/studytrekk/strek6.html. [4 September
2004].

HARVARD REFERENCCING STYLE

The Harvard style of referencing is often referred to as the "author-date" style. It is a style of
referencing, primarily used by university students, to cite information sources.

Two types of citations are included:

1. In-text citations are used when directly quoting or paraphrasing a source. They are located
in the body of the work and contain a fragment of the full citation.

Depending on the source type, some Harvard Reference in-text citations may look
something like this:

"After that I lived like a young rajah in all the capitals of Europe…" (Fitzgerald, 2004).

2. Reference Lists are located at the end of the work and display full citations for sources
used in the assignment.

128
 Here is an example of a full citation for a book found in a Harvard Reference list:

Fitzgerald, F. (2004). The great Gatsby. New York: Scribner.

HARVARD REFERENCE LIST OVERVIEW

Reference lists are created to allow readers to locate original sources themselves. Each citation in
a reference list includes various pieces of information including the:

1. Name of the author(s)

2. Year published

3. Title

4. City published

5. Publisher

6. Pages used

Generally, Harvard Reference List citations follow this format:

Last name, First Initial. (Year published). Title. City: Publisher, Page(s).

Citations are listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.

If there are multiple sources by the same author, then citations are listed in order by the date of
publication.

Harvard Reference List Citations for Books with One Author

The structure for a Harvard Reference List citation for books with one author includes the
following:

 Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title. Edition. (Only include the edition if it is
not the first edition) City published: Publisher, Page(s).

129
If the edition isn’t listed, it is safe to assume that it is the first addition, and does not need to be
included in the citation.

Example: One author AND first edition:

 Patterson, J. (2005). Maximum ride. New York: Little, Brown.

Example: One author and not the first edition

 Dahl, R. (2004). Charlie and the chocolate factory. 6th ed. New York: Knopf.

Harvard Reference List Citations for Books with Two or More Authors

When creating a citation that has more than one author, place the names in the order in which
they appear on the source. Use the word “and” to separate the names.

 Last name, First initial. and Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title. City:
Publisher, Page(s).

Example:

 Desikan, S. and Ramesh, G. (2006). Software testing. Bangalore, India: Dorling

Kindersley, p.156.

 Vermaat, M., Sebok, S., Freund, S., Campbell, J. and Frydenberg, M. (2014). Discovering
computers. Boston: Cengage Learning, pp.446-448.

 Daniels, K., Patterson, G. and Dunston, Y. (2014). The ultimate student teaching guide.
2nd ed. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, pp.145-151.

Harvard Reference List Citations for Chapters in Edited Books

When citing a chapter in an edited book, use the following format:

130
  Last name, First initial. (Year published). Chapter title. In: First initial. Last name, ed., Book
Title, 1st ed.* City: Publisher, Page(s).

 Bressler, L. (2010). My girl, Kylie. In: L. Matheson, ed., The Dogs That We Love, 1st ed.
Boston: Jacobson Ltd., pp. 78-92.

Harvard Reference List Citations for Print Journal Articles

The standard structure of a print journal citation includes the following components:

 Last name, First initial. (Year published). Article title. Journal, Volume (Issue), Page(s).

Examples:

 Ross, N. (2015). On Truth Content and False Consciousness in Adorno’s Aesthetic

Theory. Philosophy Today, 59(2), pp. 269-290.

 Dismuke, C. and Egede, L. (2015). The Impact of Cognitive, Social and Physical
Limitations on Income in Community Dwelling Adults With Chronic Medical and Mental
Disorders. Global Journal of Health Science, 7(5), pp. 183-195.

Harvard Reference List Citations for Print Newspaper Articles

When citing a newspaper, use the following structure:

 Last name, First initial. (Year published). Article title. Newspaper, Page(s).
Example:

 Weisman, J. (2015). Deal Reached on Fast-Track Authority for Obama on Trade

Accord. The New York Times, p.A1.

131
 BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Alexander, M. 2008. Management planning for nature conservation: a theoretical basis &
practical guide. London: Springer.

American Psychological Association. 2002. Ethical principles of psychologists and code of

conduct. American Psychologist, 57(12).

Atkinson, J. 2001. Developing teams through project-based learning. Berlin: Gower Publishing,
Ltd.

Bajpai, N. 2011. “Business Research Methods”. New Delhi: Pearson Education India

Blaxter, L., Hughes, C. & Tight, M. 2006. How to Research (3rd ed.). Warsaw: McGraw-Hill
International.

Browne, M.N & Keeley, S.M 2003 Asking the Right Questions: A guide to critical thinking,
Harlow: Prentice Hal.

Bryman, A. 2004. Social research methods (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bryman, A. & Bell, E. 2003 Business research Methods, New York: Oxford University Press.

Burns, R., 2000. Introduction to Research Methods. London: Sage.

Charmaz, Kathy 2006. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative
Analysis. London: Sage.

Clarke, Adele E. 2005. Situational Analysis: Grounded Theory after the Postmodern Turn.
London: Sage.

Collins, H. 2010 “Creative Research: The Theory and Practice of Research for the Creative
Industries”. London: AVA Publications

132
Collis, J. & Hussey, R. 2014 “Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and
Postgraduate Students” (4 ed.), Palgrave: Macmillan

Collis, J. & Hussey, R. 2003 Business Research: A Practical Guide for Undergraduate and
Postgraduate Students (2nd ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Creswell, J. 2002. Research Design: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches (2nd edn).
Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Easterby-Smith, M., Thorpe, R. Jackson, P. & Lowe, A. 2008. Management Research (3rd ed.).
London: Sage

Fisher, C. 2007. Researching and Writing a Dissertation for Business Students (2nd ed.) Harlow:
Financial Times Prentice Hall.

Franzosi, R. 2010. Quantitative Narrative Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Frey, B.S. & Osterloh, M. 2002. Successful management by motivation. Germany: Springer.

Gall, M.D., Gall, J.P. & Borg, W. 2006. Educational Research: An Introduction (8th ed.). New
York: Longman.

Ghauri, P. &Grønhaug, K. 2005. Research Methods in Business Studies: A Practical Guide (3rd
ed.). Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall.

Gill, J. & Johnson, P. 2002. Research Methods for Managers (3rd ed.). London: Sage.

Jankowicz, A.D. 2005. Business Research Projects (4th ed.). London: Thomson Learning.

Kleiman, S. 2004. Phenomenology: to wonder and search for meanings. Nurse Researcher 11(4):
7-19

Locke, K. 2001. Grounded Theory in Management Research, London: Sage Publication.

Makndakis, S, Wheelwright S.C & Hyndman, R.J (1998) Forecasting: Methods and Applications,
New Jersey: John Wesley and Sons Inc.

Malhotra, N. 2007. "Marketing Research", Pearson Education, New: Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.

133
Maylor, H. & Blackmon, K. 2005. Researching Business and Management, Palgrave: Macmillan,
Basingstoke.

Miles, M., Huberman, M. & Saldaña, J. 2014. Qualitative data analysis: A methods source book.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Myers, M.D. 2008. “Qualitative Research in Business & Management”. Harrow: SAGE
Publications

Neville, C. 2007. The complete guide to referencing and plagiarism. Maidenhead: Open
University Press

Newton, R.R. & Rudestam, K.E. 1999. Your statistical consultant: answers to your data analysis
questions. London: Sage

Oppenhen, A.N. 1992. Questionnaire design, interviewing and attitude measurement, London: St.
Martin’s Press.

Runkel, P. 1990. Casting nets and testing specimens: Two grand methods of psychology. New
York: Praeger.

Sales, B.D., & Folkman, S. 2000. Ethics in research with human participants. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. 2012 “Research Methods for Business Students” (6 ed.),
New York: Pearson Education Limited

Saunders, M. & Lewis P. 2007 Research Methods for Business Students, Pearson Education,
Harlow

Schulz, M. L & Christriane, N. 1999. Awakening Intuition. New Jersey: Three Rivers Press

Sharp, J.A., Peters, J. & Howard, K. 2002. The Management of a Student Research Project. (3rd
ed.). Aldershot: Gower.

Sutton, R. I. & Barry M. S. 1995. “What Theory is Not” Administrative Science Quarterly 40,
371-384.

134
Tashakkori, A. & Teddlie, C. 1998. Mixed Methodology: Combining Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Zikmund W G. 2003. Business Research Methods, (7th ed.). New Jersey: Thomson/South-
Western.

135