1.

RESISTORS

Introduction:
An instrument, if we look at an inside of the system, there may be a large number of components
but all of those can be categorized into two groups with five different types.
Groups – Passive components
- Active components
Types – Resistors, inductors, capacitors, tubes and semiconductor devices.
Passive components are an electronic device which cannot process the electrical signal.
Active components are capable of amplifying or processing an electrical signal by themselves.
1.1DEFINE THE TERM RESISTANCE.
Resistors are passive electronic components used to oppose the flow of electricity. The
property of resistor is ‘Resistance’ - It is defined as the ‘opposition to the flow of current’.
The unit of resistance is ‘OHM’, its symbol is ‘Ω’ It is the amount of opposition to the flow
electricity between the two ends of a conductor.
1.2 CLASSIFY TYPES OF RESISTORS:

Resistors

Fixed variable

Carbon Wire Precision

General
Precision wound Type
Purpose
Carbon
Composition
( Solid Rheostat
Type) Wire Wound
Potentio
Carbon Film meters
(Film Type) Metal Film
Carbon

Wire Wound

1.3 RELATION FOR R=ρl/a:

The Resistance ‘R’ offered by a material depends on various factors
• Varies directly on its length, (l)
• Varies inversely on its cross section area, (A)
• Depends on the nature of the material specified by its Resistivity or Specific Resistance,
(ρ)
• Also depends on the temperature
•

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Assuming that the temperature is constant, the Resistance (R) can be expressed as
R = ρl / A
Where R is resistance in ohms ( Ω )
l is length in meters
A is area in square meters
ρ is Specific Resistance in Ω-mts
1.4 SPECIFICATIONS OF RESISTOR:
1. Resistance Value:
This is the value of resistance in ohms. This value is either printed or colour coded over the
body. The resistance value ranges from 1 Ω to many MΩ Resistors.
2. Tolerance:
This is the variation in the value of resistance that is expected from the exact indicated
value. Usually tolerance is represented in percentage.
3. Power Rating:
The power rating is very important, that it determines the maximum current that a resistor
can with stand without being destroyed. The power rating of a resistor is specified in watts at a
specific temperature such 1W at 700C.
4. Temperature coefficient of Resistance (α): It gives the variation of resistance with a change
in temperature. It is usually measured with reference to resistance at 250C.
5. Voltage Coefficient: It is measured as the change of resistance of a resistor with a change in
the applied voltage.
6. High Frequency Performance: Resistors are basically frequency insensitive.But at very high
frequencies, capacitive and inductive effects changes Resistance value.
7. Noise Figure: When a D.C current is passed through a resistor R the voltage drop across the
resistor is not only Idc.R, but it is superimposed by fluctuations called noise.
8. Stability: Measure of consistency in Resistance value in different atmospheric conditions.
9. Size, Shape and Leads: Resistors are available in different sizes (small, Big) and shapes(rod,
disc washer) with different types (axial, radial lug) of leads or terminals.
1.5 COLOUR CODE OF A RESISTOR:
The value of carbon resistors are colour coded to indicate the resistance value in ohms. Usually
3 to 4 colour bands are printed on the body with each colour having a value. They appear
differently on axial and radial Resistors.

Fig: Representation of colour bands in resistors

1. The 1 colour band indicates the 1st Digit in the value of resistance.
st

2. The 2nd colour band indicates the 2nd Digit in the value of resistance.

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3. The 3rd colour band indicates the multiplier.

4. The 4th colour band indicates the tolerance the resulting number is the resistance in ohms.
Color 1st Digit 2nd Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 0 1 --

Brown 1 1 10 1%

Red 2 2 100 2%

Orange 3 3 1,000 3%

Yellow 4 4 10,000 4%

Green 5 5 100,000 --

Blue 6 6 1,000,000 --

Violet 7 7 10,000,000 - -

Gray 8 8 100,000,000 - -

White 9 9 109 --

Gold -- -- 0.1 (EIA) --

Silver -- -- 0.01 (EIA) - -

No Color - - -- -- 20%

1.6Find the value of Resistance by using colour code.

How to compute Resistance value?
1st Colour band or ring on the body
• Indicates first digit of the Resistance value.
2nd Colour band or ring on the body
• Indicates second digit of Resistance value.
3rd colour band or ring indicates.
• Multiplier or the no. of zeroes after the first 2 digits.
4th colour band or ring indicates.
• Tolerance percentage.

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Finding the Resistance value:

• For the following colour sequence, find the Resistance value along with Tolerance.
Brown, Black, Red, Gold
We know that the value of
Brown = 1, Black = 0, Red = 2, Gold = 5%
• The Resistance value is computed as
First Digit -1
Second Digit - 0
Multiplier - 2 zeroes after the 2nd Digit
So, the Resistance value is 1000 Ω
• The Tolerance percentage is 5%
Rated value = 1000 Ω, 5% of it is 50 Ω
So Tolerance = 50 Ω
So the Resistance value will be in the range of (1000 – 50) Ω to (1000 + 50) Ω,
from 950 Ω to 1050 Ω
1.7(a) RESISTORS CONNECTED IN SERIES:
Each Resistance has two ends. If one end of a resistor is joined with one end of another
resistance and finally two ends are brought out from the combination, then they are said to be
connected in series. So that there are said to be connected in series. So that there is only one path
of current to flow as shown below.

By applying ohm’s law the voltage across the resistances is

V1 = I R1, V2 = I R2
We have V = V1 + V2
= I R1+ I R2
V= I (R1 + R2)
𝑉
= R1 + R2
𝐼

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 1. RESISTORS

𝑉
But is the total resistance (R)
𝐼

Therefore, R is called total (or) equivalent resistance of 2 resistances

R = R1 + R2
Hence, from the above, when a number of resistances are connected in series total
resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
If ‘n’ of resistances are connected in series, the total (or) equivalent resistance is
R = R1 + R2 + R3……….. + Rn
1.7 (b)RESISTORS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL:
A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with their heads connected together,
and their tails connected together. The current in a parallel circuit breaks up. The voltage across each
resistor in parallel is the same.

By applying ohm’s law the voltage across the resistances is

𝑉 𝑉
I1 = I2 =
𝑅1 𝑅2

We have I = I1 + I2
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉 1 1
=v( + )
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2

Therefore, R is called total (or) equivalent resistance of 2 resistances

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑹𝟏.𝑹𝟐
Req =
𝑹𝟏+ 𝑹𝟐
Hence, from the above, when a number of resistances are connected in parallel total
resistance is equal to the resistance which is less than the least resistance.
If ‘n’ of resistances are connected in parallel, the total (or) equivalent resistance is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + + ⋯+
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏

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1.10 Explain the effect of temperature on resistance:

The effect of temperature on resistance is different in different materials.
1. The resistance of pure metals like aluminum, copper increases with increases in temperature. It
means that all metals exhibit positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
2. In alloys the increase in resistance with temperature is very small. It exhibits Positive
temperature coefficient of resistance.
3. The resistance of semiconductors and insulators decreases with increase in temperature. These
semiconductors exhibit negative temperature coefficient
1.11 Define temperature co-efficient of resistance and derive the relation Rt=Ro(1+αot):
Temperature Coefficient Of Resistance(α):
For metallic conductors the resistance increases with increase with in temperature.
This increase in resistance depends directly on
• Its Initial Resistance. (R0)
• The Rise in Temperature.(t)
• The Nature of the Material.
Let us consider a conductor whose resistance is R0 at 0˚C and Rt at t° .The increase in resistance is
R = Rt – Ro
Rt – Ro α Ro t
(i.e., the increase in resistance depends on its initial resistance and rise in temperature.)
Rt – Ro = α Rot or
Rt = Ro (1 + α t).
‘α’ is constant & is known as temperature co-efficient of resistance of the conductor
Hence α = Rt – Ro
Rot
Hence temperature coefficient of resistance (α) of a material may be defined as the change in
resistance per ohm per degree centigrade.
1.12 Compare the features of carbon film metal film and wire wound resistors:

Sl.no. Feature Carbon Film Metal Film Wire Wound

1 Size Small Very Small Large

2 Power Rating Low Low High

3 Accuracy Low High High

4 Temp. Coefficient Negative Negative and Positive Zero

of Resistance

5 Applications Used in High Stability ckts. like Small signal amplifiers, Power supplies,
computers, telephones, high test & measuring control ckts.
fidelity amplifiers equipment TV Rxs., Bridges,
various instruments.

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1.13 Definition of a Potentiometer:

A potentiometer is a variable resistor. Its resistance changes from a minimum to a
maximum value for which it is designed. They are required for change of volume (sound),
brightness and contrast controls in practical applications like in TV and Radio receivers.
Types of Potentiometers:
Based on the material used they are classified into two types basically.
1. Carbon potentiometer.
2. Wire – wound potentiometer.
1. CARBON POTENTIOMETER:
• Carbon composition material is used as Resistive element. These resistors can be
constructed either in film or moulded track type.
• A mixture of carbon and graphite is added with resin bends and a film is coated on an
insulating base to form carbon track.
• It having three lug terminals in which Lug 1 and 3 are taken at the ends of carbon track.
Lug 2 is taken from the rotating arm which moves on the carbon resistive track.
• A mixture of Carbon and Graphite is added with resin binder and a film is coated on an
insulating base. The insulating base forms the carbon track.

• Three lug terminals are fixed. Lugs 1 & 3 are fixed at the two ends of the carbon track. Lug
2 is fixed to the rotating arm which makes contact with the resistive carbon track.
• As the shaft is rotated the arm moves the wiper to make contacts at different positions on
the resistive element hence the resistance varies. Entire assembly is enclosed by a case of
sheet metal.
Specifications:
• Resistance value : 100 Ω to 25 milli Ω
• Tolerance : ± 10 % and ± 20 %
• Power rating : ¼ watts to 2 watts.
Applications:
• Used for volume and tone controls in radio and TV receivers.
• Used for brightness, focus and contrast controls in TV receivers.
• Used in amplifier and oscillator circuits.

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2. WIRE WOUND TYPE POTENTIOMETER:

• Nichrome Wire is used as the resistive element in wire wound potentiometer.

• Nichrome wire is wound a flat strip of insulating former.
• The strip is then bent into a round shape.
• There is a rotating shaft at the center of the core.
• The shaft moves an arm and a contact point (wiper) from end to end of the resistance
element.
• There are three terminals coming out of a potentiometer.
• The outer two are the end points of the resistance element.
• The position of the rotating contact decides the resistance value of the potentiometer in the
circuit.
Specifications:
• Resistance value : 0.1 Ω to 150 K Ω
• Tolerance : 20 %
• Power rating : 1.5 Watts to 4 Watts.
Applications:
• Used in Amplifier balance controls.
• Small motor controls.
• Servo control circuits.
• TV receivers.
• Analog computers.
1.14 COMPARISON BETWEEN CARBON AND WIRE- WOUND POTENTIOMETERS:
S.No PARAMETER CARBON POT WIRE-WOUND POT

1. Resistive Element Carbon Composition Nichrome wire

2. Resistance value High Low

3. Power rating Low High

4. Obtaining Taper Easy Difficult

5. Stability Less More

6. Application Volume control Voltage control

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1.15 NEED FOR TAPERING:

In potentiometers the manner in which the resistance R varies with the rotation of the shaft is
known as tapering. It is used in potentiometer to maintain values of resistance. They are two types
of tapering.
1. Linear tapering:
• In the linear type, the former (the part over which the wire is wound) is of uniform height
and that is why the resistance varies linearly with the rotation of the contact.
• In Linear tapered Potentiometers, the resistance value changes in direct proportion to the
shaft rotation.

2. Non-linear tapering ( Logarithmic tapering):

• In nonlinear potentiometer, the height of the form is not uniform. Resistance change more
gradually at one end with bigger change at opposite end in logarithmic function.
• In Non-Linear Potentiometers, the resistance does not change proportionately to the
rotation of the shaft.

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1.16 RHEOSTAT:
A rheostat is a multi-(two) terminal variable resistor. Rheostats are designed to handle much
higher voltage and current.

Construction and working:

• Rheostat is a variable resistor with one terminal fixed and the other terminal connected to
wiper arm. Usually rheostats are wire wound variable resistors used to control relative large
values of currents in low resistance circuits for AC power applications.
• Rheostat in their construction, resistances wire usually nichrome wire is wounded on a
ceramic or cement former. This wire is coated with vitreous enamel. It is provided with a
sliding contact by which the value of rheostats can be varied.
• Rheostats are used to control relatively large values of current in low resistance circuits for
A.C applications.
Specifications:
• Resistance value : 1 Ω to 10 K Ω
• Power ratings : 100 watts
• Temperature : withstand up to 300 degrees centigrade
Applications:
• Used in Heater and Oven controls.
• Used in Light dimming controls.
• Used in speed control of DC motors.
• Used in arc welding process.

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