Documente Academic
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Submitted to
DOKTOR-INGENIEUR
presented by
Jamal Alnasseir
Erlangen 2007
As dissertation approved by
The Faculty of Engineering Science
of the Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
DOKTOR-INGENIEUR
vorgelegt von
Jamal Alnasseir
Erlangen 2007
Als Dissertation genehmigt von
der Technischen Fakultät
der Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg
Preface
This dissertation follows from my research work done as a doctoral student at the Institute for
Electrical Power System in the Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany.
I would like to express my deep thankfulness to my supervisor Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Gerhard
Herold for giving me the chance to this interesting research area, for his invaluable friendship, for his
completely trusts with me, and for the excellent working conditions.
I would like to thank Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil J. Petzoldt, TU Ilmenau, for being the external examiner
of my dissertation. A warm thanks also to Prof. Dr.-Ing. J. Schlücker for being one of my examiners.
My sincere thanks go to Prof. Dr.-Ing A. Hamzeh for his help and support.
I want to thank all my colleagues at my institute, Dr.-Ing Mayer, Prof. Dr-Ing. Jäger, Mrs. Biegel,
Mrs Gambel, Mrs. Strößner, Dipl.-Ing. Braisch, Dr.-Ing. Gawlik, Dipl.-Ing. Ebner, Dipl.-Ing.
Rubenbauer, Dipl.-Ing. Keil, Dipl.-Ing. Ramold, Dipl.-Ing. Rasic, Dipl.-Ing .Weiland, Dipl.-Ing.
Mladenovic, and Mr. Domhardt, for the unforgettable friendship, for their support, help and consulting
in technology, society and in everyday life. They make me truly enjoy the research work and always
have the feeling as at home.
Warm and special thanks to my colleagues Dr.-Ing Weidl, M.Sc. Gamil, Mr. Leuschner, Mr.
Ruschig and Mr. Oschmann and M.Sc. M. Assem Alrabat. Their support, friendship, discussion and
time for me are much appreciated.
Finally, my sincere gratitude goes to my parents, my sisters and brothers for their ongoing
encouragement and trust. Without their great support, this work would not have been done.
Vorwort
Vorwort
Die vorliegende Dissertation entstand während meines Aufenthaltes als Promotionsstudent am
Lehrstuhl für Elektrische Energieversorgung der Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg.
Meinem Doktorvater Herrn Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil G. Herold bin ich Ermöglichung dieser
hochinteressanten Arbeit, seine nette Unterstützung, für sein in mich gesetztes Vertrauen und die
ausgezeichneten Arbeitsbedingungen besonders zu Dank verpflichtet.
Herrn Prof. Dr.-Ing habil J. Petzoldt möchte ich für die Übernahme des Korreferates danken.
Herrn Prof. Dr.-Ing J. Schlücker danke ich herzlich für die Teilnahme an meinem Rigorosum als
fachfremder Prüfer.
Mein aufrichtiger Dank gehört Prof Dr.-Ing A. Hamzeh für seine Hilfe und Unterstützung.
Allen meinen Kolleginnen und Kollegen am Institut, besondere Dr.-Ing Mayer, Prof. Jäger, Fr..
Biegel, Fr. Gambel, Fr. Strößner, Dipl.-Ing. Braisch, Dr.-Ing. Gawlik, Dipl.-Ing. Ebner, Dipl.-Ing.
Rubenbauer, Dipl.-Ing. Keil, Dipl.-Ing. Ramold, Dipl.-Ing. Rasic, Dipl.-Ing. Weiland, Dipl.-Ing.
Mladenovic, and Mr. Domhardt, sei für ihren netten Hilfsstellung, die sehr gute Zusammenarbeit und
das angenehme Arbeitsklima besondere gedankt. Ich habe mich am Lehrstuhl stets wie zuhause
gefühlt.
Darüber hinaus möchte ich mich bei meinen Kollegen Dr.-Ing Weidl, M.Sc. Gamil, Mr.
Leuschner, Mr. Ruschig and Mr. Oschmann and M.Sc. M. Assem Alrabat, für ihre Unterstützung, die
zahlreichen Diskussionen und die aufgewandte Zeit bedanken.
Schließlich geht mein lieber Dank an meine Eltern und meine Geschwister für ihre fortwährende
Ermutigung sowie für ihr Vertrauen. Ohne das hätte ich die Arbeit nicht durchführen können.
Contents
Contents
1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 1
2 Einleitung ............................................................................................................................................... 3
3 Power Semiconductor Devices .............................................................................................................. 6
3.1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6
3.2 Principal high power device characteristics and requirements ........................................................... 8
3.2.1 Voltage and current rating............................................................................................................ 8
3.2.2 Losses and speed of switching ..................................................................................................... 9
3.2.3 Parameter trade-off of the devices ............................................................................................... 9
3.3 Power device material....................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 Perspectives on power devices equipment........................................................................................ 10
3.5 Power diodes..................................................................................................................................... 10
3.5.1 Dynamic characteristics of power switching diodes.................................................................. 11
3.5.2 Reverse-recovery characteristic ................................................................................................. 12
3.5.3 Power diodes types..................................................................................................................... 12
3.6 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) ........................................................................................ 13
3.6.1 Switching characteristic of the IGBT ........................................................................................ 15
3.7 Types of high-power thyristor devices.............................................................................................. 15
3.7.1 Thyristors ................................................................................................................................... 16
3.7.1.1 Switching characteristic of thyristor (SCR) ........................................................................ 19
3.7.2 Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) .................................................................................................... 20
3.7.2.1 Switching characteristics of GTO (turn-on and turn-off process) ...................................... 22
3.7.3 MOS Turn-Off Thyristor ........................................................................................................... 23
3.7.4 Emitter Turn-on Thyristor (ETO) .............................................................................................. 24
3.7.5 Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (GCT and IGCT) ........................................................ 25
3.7.6 MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT) ............................................................................................ 26
3.8 Control characteristic of power devices............................................................................................ 27
4 FACTS concept and general system considerations ............................................................................ 29
4.1 Need of transmission interconnection............................................................................................... 29
4.2 Opportunities of FACTS................................................................................................................... 29
4.3 Basic types of FACTS controller ...................................................................................................... 30
4.3.1 Series Controller: ....................................................................................................................... 30
4.3.2 Shunt controller.......................................................................................................................... 31
4.3.3 Combined series-series controller.............................................................................................. 31
4.3.4 Combined series-shunt controller .............................................................................................. 31
4.4 Relative importance of different types of controllers ....................................................................... 31
4.5 Description and definition of FACTS Controllers............................................................................ 34
4.6 Shunt connected controllers .............................................................................................................. 35
4.6.1 Static Synchronous Compensator .............................................................................................. 35
4.6.2 Static Synchronous Generator (SSG)......................................................................................... 36
4.6.3 Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) .................................................................................... 36
4.6.4 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)................................................................. 36
4.6.5 Static Var Compensator (SVC).................................................................................................. 36
4.6.6 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR).......................................................................................... 37
4.6.7 Thyristor-Switched Reactor (TSR) ............................................................................................ 37
I
Contents
IV
Inhaltverzeichnis
Inhaltsverzeichnis
1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................ 1
2 Einleitung ............................................................................................................................................... 3
3 Power Semiconductor Devices .............................................................................................................. 6
3.1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 6
3.2 Principal high power device characteristics and requirements ........................................................... 8
3.2.1 Voltage and current rating............................................................................................................ 8
3.2.2 Losses and speed of switching ..................................................................................................... 9
3.2.3 Parameter trade-off of the devices ............................................................................................... 9
3.3 Power device material....................................................................................................................... 10
3.4 Perspectives on power devices equipment........................................................................................ 10
3.5 Power diodes..................................................................................................................................... 10
3.5.1 Dynamic characteristics of power switching diodes.................................................................. 11
3.5.2 Reverse-recovery characteristic ................................................................................................. 12
3.5.3 Power diodes types..................................................................................................................... 12
3.6 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) ........................................................................................ 13
3.6.1 Switching characteristic of the IGBT ........................................................................................ 15
3.7 Types of high-power thyristor devices.............................................................................................. 15
3.7.1 Thyristors ................................................................................................................................... 16
3.7.1.1 Switching characteristic of thyristor (SCR) ........................................................................ 19
3.7.2 Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) .................................................................................................... 20
3.7.2.1 Switching characteristics of GTO (turn-on and turn-off process) ...................................... 22
3.7.3 MOS Turn-Off Thyristor ........................................................................................................... 23
3.7.4 Emitter Turn-on Thyristor (ETO) .............................................................................................. 24
3.7.5 Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (GCT and IGCT) ........................................................ 25
3.7.6 MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT) ............................................................................................ 26
3.8 Control characteristic of power devices............................................................................................ 27
4 FACTS concept and general system considerations ............................................................................ 29
4.1 Need of transmission interconnection............................................................................................... 29
4.2 Opportunities of FACTS................................................................................................................... 29
4.3 Basic types of FACTS controller ...................................................................................................... 30
4.3.1 Series Controller: ....................................................................................................................... 30
4.3.2 Shunt controller.......................................................................................................................... 31
4.3.3 Combined series-series controller.............................................................................................. 31
4.3.4 Combined series-shunt controller .............................................................................................. 31
4.4 Relative importance of different types of controllers ....................................................................... 31
4.5 Description and definition of FACTS Controllers............................................................................ 34
4.6 Shunt connected controllers .............................................................................................................. 35
4.6.1 Static Synchronous Compensator .............................................................................................. 35
4.6.2 Static Synchronous Generator (SSG)......................................................................................... 36
4.6.3 Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) .................................................................................... 36
4.6.4 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)................................................................. 36
4.6.5 Static Var Compensator (SVC).................................................................................................. 36
4.6.6 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR).......................................................................................... 37
V
Inhaltverzeichnis
VIII
Chapter 1 Introduction
1 Introduction
Recently the multi-level voltage-sourced inverters and converters have drawn tremendous interest
for high power applications. The typical Applications are modern HVDC systems and FACTS
(Flexible AC Transmission Systems). These inverters typically have ratings of 300 MVA and above
and they e.g. are used to increase the power transmission capacity of existing lines or to improve the
power system stability. Therefore high-power semiconductor devices like high-power GTOs, IGCTs
and IGBTs are the best suitable devices for these high rating converters. The power semiconductor
devices need protection systems to overcome the electrical stresses which are placed on the device
during the switching process (turn-off and turn-on) to safe levels within the electrical range of the
device. These protection systems are called snubber circuit. The conventional snubber circuits are RCD
and RLD. Snubber circuits would be used to protect the power semiconductor devices (all Thyristor and
transistor types) and reduce the electrical stresses brought to the device during the switching operations
under normal operation conditions and under several fault conditions. This means that the rate of the
anode-cathode voltage growth, dv/dt, and the rate of current increasement, di/dt, for e.g., GTOs, must
be limited below certain levels to prevent the destruction of the power semiconductor device caused by
the current crowding and the failure in turning-off, respectively. There are different types of snubber
circuit proposed by W. McMurray and T. Undeland. The snubber circuits can be divided into
unpolarized (RC) and polarized snubber circuits (RCD, and RLD) or turn-off and turn-on and over-
voltage snubber circuits. The turn-on snubber consists of an inductor with a parallel resistor and a diode
in series to the power semiconductor device to limit the changing rate of the current di/dt. While the
turn-off snubbers consist of a capacitor in series with a parallel-connected resistor and diode.
In FACTS systems, the magnitude of the AC output voltage would be wanted to vary without
having to change the magnitude of the DC voltage, the three-level converter is a common converter
system. The power switching semiconductor device must be protected in this converter. Therefore
snubber circuit should be used. Normally, conventional RCD and RLD will be suitable as a protection
system.
A new circuit designs for the protection of three-level converters will be presented. Firstly, the so-
called ‘Double Snubber Circuit’ optimises the behaviour of conventional RCD snubber circuits
especially in the direction of the over voltage protection and allows a minimizing of the total losses in
the entire circuit including the power semiconductors. The proposed circuit overcomes hereby the
limitations of many of the existing designs, because the losses and the over voltage can be controlled
using only a handful of additional passive elements. The second proposed design ‘optimized snubber
design’ still comprises most of the positive features as a low number of components, improved
efficiency due to the low number of snubber elements and power semiconductor losses, reduced over-
voltage across the semiconductor devices and no balancing problems. The third design “Dual-use
snubber Circuit” has almost the same advantages of the second design and it has an additional
advantage while the turn-off resistor is more effective in the new location. The fourth proposed design
is “dual-inductive snubber circuit”, which is the same as the third design but with a new turn-on
snubber circuit. The turn-on snubber circuit has an extra inductor which is connected to the snubber
circuit resistor. The over-voltage across the switching devices is strongly suppressed and the current
peaks are limited much more. With these advantages, the new proposed snubber circuits can be used
for high power inverters as well as the Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS). The presented
snubber circuits have been analyzed and confronted with different existing converter designs using a
simulation environment. The simulation results are compared with a standardized three level inverter
system to verify the opportunities of the new snubber design.
1
Chapter 1 Introduction
2
Chapter 2 Einleitung
2 Einleitung
Insbesondere in den letzten Jahren haben die Mehrpunktumrichter großes Interesse u.a. für
Hochleistungsanwendungen erlangt. Die typischen Anwendungen sind moderne HVDC -Systeme und
FACTS-Analgen. Nennwerte von mehr als 300MVA sind typisch für diese Stromrichter.
Beispielsweise werden sie genutzt, um die Übertragungsfähigkeit von Übertragungsleitungen zu
steigern oder die Stabilität des Versorgungssystems zu verbessern. Die eingesetzten
Hochleistungshalbleiter wie z.B. GTO, IGCT und IGBT bilden die Basis für diese Stromrichter im
Höchstleistungsbereich. Diese Leistungshalbleiterschalter benötigen Schutzsysteme, um u.a. die
Spannungsbeanspruchungen zu überstehen, die auf die Schalter während der Schaltvorgänge
einwirken. Diese Schutzsysteme werden „Schutzbeschaltungen“ oder auch „Snubber circuits“ genannt.
Die konventionellen Schutzbeschaltungen bezeichnet man als RCD- und RLD-Snubber. Sie
werden genutzt, um die Leistungshalbleiter (alle Thyristor- und Transistorenarten) zu schützen und die
elektrischen Beanspruchungen zu verringern, welche während des Schaltbetriebs unter Normalbetrieb
und in verschiedenen Fehlerfällen einwirken. Das heißt, der Anstieg der Anoden-Kathoden-Spannung,
und der Stromanstieg müssen auf definierte Pegel begrenzt werden, um eine Zerstörung der
Leistungshalbleiter insbesondere im Fehlerfall zu vermeiden. Es gibt verschiedene Typen der von W.
McMurray und T. Undeland vorgeschlagenen Schutzbeschaltungen. Die Schutzbeschaltungen könnten
in symmetrische RC und unsymmetrische RCD und RLD Schutzbeschaltungen oder Einschalt-,
Ausschalt-, und Überspannungsschutzbeschaltungen untergliedert werden. Die
Einschaltschutzbeschaltung besteht aus einer Drossel mit Nebenschlusswiderstand und
Reihenschlussdiode, um die Änderungsrate des Stromes zu begrenzen. Dagegen besteht die
Ausschaltschutzbeschaltung in der Regel aus einem Kondensator in Reihe mit einer Parallelschaltung
aus Widerstand und Diode.
In Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit werden neue Entwürfe für den Schutz der
Dreipunktumrichter vorgestellt. Zuerst optimiert die so genannte „Doppelschutzbeschaltung“ oder
„Double snubber circuit“ das Verhalten der konventionellen RCD-Schutzbeschaltungen, insbesondere
in die Richtung des Überspannungsschutzes. Zusätzlich erlaubt diese eine Minimierung der
Gesamtverluste. Die vorgeschlagene Schaltung besticht gegenüber vielen existierenden Entwürfen, da
die Verluste und die Überspannungen nur anhand einiger weniger zusätzlicher passiver Elemente
kontrolliert werden können. Der zweite vorgeschlagene Entwurf „Optimierter
Schutzbeschaltungsentwurf“ oder auch „ optimized snubber circuit design“ beinhaltet viele dieser
positiven Eigenschaften wie z.B. niedrige Zahl der Komponenten, verbesserter Wirkungsgrad wegen
den wenigen Schutzbeschaltungselementen, niedrige Leistungshalbleiterverluste, reduzierte
Überspannungen über den Halbleitern und keine Probleme bzgl. einer unsymmetrischen
Spannungsaufteilung. Der Dritte Vorschlag „zweifache Schutzbeschaltung“ oder „Dual-use snubber
design“ hat fast identische Vorteile und dazu noch einen Vorteil, dass der Ausschaltwiderstand weit
effektiver an der neuen Position eingesetzt wird. Der vierte vorgeschlagene Entwurf ist "die Doppel-
induktive Schutzbeschaltung“, oder auch „dual-inductive snubber circuit“, die bis auf eine veränderte
Einschaltschutzbeschaltung dem des dritten Entwurfs entspricht. Die Einschaltschutzbeschaltung
3
Chapter 2 Einleitung
umfasst eine zusätzliche Drosselspule, die mit dem Widerstand der Einschaltschutzbeschaltung parallel
geschaltet ist. Die Überspannung über dem Leistungshalbleiter wird noch stärker unterdrückt und der
Stromspitzen werden noch besser begrenzt. Mit diesen Vorteilen können die neuen
Schutzbeschaltungen für Hochleistungsstromrichter als auch in FACTS eingesetzt werden. Die
vorgestellte Schutzbeschaltung wurde eingehend analysiert und mit verschiedenen existierenden
Stromrichterentwürfen anhand einer Simulationsumgebung verglichen. Die Simulationsergebnisse
werden mit einem üblichen Dreipunktumrichter verglichen, um die Vorteile der neuen
Schutzbeschaltung zu verifizieren.
Kapitel 3: „Leistungshalbleiter“, in diesem Kapitel werden die neueren Generationen von der
Hochleistungshalbleitern vorgestellt. Die Leistungshalbleiter wie GTO, IGBT und IGCT sind die
wesentlichen Betriebsmittel in allen Leistungsumwandlungsanwendungen. Zusätzlich wird das
Grundverhalten der Leistungshalbleiter kurz dargestellt.
Kapitel 4: „FACTS-Anlagen“ stellt die Grundprinzipien der FACTS Technologie vor, die neuen
Möglichkeiten zur Leistungsregelung und die zusätzlichen Nutzungsmöglichkeiten in den Systemen
der elektrischen Energievorsorgung. FACTS-Regler lassen sich prinzipiell in vier Kategorien einteilen:
Reihenschaltung, Parallelschaltung, kombinierte Reihen-Reihenschaltung und Reihen-
Parallelschaltung. Die oben genannten Typen werden kurz dargestellt.
Kapitel 5: „Stromrichter mit Spannungszwischenkreis“. Der VSC ist das am meisten verbreitete
Betriebsmittel innerhalb der FACTS. Die Grundfunktion des VSC und die Topologie der
Stromrichterventile, der einphasigen Halbbrücke und der Vollbrücke, die Vollbrücke mit SPWM und
der dreiphasige VSC werden vorgestellt. Schließlich wird der Dreipunktumrichter mit der zugehörigen
Pulsbreitenmodulation (PWM) diskutieret.
4
Chapter 2 Einleitung
Kapitel 10: "Zusammenfassung" gibt einen Überblick über die vorliegende Dissertation.
Appendix A1 ist eine Liste von Notationen und Formelzeichen. Appendix A2 ist die Liste der
Abbildungen. Appendix A3 ist die Liste der Tabelle. Das Literaturverzeichnis schließt die Dissertation
ab.
5
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
3.1. Introduction
The modern age of power electronics began with the introduction of Thyristors in the late
1950s. Now there are several types of power devices available for high-power and high-frequency
applications. The most notable ones are gate turn-off Thyristors, power Darlington transistors,
power MOSFETs, and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). Power semiconductor devices are
the most important functional elements in all power conversion applications. The power devices are
mainly used as switches to convert power from one form to another. They are used in motor control
systems, uninterrupted power supplies, high-voltage DC transmission, FACTS-Systems (Flexible
AC Transmission Systems), power supplies, induction heating and in many other power conversion
applications. A review of the basic characteristics of these power devices is presented in this section
[1].
A power semiconductor switch (power semiconductor device) is a component that is controlled
to either conduct a current when it is commanded ON or block a voltage when it is commanded
OFF. This change of conductivity is made possible in a semiconductor by specially arranged device
structures that control the carrier transportation. The time that it takes to change the conductivity is
also reduced to the microsecond level as compared to the millisecond level of a mechanical switch.
By employing this kind of switches, a designed electrical system can control the flow of electric
energy and shaping the electricity into desired forms. On the other hand, if a power semiconductor
device can block forward voltage as well as the reverse voltage during the OFF state, it is defined as
a symmetrical device. On the other hand, a power semiconductor device that can only block the
forward voltage during the OFF state is defined as an asymmetrical device. Most of the
semiconductor devices can only conduct forward current during the ON state [1], [2]. Therefore, the
symmetrical device has three operational states:
• Forward conduction mode.
• Forward blocking mode.
• Reverse blocking mode.
Fig.3-1 shows the operational modes for the both the symmetrical and the asymmetrical devices
respectively, for a symmetrical device, only two operation modes exist: forward conduction mode
and forward blocking mode.
The intent of this section is to give only general information about the most important power
semiconductor devices which are suitable for FACTS Controllers. Sufficient information is
provided for power system engineers to understand the option and their relevance to FACTS
applications. Generally, FACTS applications represent a three-phase power rating from tens to
hundreds of megawatts. Basically, FACTS Controllers based on an assembly of AC/DC or /and
DC/AC converters and/or high power AC switches. A converter is an assembly of valves (without
other equipment). Each valve in turn is an assembly of power devices along with snubber circuits
(damping circuits) as needed and turn-on/turn-off gate drive circuits. Similarly, each AC switch is
an assembly of back-to-back connected power devices along with their snubber circuits and turn-
on/turn-off gate drive circuits.
6
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
Forward
conduction INom
VD-Nom
V
Forward blocking
(a) (b)
Fig.3-1 Device operational states for (a) symmetrical device and (b) asymmetrical device.
Nominal rating of large power devices is in range of 1-5 kA and 5-10 kV per device and their
useable circuit rating may be 25 to 50 % of their nominal rating. This conveys that the converters
and the AC switches would be an assembly of a large number of power devices. The converters, AC
switches, and devices are connected in series and/or in parallel in order to achieve the FACTS
Controllers rating and performance. Controllers in some cases may also be separated into single-
phase assemblies. These considerations provide an interesting possibility and indeed a necessity for
the supplier to adapt modularity for an effective use of power devices. If properly utilized
modularity, cannot only reduce the cost through standardization of modules and sub-modules but it
can also an asset from the user perspective in terms or reliability, redundancy, and staged
investment [3].
The device rating and characteristics and their exploitations have a significant leverage on the
cost, performance, size, weight, and losses of FACTS controllers. The leverage includes the cost of
all that surrounds the devices including snubber circuits, gate-driver circuits, transformers, and
other magnetic equipment such as filters, cooling equipment, losses, operating performance and
maintenance requirements. For example, faster switching capability leads to fewer snubber
component, lower snubber losses and adaptation of concepts that produce less harmonics and faster
FACTS Controller response. This is also important for successful implementation of particular
concepts of FACTS Controllers, such as active filters.
There are many advanced circuit concepts used in low power industrial applications, mostly
driven by basic cost, the economic application at high power level is largely a function of advances
in devices. These concepts include pulse width modulation (PWM), soft switching, resonant
converters, choppers, and others. Therefore, the design of FACTS Controllers equipment would
usually be based on the devices with best available characteristic, even at high prices. Although the
cost of devices is basically important factor, it would be correct to say that availability of devices
with better characteristics provides an important leverage for the FACTS option. The availability of
devices is considered now a competitive edge for suppliers of FACTS technology to meet certain
specified performance at lowest evaluated cost. Thus, cost, performance, and market success of
7
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
FACTS Controllers is very much tied to the progress in power semiconductors devices and their
packaging.
In general, high-power electronic devices are fast switches based on high-purity single-crystal
silicon wafers, designed for variety of switching characteristics. In their forward-conducting
direction, the devices may have control to turn on and to off the current flow when ordered to do so
by means of gate control. Some power devices are designed without the capability to block in
reverse direction, in which case they are provided with another reverse blocking device (diode) in
series or they are bypassed in reverse direction by another parallel device (diode). Basically, power
semiconductor devices consist of a variety of diodes, transistors, and thyristors [3].
Potentially, silicon crystal has very high voltage breakdown strength of 200kV/cm and
resistivety somewhere in between metals and insulators. Doping with impurities can alter its
conduction characteristic. With doping, the number of carriers is increased and as a result, its
withstand voltage decreases and its current capability increases. Lower doping means higher
voltage capability, but it means also higher forward voltage drop and lower current capability. To
some extent current and voltage capabilities are interchangeable as mentioned above. A larger
diameter naturally means higher current capability. A 125mm device has a current-carrying
capability of 3000-4000A and a voltage-withstand capability in the range of 6000-10,000 volts.
With higher device rating, the total number of devices as well as the cost of all the surrounding
components decreases. The highest blocking capability along with other desirable characteristics is
somewhere in the range of 8-10kV for thyristors, 5-8kV for GTO’s, and 3-5kV for IGBTs. After
making various allowances for over-voltages and redundancy in a circuit, the usable device voltage
will be about half the blocking voltage capability. More often than not, it will be necessary to
connect devices in series for high-voltage valves. Ensuring equal sharing of voltage during turn-on,
turn-off and dynamic voltage changes becomes a major exercise for a valve designer in considering
trade-offs among various means to do and deciding on the best mix. One of these means is the
matching of device, especially the device-switching characteristics.
Large power devices can be designed to handle several hundreds Amperes of load current,
which generally makes it unnecessary to connect devices in parallel. However, it is often the short-
circuit current duty that determines the required current capacity in which case connecting two
matched devices directly in parallel on the same heat sink is a good solution. Devices are usually
required to ride through to blocked state after one cycle of offset fault current in an application
circuit. While it is a common practice to use fuses in industrial power electronics, the usage of fuses
is undesirable in high-voltage applications such as FACTS Controllers. The device selection must
therefore consider all possible fault protection scenarios to decide on the current and voltage
8
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
margins as well as redundancy. The thyristor can carry a large overload current for a short periods
and a very large single-cycle current without failures. The thyristor and the diode family of devices
fail in a short circuit with low-voltage drop. So the circuit may continue to operate if the remaining
devices in the circuit can perform the needed function [3].
9
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
Advanced design and processing methods have been developed and continue to be developed. It
is common for device manufacturers to make the devices for individual large customers and even
individual large project orders, such as HVDC and FACTS projects. The switching speed, the
switching losses, the size, and the cost of snubber circuits and the associated losses, usually
attributed to the power semiconductor devices, largely result from the fact that the devices are sold
separately from gate-driver circuits and from the snubber circuit [4].
10
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
Power diodes are made of silicon pn junction with two terminals, anode and cathode. The pn
junction is formed by alloying, diffusion, and epitaxial growth as shown in Fig.3-2(b, c). Modern
techniques in diffusion and epitaxial processes permit the desired device characteristics. The diodes
have the following advantages:
• High mechanical and thermal reliability.
• High peak inverse voltage.
• Low reverse current and low forward voltage drop.
• High efficiency.
• Compactness.
Cathode Cathode
Cathode
n+
n
n-
P
P+
I T2 T1
Revserse leakage
A K Current
R V
V _
+
T1 T2
(a) (b)
Fig.3-3 (a) Diode forward- and (b) reverse-recovery-biased.
11
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
12
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
VF Vi
IF trr
(a) 0 t1 t
-VR t1 t2
(b)
Pn-Pno t
IRR/4
at Junction 0
VF I t
IF ≈
RL IO IRR
(c)
0
t
VR
IR ≈
RL (e)
V
(d) 0 t
t1 t2
-VR
Minority
Forward Transition
Carrier
bias interval, tt
storage, ts
The IGBT is a voltage controlled device. It has high impedance like a MOSFET and low on-
state conduction like BJT. Fig.3-5 shows the basic silicon cross-section of an IGBT. Its construction
is same as power MOSFET except that the n+ layer at the drain in a power MOSFET is replaced by
P+ substrate called collector. The IGBT has three terminals gate (G), collector (C), and emitter (E).
With the collector and the gate voltage positive with respect to the emitter the device is in forward
blocking mode. When the gate to emitter voltage becomes greater than the threshold voltage of
IGBT, an n- channel is formed in the P-region. Now the device is in forward conduction state. In
this state p+ substrate injects holes into the epitaxial n- layer. Increasing in the collator to emitter
13
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
voltage will result in increasing of injected holes concentration and finally a forward current
established.
Collector
C
C
p+
n+
n- epi
p G
n+ n+
G
Gate Gate
i1 i2
E
Emitter E
The advantage of the IGBT is its fast turn-on and turn-off because it is more like a majority
carrier (electrons) devices. It can be therefore used in pulse width modulator (PWM) converters
operating at high frequency. On the other hand being a transistor device, it has higher forward drop
voltage compared to thyristor type devices such as GTOs. Nevertheless, the IGBT has become a
workhorse for industrial applications and has reached sizes capable of application in the range of
10MW or more. The transistor devices, such as MOSFETs and IGBTs, potentially have current-
limiting capabilities by controlling the gate voltage. During this current-limiting action, the device
losses are very high, and in high-power applications, current-limiting action can only be used for
very short periods of a microsecond. Yet, this time can be enough to allow other protective actions
to be taken for safe turn-off of the devices. This feature is extremely valuable in voltage-sourced
converters, in which fault current can rapidly rise to high levels due to the presence of a large DC
capacitor across the converter. On the other hand, with fast sensing, combined with the fast turn-off
of the advanced GTOs, an effective turn-off can be achieved within 2-3µs. This method will also
spare the devices from high-power dissipation and sacrifice their useable capacity. The turn-off time
of the conventional GTOs is too long for high-speed protective turn-off. IGBT is coming from a
low-power end, has been pushing out conventional GTO’s rating go up (as available packaged
parallel-IGBTs). This is because the conventional GTO’s have serious disadvantages which are
basically related to the large gate-drive requirements, the slow-switching and the high-switching
losses. The IGBT has its own generic limitations, including: high forward voltage drop,
complexities with providing double-side cooling, the nature of the repetitive MOS on the chip limits
that can be achieved in increased blocking voltage. Also, IGBT production needs much clearer
production facility. A major advantage for IGBT for high-power applications is its low-switching
losses, fast switching, and current-limiting capability. However, with the advanced GTOs, and
MCT’s, which will be discussed later, there is a prospect for major advances for devices suitable for
a wide range of FACTS Controllers. On the other hand, future outcome often depends on the market
forces of volume production, and this is a favor of the IGBTs continuing to push its application to
14
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
higher power levels. Fig.3-6 shows the output characteristic of the collector current IC versus
collector to emitter voltage VCE for given value of gate to emitter voltage VGE [3], [4].
IC
VGE
VCE(sat) VCE
The rise time is the time required for the collector current to rise from 0.1IC to its final value IC.
After turn-on, the collector-emitter voltage VCE will be very small during the steady state
conduction of the device [3]. The turn-off time consists of the delay off time td(off) and fall time tf.
The off time delay is the time during which the collector current falls from IC to 0.9IC and VGE falls
to threshold voltage VGET. During the fall time tf the collector current falls from 0.90IC to 0.1IC.
During the turn-off time the interval collector-emitter voltage rises to its final value VCE. IGBT’s are
voltage controlled power transistors. They are faster than BJT’s, but still not quite as fast as
MOSFET’s. The IGBT’s offer superior drive and output characteristics compared to BJT’s. IGBT’s
are suitable for high voltage; high currents and frequencies up to 20KHz. IGBTs are available up to
1400V, 600Amps and 1200V, 1000Amps [4].
15
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
VGE
VGET
td(on) td(off) t
tr tf
VCE
0.9 VCE
t( on ) = td ( on ) + tr
toff = td ( off ) + t f
0.1 VCE
t
IC
0.9 ICE
0.1 ICE
t
td(off) tf
The thyristor starts to conduct in forward direction when a trigger current pulse is passed from
gate to cathode, and rapidly latches into full conduction with a low forward voltage drop (1.5V to
3V depending on the type of the thyristor and the current). As mentioned previously, the
conventional thyristor cannot force its current back to zero. Instead, it relies on the current itself for
the current comes to zero. When the circuit current comes to zero, the thyristor recovers in a few
microseconds of reverse backing voltage, following which it can block the forward voltage until the
next turn-on pulse is applied. Because of their low cost, high frequency, ruggedness, and high
voltage and high current capability, conventional thyristors are extensively used when circuit
configuration and cost-effective application do not call for turn-off capability. Often the turn-off
capability does not offer sufficient benefits to justify higher cost and losses of the devices. The
conventional thyristor has been the device of choice for most HVDC projects, some FACTS
controllers, and a large percentage of industrial applications. It is often referred to as the workhorse
of the power electronics business. The several versions of thyristors with turn-on capability among
these and relevant to the FACTS technology are presented in the following sections [3].
3.7.1 Thyristors
The thyristor are a family of four-layer devices. A thyristor latches into full conduction in its
forward direction when one of its electrodes (anode) is positive with the respect to its other
16
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
electrodes (cathode) and turn-on voltage or current signal (pulse) is applied to the third electrode
(gate) (see Fig.3-8(a)). Latched conduction is a key to low on-state conduction losses, called base.
Most thyristors are designed without gate-controlled turn-off capability, in which case the thyristor
recovers from its latched conducting state to a non-conducting state only when the current brought
to zero by other means. Other thyristors are designed to have both gate-controlled turn-on and turn-
off capability.
The thyristor may be designed to block in both the forward and reverse direction (referred as a
symmetrical device) or it may be designed to block only in the forward direction (referred to as
asymmetrical device). Thyristors are the most important devices for FACTS Controllers. Compared
to thyristors, transistors generally have superior switching performance, in terms of faster switching
and lower switching losses. On the other hand, thyristors have lower on-state conduction losses and
higher power handling capability than transistors. Advances are continuously being made to achieve
the best of both, i.e., low on-state losses, while increasing their power handling capability.The
Thyristor (SCR Silicon Controlled Rrectifier), which is shown in Fig.3-8, is a three-junction, four-
layer device. The thyristor is a unidirectional switch, which once turned on by a trigger pulse,
latches into conduction with the lowest forward voltage drop of 1.5V to 3V at its continuous rated
current. It does not have the capability to turn off the current, so that it recovers its turned-off state
only when the external circuit causes the current to come to zero. The thyristor is referred to as the
workhorse of power electronics. In a many applications, turn-off capabilityy is not necessary.
Without turn-off capability, the resulting device can have higher voltage and/or rating, cost less than
one-half, require a simple device control circuit, has lower losses, etc, compared to device with
turn-off capability. Therefore, the choice in favor of a more expensive and higher loss device with
turn-off capability will occur when there is a decisive application advantage [3], [4].
As shown in Fig.3-8(c), the thyristor is equivalent to the integration of two transistors, pnp
and npn. When a positive gate trigger is applied to the p gate of the upper npn transistor with
respect to the n+ emitter (cathode), it starts conducting. The current through the npn transistor
becomes the gate current of the pnp transistor as shown by the arrows, causing it conducts as well.
The current through this pnp transistor in turn becomes the gate current of the npn transistor giving
a regenerative effect to latched conduction with low forward voltage drop with the current flow
essentially limiting the external circuit. What is important is that due to the internal regenerative
action into saturation, once the thyristor is turned on, the internal n+ and n layers become saturated
with electrons and holes and act like a short circuit in the forward direction.
The whole device behaves like a single pn junction device (a diode). Thus, its forward on-state
voltage drop corresponds to only one junction (even though it has three junction) compared to two
junction in transistor devices such as MOSFET and IGBT. The turn-off time, which can be a few
tens of microseconds, depends on the reverse voltage after zero current and has to be carefully
considered for specific applications. This turn-off time must elapse before any positive voltage can
safely be applied [3], [4].
In large thyristor wafers, the gate structure is brought out through the cathode side at the top.
Several amplifying stages are provided in concentric circles at the centre in order to decrease the
required external gate pulse current. It is essential to rapidly spread out turn-on current over the
17
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
whole device. It is also appropriate to consider adding another high-voltage, very low current
external pilot thyristor in order to increase the gain and reduce the gate turn-on power at the
thyristor level. Such a device would be expensive because of the very low current rating. A thyristor
can also be turned off by hitting the gate region with light of appropriate bandwidth. The direct light
trigger thyristor allows the triggering of the thyristor directly from the control circuit via optical
fiber. As an alternative, the external pilot thyristor, which is mentioned above, may be a light
triggered thyristor with the main thyristor as an electrically triggered thyristor.
Cathode
Cathode
Cathode
Gate Gate
n Turn-on
P
Cathode
Gate Gate
n+ n
n+
P
P
P P
n
n n n
P
P
Anode
P
Anode Anode
Anode
The application of a positive anode to the cathode voltage with high rate of rise (dv/dt) can also
turn on the device. This happens because the capacitive coupling of the cathode to gate and the high
dv/dt causes just enough current to turn the device on. This is not a safe way to turn on a thyristor.
Turning-on a thyristor in such away can occur at weak spot, which does not spread rapidly and may
damage the device. Unsafe turn-on will also occur if the forward voltage is too high, which creates
charge carriers in weak spot through acceleration of internal charge carriers. This also suggests that
the device can be made with deliberately designed weak spot from where safe turn-on can be
designed into the device. Such devices with self-protection and optional triggering have been
introduced in recent HVDC projects [3], [4], and [5].
Another important aspect is that when a turn-on pulse is applied, there has to be enough anode-
to-cathode forward voltage, or rate of rise of voltage, to cause a rapid turn-on. Insufficient voltage
can lead to soft turn-on with device voltage falling slowly while the current is rising. This can lead
to a high turn-on loss in certain areas of the device and cause a possible damage. Depending on the
application, the device has to be designed for the specific minimum turn-on voltage and the turn-on
pulse is blocked if the forward voltage is inadequate. At high temperature, the thyristor has a
negative temperature coefficient. Thus, it has to be designed to ensure a uniform internal turn-on
and turn-off. Being a high voltage device, it includes doping-based carriers as well as a large
number of intrinsic carriers. With higher temperature, the number of thermal carriers and hence
total carriers increases and this leads to a lower forward voltage drop. Once a thyristor is turned on
there is a need to sustain a minimum anode-cathode current for the device to stay turned on. This
18
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
minimum current is usually a percentage of the device current. The gate-drive is usually arranged to
send another turn-on pulse as needed. Generally thyristors have a large overload capability. They
have two times normal over-current capability for several seconds, ten times for several cycles, and
50 times fully short-circuit for one cycle [5], [6].
IG
IT t
Commutating di/dt
Turn on
di/dt
IRM t
VAK
Off state dv/dt tq VDRM
Reapplied dv/dt
t
td tr
VAK
VR
VRRM
• During conduction, the middle junction is heavily saturated with minority carries and the gate
has no further control on the device. The device drop voltage under this condition is typically
about 1V.
19
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
• From the conducting state, the SCR can be turned off by temporarily applying a negative
voltage across the device from external circuit. When reverse voltage is applied, the forward
current first goes to zero and then the current builds up in the reverse direction with the
commutation di/dt. The commutation di/dt depends on the external commutating circuit. The
reverse current flow across the device to sweep the minority carries across the junction. At
maximum reverse recovery current IRM, the junction begins to block causing decay of reverse
current. The fast decay of the recovery current causes a voltage overshoot VRRM across the
device due to the leakage inductance effect. At zero current, the middle junction is still
forward biased and the minority carries in the vicinity must be given time for recombination.
The reapplied dv/dt has to be limited so that no spurious turn-on occurs. The device turn-off
time, tq, is a function of Tj (the temperature of the junction), IT, VR, VDRM, di/dt, dv/dt and VG.
Thyristors are available for power electronics system application with voltage ratings up to
6000V and current ratings about 6000Amps [4].
As the upper transistor turns off, the lower transistor is left with an open gate, and the device
returns to non-conducting state. However, the required gate current for turn-off is quite large.
Whereas the gate current pulse required for turn-on may be 3-5 %, i.e., 30 A for only 10 µsec for a
1000Amps devices, the gate current required for turn-off would be more like 30-50%, i.e., 300 A or
larger for 20-50µsec [3], [4]. The voltage required to drive the high current pulse is low (about 10-
20V) and being a pulse of 20-50µsec duration and the energy required for turn-off is very large. Yet
the losses are large enough to be a significant economic liability in terms of losses and cooling
requirements, when considering the number of valve turn-off events in a converter. Turn-off energy
20
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
required is 10 to 20 times that is required for GTO turn-on, and the GTO turn-on required energy is
10 to 20 times that required for a thyristor.
Cathode Cathode
Gate
Turn-off
Cathode n Turn-on
n+
Gate
P
P Gate
n
n
P
n+
P n
P
The cost and size of the turn-off circuits for GTO are comparable to the device costs itself.
Another consideration is that the turn-off has to be uniformly effective over the entire device.
Whereas in a thyristor, there is one cathode with a single gate structure spread out across the device,
a successful GTO turn-off requires dividing up the cathode into several thousand islands with a
common gate-line which surrounds each and every cathode islands in Fig.3-11. Thus, a GTO
consists of a large number of thyristor cathodes with a common gate, a drift region, and an anode.
Given the complex structure, state-of-the-art GTOs do not have built-in amplifying gates.
Consequently, the total available area on the device for the cathode decreases to about 50%
compared to a thyristor. Therefore, GTOs forward voltage drop is about 50% higher than that of a
thyristor but still 50% lower than that of a (IGBT) of the same rating [5].
(a) (b)
Fig.3-11 (a) A picture of GTO surface (b) A picture of GTO wafer including definition of radii
rv.
The general process of making GTOs is about the same as that for thyristors, although due to
complications of the cathode and the grid distribution, its process requires a cleaner room, yield
21
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
may be less, and cost perhaps twice that of thyristor for the same converter ratings. As for a
thyristor, there are trade-offs between voltage, current, di/dt, dv/dt, switching times, forward losses,
switching losses, etc., for the GTO design. Large sector of the market of GTOs is for voltage-
sourced converters in which a fast recovery diode is connected in reverse across each GTO which
means that GTOs do not need reverse voltage capability. This also provides beneficial tread-offs for
other parameters, particularly the voltage drop and higher voltage and current ratings. This is
achieved by the so-called buffer layer, a heavily doped n+ layer at the end of the n- layer. Such
GTOs are known as asymmetric GTOs. Like a thyristor, the continuous operating junction
temperature limit is about 100oC, after making allowance for the fault current requirements. Like a
thyristor, a GTO is capable of surviving a high, short-time over current (10 times for one offset
cycle) as long as it is not required to turn off that current. Failure mechanisms are also similar and
the edge requires appropriate contouring to reduce voltage stress and passivation to avoid a
flashover around the edge [7], [8]. In a thyristor, the current zero is brought about by the external
system. The voltage across the device automatically becomes negative immediately after the current
zero. On the other hand, the GTO is turned off while the circuit is driving in the forward direction.
Therefore, for successful turn-off it is necessary to reduce the rate-of-rise of forward voltage with
the help of a damping circuit. In a GTO, the anode side pn- junction is lightly doped and designed
to support almost all of the blocking voltage, essentially on the n-side. On the other hand, the
cathode side pn junction is heavily doped on both sides and the breakdown voltage may be about
20V [5], [6].
22
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
v v
i i
(a) (b)
Fig.3-12 GTO turn-on and turn-off process: (a) turn-on and (b) turn-off.
The filamentation of the current, towards the cathode centers, reduces the active silicon area
during the critical turn-off phase. This would be a minor limitation where it is not compounded by
the filamentating current tending to commutate to those cathode areas remotely located from the
extinguishing gate current. This re-distribution of the cathode current continues during the storage
time (tens of microseconds) and culminates with a rising anode voltage and a falling cathode
current. It is this phase which requires the presence of a snubber (i.e. a capacitance) across the
device to limit the reapplied dv/dt to between 500 and 1000 V/ms. Fig.3-13 illustrates this short
phase in which both anode voltage and cathode current coexist with the danger of re-triggering that
this represents [4], [5], [6], and [8]. The GTOs principle handicap compared to IGBT discussed
before has been its large gate turn-off drive requirements. This in turn results in long turn-off time,
lower di/dt and dv/dt capability, and therefore costly turn-on and turn-off snubber circuits adding to
the cost and losses. Because of its slow turn-off, the GTO can be operated in PWM converters at a
relatively low frequency (up to a few hundred Hz), which is, however, sufficient for high-power
converters. On the other hand, it has lower forward voltage drop and is available in larger rating
than IGBT. GTO has been utilized in FACTS controller of several hundreds of MWs [5], [6], and
[7].
23
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
With the help of these MOSFETs and tight packaging which minimize the stray inductance in
the gate-cathode loop, the MTO becomes significantly more efficient than the conventional GTO,
requiring drastically smaller gate drivers while reducing the charge storage time on turn-off,
providing improved performance and reduction of system costs. As before, the GTO is still
provided with double-sided cooling and lends itself to thin packaging technology for even more
efficient removal of heat from the GTO. Fig.3-14 shows the symbol, structure, and equivalent
circuit of MOS turn-on thyristor. The turn-off in MTO can be much faster; 1-2µs and the losses
corresponding to the storage time are almost eliminated, this also means high dv/dt, and much
smaller snubber capacitors and elimination of the snubber resistor [3], [4].
The ETO has two gates: one is the GTOs own gate used for turn-on and the other is in series
MOSFET gate used for turn-off. When the turn-off voltage signal is applied to the n-MOSFET, it
turns off the transfer of all the current away from the cathode (n emitter of the upper transistor of
the GTO) into the base via MOSFET T2, thus stopping the regenerative latched state and a fast turn-
24
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
off. It is important to note that the MOSFETs see high voltage, no matter how high the ETO
voltage. T2 is connected with its gate shorted to its drain and hence voltage across it’s clamped at a
value slightly higher than its threshold voltage and the maximum voltage across T1 cannot exceed
that across T2 [3], [7], and [8].
Cathode
Cathode Turn-off
Cathode
gate FET
Turn-on FET
Cathode
Turn-on gate Turn-off
gate FET
n Turn-off
Turn-off n+
gate Turn-on
P P Turn-on
n
n
n+ P
P n
Anode
P
Anode
Anode
Anode
Cathode
Cathode
N-MOSFET
T1
Turn-off
P-MOSFET
Turn-off
T2
Turn-on
Turn-on
Anode
Anode
25
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
board gate drive supplied with the main device, and may also include a reverse diode, as shown in
the structured diagram in Fig.3-16. In order to apply a fast-rising and high-gate current, GCT
(IGCT) incorporates a special effort to reduce the inductance of the gate circuit (gate-driver-gate-
cathode loop) to the lowest possible value, as required also for MTO and ETO to extent possible.
Essentially, the key to GCT (IGCT) is to a very fast gate drive and this is achieved by a coaxial
cathode-gate feed through and multilayered gate-driver circuit boards, which enable the gate current
to rise at 4kA/µs with a gate-cathode voltage of 20V. 1µs, the GTOs upper transistor is totally
turned off and the lower npn transistor is effectively left with an open base turn-off. Being a very
short duration pulse, the gate-drive energy is greatly reduced. Also, by avoiding the gate overdrive,
the gate energy consumption is minimized [3].
Cathode
Gate
A(Anode)
n+
Ia P P
+ GTO Diode
Vak n-
- n
P+
n+
Ig
Anode
K(Cathode)
(a) (b)
Fig.3-16 IGCT thyristor (a) IGCT symbol (b) IGCT structure with a Gate-Commutated
Thyristor and reverse diode.
The MOS structure is spread across the entire surface of the device giving a fast turn-on and
turn-off with low-switching losses. The power/energy required for turn-on and turn-off is very
small, and so is the delay time (storage time). Furthermore, being a latching device, it has a low on-
state voltage drop as for a thyristor. Its processing technology is essentially the same as the IGBT.
The key advantage for the MCT compared to other turn-off thyristor is that it brings distributed
26
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
MOS gates for both turn-on and turn-off, very close to the distributed cathodes, resulting in fast-
switching and low switching losses for a thyristor device. Therefore, the MCT represents the near-
ultimate turn-off thyristor with low on-state and switching losses, and the fast-switching device
needed for high-power advanced converters with active filtering capability [3].
Gate Cathode
Cathode
SiO SiO
Cathode P+ P+
n n+ n
Gate
Gate
P P-MOSFET
n N-MOSFET
P+ P
n
P
Anode
Anode Anode
27
Chapter 3 Power Semiconductor Devices
• Unidirectional current capability (e.g. SCR, GTO, BJT, MOSFET, MCT, IGBT, SITH, SIT,
and diode) [4].
(a) Thyristor.
(c) Transistor.
28
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
29
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
and use of one of the FACTS Controllers to enable corresponding power to flow through such lines
under normal and contingency conditions. These opportunities arise through the ability of the
FACTS Control to control the interrelated parameters that govern the operation of transmission
systems including series impedance, shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle, and the
damping of oscillations at various frequencies below the rated frequency. These constraints cannot
be overcome while maintaining the required system reliability, by mechanical means without
lowering the useable transmission capacity. By proving added flexibility, FACTS controllers can
enable a line to carry power closer to its thermal rating. Mechanical switching needs to be
supplemented by rapid-response power electronics. It must be emphasized that FACTS is an
enabling technology and not one-one-one substitute for mechanical switches. The FACTS
technology is not a single high-power controller, but rather a collection of controllers which can be
applied individually or in coordination with others to control one or more of the interrelated system
parameters mentioned previously. A well-chosen FATCS Controller can overcome the specific
limitations of a designated transmission line or corridor. Because all FACTS Controller represent
applications of the same basic technology, their production can eventually take advantage of
technologies of scale. Just as the transistor is the basic element for a whole variety of
microelectronics chips and circuit, the thyristor or high power transistor is the basic element of a
variety of high-power electrical controllers.
FACTS Controller also lent itself to extend usable transmission limits in a step-by-step manner
with incremental investment as and when required. A planner could foresee a progressive scenario
of mechanical switching means and enabling FACTS Controller such that the transmission lines
will involve a combination of mechanical and FACTS Controller to achieve the objective in an
appropriate, staged investment scenario. The unique aspect of the FACTS technology is that this
umbrella concept revealed the large potential opportunity for the power electronics technology to
greatly enhance the value of the power system, and thereby unleashed an array of new and
advanced ideas to make it a reality [3], [9].
30
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
31
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
Line
θ i
Line
line
i
Ac line
dc
power
link
Coordinated
Control
(d) (e)
Ac line
line
i
dc power link
dc power link
(f) (g)
Line Line
Line
dc power link
32
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
Nevertheless, the shunt controller is much more effective in maintaining a required voltage
profile at a substation bus. One important advantage of the shunt controller is that it serves the bus
node independent of the individual lines connected to the bus. The series controller solution may
require, but not necessarily, a separate series controller for several lines connected to the substation,
particularly if the application reason for contingency outage of any one line. However, this should
not be a decisive reason of choosing a shunt-connected controller, because the required MVA size
of the series controller is small compared to the shunt controller, and, in any case, the shunt
controller doses not provide control over the power flow in the lines. On the other hand, series-
connected controllers have to be designed to ride through contingency and dynamic overloads, and
ride through or bypass short circuit currents. They can be protected by metal-oxide arrestors or
temporarily bypassed by solid-state devices when the fault current is too high, but they have to be
rated to handle dynamic and contingency overload.
The above arguments suggest that a combination of the series and shunt controller (see (Fig.4-
1(e) and (Fig.4-1(f)) can provide the best of both, i.e., an effective power/current flow and line
voltage control. For the combination of series and shunt controllers, the shunt controller can be a
single unit serving in coordination with individual line controllers (see Fig.4-1(g)). The arrangement
can provide additional benefits (reactive power flow control) with a unified power flow controller.
FACTS controllers may be based on thyristor devices with no gate turn-off (only with gate turn-on),
or with power devices with gate turn-off capability. In general, the basic controllers with gate turn-
off devices are based on DC to AC converters which can exchange active and/or reactive power
with the AC system. When the exchange involves reactive power only, they are provided with a
minimal storage on the DC side. However, if the generated AC voltage or current is required to
deviate form 90 degrees with respect to the line current or voltage, the converter DC storage can
augmented beyond the minimum required for the converter operation as a source of reactive power
only. This can be done at the converter level to cater to short-term (a few tens of main frequency
cycle) storage needs. In addition, another storage source such as a battery, a superconducting
magnet, or any other source of energy can be added in parallel through an electrical interface to
replenish the converter's DC storage. Any of the converter-based, series, shunt, or combined shunt-
series controllers can generally accommodate storage, such as a capacitor, batteries, and
superconducting magnets, which bring an added dimension to FACTS technology (see Fig.4-1(h),
(i), and (j). The benefits of an added storage system (such as large DC capacitors, batteries, and
superconducting magnets) to the controller are significant.
A controller with storage is much more effective for controlling the system dynamics than the
corresponding controller without the storage. This has to do with the dynamic pumping of real
power in or out of the system as against only influencing the transfer of real power within the
system as in the case with controller lacking storage. A converter-based controller can also be
designed with so-called high pulse order or with pulse width modulation (PWM) to reduce the low
order harmonic generation to a very low level. A converter can in fact be designed to generate the
correct waveform in order to act as an active filter. It can also be controlled and operated in a way
that it balances the unbalance voltages, involving the transfer of energy between phases. It can do
all of these beneficial things simultaneously if the converter is designed [3], [9].
33
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
From the overall cost point of view, the voltage-sourced converters seem to be preferred, and
will be the basis for the presentations of most converter-based FACTS Controller. One of the facts
of life is that those involved with FACTS will have to get used to large number of new acronyms
designated by manufactures for their specific products, and by other various papers on new
controllers or variations of known controllers, some of these acronyms are:
Flexibility of electrical power transmission: The ability to accommodate changes in the electric
transmission system or operating conditions while maintaining sufficient steady-state and transient
margins [3].
Flexibility AC transmission systems (FACTS): Alternating current transmission systems
incorporating power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and
increase power transfer capability.
FACTS controllers: A power electronic-based system and other static equipment that provide
control of one or more AC transmission system parameters [3].
34
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
Line
Line Line
+ -
Interface
+ -
Stroage
(a) (b)
Line
Line
(c) (d)
Fig.4- 2 Shunt-connected Controllers (a) Static Synchronous Series Compensator
(STATCOM) based on voltage-sourced and current-sourced converter; (b) STATCOM with
storage, i.e., Battery Energy Storage System (BESS), Superconducting Magnet Energy System
and large capacitor; (c) Static VAR Compensator (SVC); (d) Static VAR Generator (SVG),
Static VAR System, Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR), Thyristor-Switched Capacitor
(TSC), and Thyristor-Switched Reactor (TSC); (d) Thyristor-Controlled Braking Resistor.
35
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
before, from an overall cost point of view, the Voltage Sourced Converters seem to be preferred,
and will be the basis for presentation of most converter-based FACTS controllers [3].
36
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
37
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
A SSSC is one of the most important FACTS controllers. It is similar to STATCOM except that
the output AC voltage is in series with the line. It can be based on a Voltage-Sourced Converter (see
Fig.4-3(a)), or a Current-Sourced Converter. Usually the injected voltage in series would be quite
small compared to the line voltage, and the insulation to the ground would be quite high. With an
appropriate insulation between the primary and the secondary side of the transformer, the converter
equipment is located at the ground potential unless the entire converter equipment is located on a
platform duly insulated to the ground. The transformer ratio is tailored to the most economical
converter design. (See Fig.4-3(b)) [3], [9].
38
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
control of the series capacitive reactance. Instead of the continuous control of the capacitive
impedance, the approach of switching inductors at firing angle 90 degrees or 180 degrees but
without firing angle control could reduce cost and losses of the Controller (see Fig.4-3(c)). It is
reasonable to arrange one of the modules to have thyristor control, while others can be thyristor
switched [3].
Line
Line
+ -
Interface
Stroage
+ -
(a) (b)
Line Line
(c) (d)
Fig.4-3 (a) Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) (b) SSSC with storage; (c)
Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) and Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor
(TSSC), and (d) Thyristor-Controlled Series Reactance (TCSR) and Thyristor-Switched
Series Reactance.
39
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
In UPFC (Fig.4-4(a)), which combines a STATCOM (shown in Fig.4-2(a)), and an SSSC (see
Fig.4-3(a)), the active power for the series unit (SSSC) is obtained from the line itself via the shunt
unit STATCOM; the latter is also used for voltage control with control of its reactive power. This is
a complete controlled for controlling active and reactive power control through the line, as well as
line voltage control. Additional storage such as superconducting magnet connected to the DC link
via an electronic interface would provide the means further enhancing the effectiveness of the
UPFC. As mentioned before, the controlled exchange of real power with an external source, such as
storage, is much more effective in controlling system dynamics than modulation of the power
transfer without a system [3], [9].
40
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
3-phase line
Line
SSSC
STATCOM dc link
(a) (b)
Fig.4-4 (a) Thyristor-Controlled Phase-Shifting Transformer (TCPST) or Thyristor-
Controlled Phase Angle Regulator (TCPR); (b) Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC).
Line
(a) (b)
Line
(c)
Fig.4- 5 Various other controllers (a) Thyristor-Controlled Voltage Limiter (TCVL), (b)
Thyristor-Controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR) based on tap changer, (c) Thyristor-
Controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR) based on voltage injection.
41
Chapter 4 F ATCS concept and general system considerations
42
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
Conventional thyristor-based converters, being without turn-off capability, can only be Current-
Sourced Converters, whereas turn-off device-based converters can be of either type. For economic
and performance reasons, Voltage-Sourced Converters are often preferred over Current-Sourced
Converters for FACTS applications. Here Voltage-Sourced Converters will be discussed, which
form the basis idea for several FCATS controller. Since the direct current in a Voltage-Sourced
Converter flows in either direction, reverse, the turn-off devices don’t need reverse voltage
capability; such turn-off devices are know as asymmetric turn-off devices. Thus, a Voltage-Sourced
Converter valve is made up of an asymmetric turn-off device such as a GTO, which is shown in
Fig.5-1(a), with parallel diode connected in reverse. Some turn-off devices, such as the IGBTs and
IGCT, may have a parallel reverse diode built in as part of a complete integrated device suitable for
Voltage-Sourced Converters. However, for high power converter, the provision of separate diodes
is advantageous. In reality, there would be several turn-off device-diode units in series for high-
voltage application. In general, the symbol of one turn-off device and with one parallel diode, as
shown in Fig.5-1(a), will present a valve of appropriate voltage and current rating required for the
converter. Within the category of voltage sourced-converter, there are also a wide variety of
converter concepts. The ones relevant to FACTS controllers are described here [3].
43
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
voltage is uni-polar and supported by a capacitor. This capacitor is large enough to handle at least a
sustained charge/discharge current that accompanies the switching sequence of the converter valves
and shifts in phase angle of switching valves without significant change in the DC voltage. In this
chapter, the DC capacitor voltage will be assumed constant. It is also shown on the DC side that the
DC current can flow in another direction. It can exchange DC power with connected DC system in
the either direction.
Turn-off Diode
device
(a)
dc side id
ac side
Active dc Active and
power Vd reactive ac power
Va
(b)
id 1' ia
A
Vd Va
1
(c).
Fig.5-1 Basic principle of Voltage-Sourced Converter: (a) Valve for a Voltage-Sourced
Converter; (b) Voltage-Sourced Converter concept; (c) Single-valve operation.
Shown on the AC side is the generated AC voltage connected to AC system via an inductor.
Being an AC voltage source with internal impedance, a series inductive interface with the AC
system (usually through a series inductor and/or a transformer) is essential to ensure that the DC
capacitor is not short-circuited and discharge rapidly into a capacitive load such as a transmission
line. Also, an AC filter may be necessary (not shown in Fig.5-1) following the series inductive
interface to limit the consequent current harmonics entering the AC system. Basically, a Voltage
Sourced-Converter generates an AC voltage from a DC voltage. For historical reasons, it is often
referred to as a converter, even though it has the capability to transfer power in both directions.
With a Voltage Sourced-Converter, the magnitude, the phase angle and the frequency of output
voltage can be controlled. In order to further explain the principles, Fig.5-1(c) shows a diagram of a
single-valve operation. The DC voltage, the Vd is assumed to be constant, supported by a large
44
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
capacitor, with the positive polarity side connected to the anode side of the turn-off device. When
the turn-off device 1 is turned on, the positive DC terminal is connected to the AC terminal A, and
the AC voltage will jump to +Vd. If the current happens to flow from +Vd to A (through the device
1), the power would flow from the DC side to AC side (converter action). However, if the current
flows from A to +Vd it will flow through diode 1‘ even if the device 1 is called turned on, and the
power would flow from the AC side to the DC side (rectifier action). Thus, a valve with
combination of turn-off device and diode can handle the power flow in either direction, with the
turn-off device handling converter action, and with the diode handling rectifier action. This valve
combination and its capability to act as a rectifier or as a converter with the instantaneous current
flow in positive (AC to DC side) or negative direction, respectively, is a basic issue in the Voltage-
Sourced Converter concepts [3].
+ T1
C D1
VS/2
R L
VS N
Load
+ T2
C VS/2 D2
The output load voltage alternates between +Vd when T1 and T2 are on and -Vd when T3 and T4
are on, irrespective of the direction of the current flow. It is assumed that the load current does not
become discontinuous at any time (load constant time is bigger than the switching time). When the
switches T1 and T2 are on, the load current increases exponentially according to the Equation:
di
Vd = L + R i (5-1)
dt
45
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
Fehler! Es ist nicht möglich, durch die Bearbeitung von Feldfunktionen Objekte zu
erstellen.
Fig.5-3 Single-phase full-bridge converter with RL-load
At the end of the on-period for T1 and T2, io is at maximum, and diodes D3 and D4, which are
necessary to allow a path for the current to flow when the transistor is turned off and protect the
transistor against the over-voltage that would be created by a sudden turn-off of the current through
the inductance load, start conducting. T3 and T4, though on, are now reversing biased by these
diodes. It should be expected that the mean or DC currents in the switches T1 and T2 should add up
to the supply DC current Id which is proportional to the load power. The mean diode currents,
however, do not represent the reactive component of the load power [10].
46
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
Vd
Vd
~ INV
~
~ ~
DC/DC
Converter
INV
~
~
α
D
Fig.5-4 The regulation of the output Fig.5-5 The regulation of the output voltage by
voltage by means of a phase-controlled. means of a DC-DC converter.
47
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
across the DC source. The bipolar scheme is obtained by a comparator based on the following rule:
When eC >vtri, T1 and T2 are on T3 and T4 are off, When eC <vtri, T3 andT4 are on and T1 and T2 are
off. If the PWM switching or carrier frequency is far higher the frequency of the modulating
waveform, it can be assumed that the modulating wave changes a little over a switching period.
eC Vtri
1,0
Vtri , eC [p.u.]
0,5
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
1,0
T1,2 ON 0,5
0,0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
1,0
T3,4ON 0,5
0,0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
V01
+Vd 200
100
0
-100
-Vd -200
48
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
T1 T4 T3 T2
eC > vtri On Off - -
id +Vd/2
T1 T3 T
Vd D1 D3 5 D5
A iA B iB C iC
T4 D4 T D2 T6 D6
2
-Vd/2
A
Phase A
R
Phase B R N
R
Phase C
Fig.5-7 Three-phase full-wave bridge converter.
Whenever an upper switch in a converter leg is connected with the positive DC rail is turned
on, the output terminal of the leg goes to the potential +Vd/2 with respect to the center-tap of the
DC supply. Whenever a lower switch in a converter leg connected with the negative DC rail is
turned on, the output terminal of that leg goes to potential -Vd/2 with respect to the center-tap of
the DC supply. The center-tap of the DC supply Vd has been created by connecting two equal
valued capacitors across it. The center-tap is assumed to be at zero potential or grounded. However,
this contraption is artificial and really not essential. It is assumed that the three-phase load
connected to the output terminals of the converter is balanced [11].
49
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
1
T1 0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03
t [s] 0,04
T2 1
0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
1
T3 0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
1
T4
0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
T5 1
0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
1
T6 0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
Unlike the case of a single-phase converter, variable phase displacement between converter
legs can not be used as a means for output voltage variation. This is due to the restriction that a
phase displacement of 2π/3 between the phases must be maintained in order to obtain a balance of
50
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
T1 1
0 t [s]
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04
T2 1
0
t [s]
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04
T3 1
0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
120° 120° 120° 120°
T4 1
0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
T5 1
0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
T6 1
0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
Fig.5-9 The switching scheme for three-phase VSC 120° conducting stead of 180°.
51
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
turned on and both upper devices 1 and 1A are turned off and so on. Of course, angle α is variable,
and the output voltage Va is made up of σ ° = 180° − 2α ° square waves. This variable period, σ, per
half-cycle potentially allows the voltage Va to be independently variable with potentially a fast
response. It is seen that the devices 1A and 4A are turned on for 180 degrees during each cycle
devices 1 and 4 are turned on for σ ° = 180° − 2 α ° during each cycle, while D1 and D2 conduct for
2 α ° = 180° − σ each cycle. The converter is referred to as three-level because the DC voltage has
three levels, i.e. −Vd / 2, 0, + Vd / 2 [3].
+Vd/2
1 1′
D1
1′A
1A
ia
N
4A 4′A
D4
4 4′
-Vd/2
52
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
Fig.5-12. shows the PWM output voltage waveform corresponding to a PWM frequency of
three times the main frequency: The first waveform shows the control signals, similar to those in
Fig.5-12. The second waveform is the phase a to DC neutral voltage vaN. It is seen that it has one
notch in the centre of each half-cycle. The third waveform is vbN, the output voltage of phase b to
DC neutral voltage, which is obviously the same as vaN, except the delay is 120 degrees. Subtracting
vaN from vbN gives the phase-to-phase vab, as shown by the fourth waveform. This shows two
notches resulting from the crossing of control signals.
1,1A 1,1A
+Vd/2
180°
Va
-Vd/2
4,4A
1,1A 1,1A
2α
Va
σ
1A, 4A
4,4A
3,3A
Vb
3A,5A
5,5A
+Vd/2
Vd
Va-Vb
-Vd
The next waveform is that of the vaN, the voltage between the floating neutral n of a wye-
connected floating secondary and the DC neutral. This is obtained by adding and averaging the
three AC voltages, vaN, vbN, and vcN, (vcN not shown). Subtracting vnN from vaN gives the last
waveform shown in Fig.5-12, that of the transformer phase-to-neutral voltage. Because of the half-
wave symmetry, all the AC waveforms are free from even harmonics. Waveforms vab and van are
triplen harmonics and the van lags vab by 30 degrees. As explained earlier, combining these two
waveforms through separate wye and delta transformers will result in 12-pulse converter, which
will have adequate flexibility of rapid AC voltage control without having to change the DC voltage
level. The control of the DC voltage can then be optimized for other considerations. The pulses are
wider in the middle of each half sine wave compared to the ends of the half sine wave [3], [11].
5.7 Summary
The VSC is an important element in FACTS applications and it have the following advantages
which can be summarized as follows:
• Continuous operation, compensation, and control for reactive power requirements and
voltage control/ stability applications
• Rapid and continuous response characteristics for smooth dynamic control.
53
Chapter 5 Voltage-Sourced Converters
• Independent control of voltage and power flow for direct power transfer applications.
• Automated real and reactive power control for both steady-state and dynamic system
conditions.
a b
1,0
c
Vabc,Vtri [p.u]
0,5
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
0,5
VaN [p.u.]
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
1,0 VbN
0,5
VbN [p.u.]
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
2
Vab
1
Vab [p.u.]
-1
-2
Fig.5-12 Operation of a PWM converter with switching frequency of three times the
fundamental frequency
• Superior performance for weak system conditions (low short circuit ratio application).
• Inherent modularity and redundancy for increased reliability and availability.
• Advanced control methodologies for high-performance Operation.
• Elimination or reduced requirements for harmonic Filtering.
• Ability to add energy storage as the sourcing element (e.g., batteries, super-conducting
elements, etc.).
• Compact size and reduced volume for installation flexibility and reduced construction
costs.
• Easy expansion and mobility for future system Considerations.
Advanced power semi-conductor technologies for lower losses, reduced operating costs, and high
reliability [9].
54
Chapter 6 Current-Sourced Converter and Self- and Line-Commutated
(a)
Id
or Active power
dc power or or Vd
or Reactive power
(b)
Fig.6-1 Voltage-sourced and Current-Sourced Converter concepts: (a) voltage sourced
converter; (b) Current-Sourced Converter.
55
Chapter 6 Current-Sourced Converter and Self- and Line-Commutated
dc power dc voltage
dc power dc voltage
Reacctive power
dc current
Active power
dc power dc voltage
Reacctive
power
Capacitors Filters
(c)
Fig.6-2 Types of Current-Sourced Converter, (a) diode rectifier; (b) Thyristor line-
commutated converter, (c) self-commutated converter.
It is worth mentioning have that when the converters are based on turn-off devices, the Voltage-
Sourced Converters are preferred over the Current-Sourced Converters. In fact, none of the
converter-based controllers described here are based on Current-Sourced Converters. However,
with evolution in device characteristics and functional details of the converters, this situation may
change in the future. Therefore, the Current-Sourced Converters with turn-off devices are not
discussed in detail here. When reactive power management is not a problem, where controlled
reactive power supply is not required and the active power consumed by the converters can be
56
Chapter 6 Current-Sourced Converter and Self- and Line-Commutated
supplied from the system capacitors and/or filters, the line-commutated converters have decisive
economic advantages over self-commutated converters. For conversion AC to DC and DC to AC, in
HVDC transmission, line commutated converters are used almost exclusively where reactive power
is managed through capacitors, filters and the power system. The converters for superconducting
storage can be Current-Sourced Converters since the superconducting reactor it self is a current
source. Also, the DC power supply for storage means, can be Current-Sourced Converters, in order
to drive Voltage-Sourced Converter-based phase-angle regulators. The economic advantage of
conventional Thyristor-based converters arises from the fact that on a per device basis thyristors can
handle two to three times the power than the next most powerful GTO’s, IGCT’s, MTO’s, etc.
Other converters which are variations of the basic types above of Current-Sourced Converters,
such as thyristors converters with artificial commutation, resonant converters and hybrid converters,
are not discussed here. Since the DC voltage in a Current-Sourced Converter can be in either
direction, the converter valve must have both forward and reverse blocking capability. The
conventional thyristors are usually made as symmetric devices. They have both the forward and
reverse blocking capability. This is because they are on the other hand easier and cheaper to make
and can be made with peak blocking voltage as 12kV along with a high current carrying capability.
On the other hand, the turn-off devices have a high on-state forward voltage drop when they are
made symmetric devices. Given that the high production volumes of asymmetric turn-off devices
dictated by the industrial market, it may be advantageous to connect an asymmetric turn-off device
and a diode in series to get a symmetric devices combination. This results in higher forward voltage
drop and losses. Based on this and on other aspect, such as fast-switching characteristics of IGBT’s,
the industrial converter market has shifted very fast towards the PWM Voltage-Sourced Converter
as discussed before [3].
57
Chapter 6 Current-Sourced Converter and Self- and Line-Commutated
iL
i1 D2 D3
iP L
Vd
vS
R
D2 D4
The voltage across the load is the difference between the +ve and the -ve rail potentials. Assuming
that the load current is continuous (i.e., non zero) at all times, each diode conducts for 120° in each
half cycle of the AC waveform, followed by 240° of non conduction. The output voltage waveform,
the Vd can be given by the following Equation:
6 π /6 3
Vd =
2π ∫π
− /6
Vmax l −l cos(ω t )d (ω t ) = Vmax l −l
π
(6-2)
58
Chapter 6 Current-Sourced Converter and Self- and Line-Commutated
of kilowatts. The thyristor switch may be viewed as a controlled diode which is turned on by the
gate current; a few milliamp or at least amps will turn even the largest device on, when its anode to
cathode voltage is positive. Once the thyristor is fired or triggered on. The Thyristor will turn off
when the anode current falls, brought about by the AC source and load, below a threshold close to
zero. The thyristors in an AC rectifier, therefore, must be triggered synchronously with the AC
supply each cycle, by means of a gate control circuit which is interfaced with the AC mains. The
firing angle α, is normally defined to be the angle for which the output DC voltage is maximum.
The thyristors are triggered with short (a few volts, mA level) pulses, one time in each AC cycle, as
shown in Fig.6-5. These pulses are obtained from a firing controller circuit which is synchronised
with the AC mains. In some converter circuits, the firing pulses for each thyristor are maintained for
the intended duration of conduction for the Thyristor [13].
Vmax sin(ω.t )
L
o
a
d
-10 V
Firing
Control
Circuit
+10 V
-10 V
Fig.6-5 The rectifier and the phase controller for a half-wave converter.
59
Chapter 6 Current-Sourced Converter and Self- and Line-Commutated
when triggered. The thyristors connected with the negative DC rail, the thyristor with the most
negative voltage at its cathode returns the load current, if triggered. It will be useful to see the
numbering of the thyristors and the sequential triggering of the thyristors. Commutation of the load
current from one thyristor to the next occurs at the firing instant, when the incoming thyristor
reverse biases the previously conducting thyristor, as presented in Fig.6-7.
iL
i1 T1 T3
iP L
Vd
vS
R
T2 T4
van vO
iL
ia T1 T3 T5
vbn i L
b
Vd
ic
n Load
R
vcn
T4 T2 T6
60
Chapter 6 Current-Sourced Converter and Self- and Line-Commutated
Fig.6-8(c) shows the anode-bus current connected to the anode side of valves 1, 3, and 5 and
transfer of this incoming DC current from valve 1 to 3, to 5, to 1, etc., in a closed three-valve
sequence in a three-phase converter. Similarly shown are the cathode bus current, the outgoing DC
current, and how it transfers from valve 2, to 4, to 6, to 2 etc., in a closed three-valve sequence. The
two sequences are phase shifted by 60 degrees and they are together from a three-phase, full-wave
bridge converter. Consequent injected AC current in the three phase as it is shown in Fig.6-8(c),
which is same as for the conventional thyristor converter when neglecting commutation angle, see
Fig.6-8(b).
The currents are injected without the support of the AC system voltage, and therefore, the phase
angle and the frequency of this injected AC current can be controlled. To understand the operation
of this converter, it is appropriate to visualize it as an AC current generator connected to an AC
system, which is front-ended with AC capacitor as presented in Fig.6-8(d). The AC side
61
Chapter 6 Current-Sourced Converter and Self- and Line-Commutated
fundamental and harmonics are a function of the AC system and the injected current. A DC side
converter voltage will also have harmonics.
Id 4 6 2
or
AC system or
passive load
1 3 5
1 3
1 1
ia
4
3
ib
6 6
5
ic
2 2
62
Chapter 6 Current-Sourced Converter and Self- and Line-Commutated
Various PWM concepts, which like e.g. those discussed in Chapter5, are applicable to the
current-sourced converters; the advantage of the PWM operation is that the commutation capacitor
size will decrease [3].
63
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
7 Snubber Circuits
7.1 Introduction
When a power electronic converter stresses a power semiconductor device beyond its ratings,
there are two basic ways of relieving the problem. Either the device can be replaced by one whose
ratings exceed the stresses or a snubber circuit can be added to the basic converter to reduce the
stresses to safe levels. The final choice will be a trade-off between cost and availability of the
semiconductor device with the required electrical ratings compared to the cost and the additional
complexity of using a snubber circuit. The power electronics circuit designer must be familiar with
the design and operation of basic snubber circuits in order to make the comparison trade-off. This
chapter discusses the fundamentals of the snubber circuits commonly used in power electronics to
reduce electrical stresses on power semiconductor devices.
Switching stresses are also controlled by utilizing a board class of power electronic converter
circuit termed resonant or quasi-resonant converters. It must be emphasized that snubbers are not a
fundamental part of power electronic converter circuit. The snubber circuit is an additional part to
the basic converter, which is added to reduce the stresses on an electrical component. Usually, in a
power semiconductor device, snubbers may be used singly or in combination depending on the
requirements. As mentioned before, the additional complexity and the cost added to the converter
circuit by the presence of the snubber must balance against the benefits of limiting the electrical
stresses on critical circuit components [8].
64
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
iDf(t)
Lσ iLσ IO
Io
+
iDf RS t
Vd di V Irr
+ CS =− d
Df vD dt Lσ
-
-
VDf(t)
Vd t
T
diL σ
Lσ
dt
(a) (b)
Fig.7-1 (a) A step-down converter circuit with stray inductance and a snubber circuit for the
free-wheel diode, (b) the Diode reverse-recovery current and diode voltage.
65
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
The waveform and inductor current are shown in Fig.7-2(c), for CS = Cbase . In this case the
maximum reverse-diode voltage is the same as VCs,max calculated from Equation (7-5). For small
value of CS, the maximum diode voltage becomes excessive [8], [14], and [15].
Lσ I rr
vD f (dt ) = −Vd − e α t × cos(ωα t − φ − γ ) (7-7)
C S cos(φ )
where
α2 R V −I R /2 ω
ωα = 1 − ; α = S ; φ = tan -1 ( d rr S ) ; and γ =tan -1 ( α ) (7-8)
ω0
2
2 ωα ωα Lσ I rr α
The time t = tm at which the voltage given by the Equation (7-7) is a maximum can be found by
setting the derivative dvD f / dt equal to zero and solving for time. Doing these yields:
φ +γ −π / 2
tm = ≥0
ωα (7-9)
66
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
iLσ
Lσ iC Lσ
+ I rr
RS
Cathode + iLσ
Vd +
_
Diode Vd CS
snap-off Anode + vCs
CS vCs _ T _
_
(a) (b)
Irr
Vd
0
i Lσ t
di
Lσ = Vd
dt
(c)
Fig.7-2:(a) Equivalent circuit of the step-down converter at the instant of diode reverse-recovery
current snap-off (b) the simplification that results when the snubber resistance is zero and (c)
The voltage and current waveforms for RS = 0 and CS = Cbase.
_
Lσ
+ RS
VDf(t)
Vd
_
CS
+
67
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
as an example for the plotted curve in Fig.7-6 as a function of RS /Rbase. It can be seen that for this
value of CS, there is an optimum value of RS = Ropt = 1.3 Rbase that minimizes Vmax. A snubber design
monogram is shown in Fig.7-6, where the optimum snubber resistance and corresponding Vmax are
plotted as a function of CS. In this monogram all quantities are normalized.
Fehler! Es ist nicht möglich, durch die Bearbeitung von Feldfunktionen Objekte zu
erstellen.
Fig.7-4 The current and the voltage waveforms after diode snaps-off at t = 0.
68
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
Wtot WR
( Lσ I rr2 ) / 2 ( Lσ I rr2 ) / 2
3.0
Vmax
Vd
3 2.0 Vmax
for RS , RS ,opt
2.41 CS = Cbase Vd
RS I rr 1
1 RS ,opt
Vd
Rbase
R
1 2 S 0
Rbase 0 1 2.0 CS / Cbase 3.0
Fig.7-5 Maximum over-voltage across the Fig.7-6 Snubber energy loss and the maximum
diode as a function of the snubber diode voltage for the optimum value of the
resistance for a fixed value of the snubber snubber resistance RS as a function of the snubber
capacitance. capacitance CS
69
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
di 2VLL
= (7-17)
dt LC
and therefore,
⎛ di ⎞ 6 VLL trr I d
I rr = ⎜ ⎟ trr = = 0.09 I d (5-18)
⎝ dt ⎠ 0.1 VLL
where trr = 10µs.
As was discussed in the previous section, CS = Cbased is close to an optimum value. Relating to
Fig.7-7(c) and Fig.7-2(a) and the Equation (5-3) gives by the following Equation:
2
⎛I ⎞
Cbase = LC ⎜ rr ⎟ (7-19)
⎝ VLL ⎠
Substituting Lc from the Equation (7-16) at ω = 377 and Irr from the Equation (7-18) into the
Equation (7-19) yields:
CS = Cbase ( µ F) = 0.6 I d / VLL (7-20)
RS =Ropt can be obtained from Fig.7-6. Here, assuming the normalized RS = Ropt = 1.3 Rbase , and the
value Rbase = 2 VLL / I rr , it will give, using the Equation (7-18).
RS = Ropt = 1.3 2 VLL / I rr = 20VLL / I d (7-21)
In order to estimate the loss in each snubber, the voltage waveforms across a thyristor having a
worst-case trigger angle of α = 90. It can be shown that the total energy loss in each snubber equals:
Wsnubber = 3 CS VLL2 (7-22)
or using the Equation (7-20) gives:
Wsnubber = 1.8 ×10−6 I d VLL (7-23)
If the power of the three-phase converter kVA is S, then at 50Hz, each snubber has a power loss
equals:
Psnubber (in watts) = 10−4 S (7-24)
A similar procedure can be followed for any value of trr and AC-line inductance. A conservative
design may require CS to be big than Cbase, and therefore RS would be smaller than the value found
above. In that case, the snubber losses would be higher since they are proportional to CS [8], [15],
[31].
70
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
RS RS RS
Th1 Th3 Th5
CS
CS CS
van LC
- +
~ A
vbn id
- +
~ B
vcn LC
- +
~ C
LC
50 Hz
RS RS RS
Th4 Th6 Th2
CS CS CS
(a)
van α vbn
(b)
iLc P
2LC
Th1 after CS
~ vab (ω.t1 ) recovery
RS
= 2VLL ith1
Th3 on
A
(c)
Fig.7-7 Turn-off snubbers for Thyristors in a three-phase line-frequency converter circuit: (a)
three-phase line-frequency converter, (b) trigger time, and (c) the equivalent circuit.
71
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
switching, at t = t0, the transistor voltage begins to rise, but the current in the various part of the
circuit remain the same until t1, when the freewheel diode begins to conducts, then the transistor
current begins to decrease, and the rate at which it decreases is dictated by the transistor properties
and its base drive. The transistor voltage can be expressed by:
di
vCE = Vd − Lσ C (7-25)
dt
where Lσ = L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 The presence of stray inductances results in an over-voltage since
diC/dt is negative. At t3, at the end of the current fall time, the voltage comes down to Vd and stays at
that value. During the turn-on transition, the transistor current begins to rise at t4 at a rate dictated
by the transistor properties and the base drive circuit. The equation is still valid, but due to a
positive diC/dt the transistor voltage vCE is slightly less than Vd. Due to the reverse-recovery current
of the freewheel diode iC exceeds IO the freewheel diode reverse-recovery at t5 and the voltage
across the BJT decrease to zero at t6 at a rate dictated by the device properties (see Fig.7-8(c)).
ic t5
L1 Idealized
+ L2 t6 Switching loci
L5 Io Id
t0 Turn-off
Vd
Turn-on t1
Cd L3
_
T
L4
t4 t3
vEC
Vd
(a) (b)
diC diC
Lα Lα
dt dt
(c)
Fig.7-8 (a) A step-down converter circuit with stray inductance shown explicitly with (b)
associated switching trajectory and (c) the current and voltage waveforms during turn-on and
turn-off.
These switching waveforms can be represented by switching loci as shown in Fig.7-8(b). The
dotted lines represented idealized switching loci both for turn-on and turn-off, assuming zero
inductances and no reverse-recovery current through the diode. They show that the transistor
72
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
experiences high stresses at turn-on and turn-off when both its voltage and current are high
simultaneously, thus causing a high instantaneous power dissipation. Moreover, the stray
inductances result in over-voltage beyond Vd, and the diode reverse-recovery current causes beyond
IO. If necessary, snubber circuits are used to reduce these stresses. An important assumption that
simplifies the snubber circuit analysis is that the transistor current change linearly in time with a
constant di/dt, which is only dictated by the transistor and its base drive circuit. Therefore, di/dt,
which may be different at turn-on and turn-off, is assumed not to be affected by the addition of the
snubber circuit. This assumption provides the basis for a simple design procedure for a laboratory
prototype. The final design may be somewhat different depending on what is revealed by laboratory
measurements on the prototype circuit [8], [16], [17], [31].
The Equation (7-27) is valid during the current fall time so long as the capacitor voltage is less
than or equal to Vd. The equivalent circuit that represents this condition is shown in Fig.7-10(b).
The voltage and the current waveforms are shown in Fig.7-9(c) for three values of the snubber
circuit capacitance CS [19], [20].
For a small value of capacitance, the capacitor voltage reaches Vd before the current fall time is
over. At that time, the freewheel diode Df turns on and clamps the capacitor and the transistor to Vd
and iCs drops to zero due to dvCS / dt is equal to zero. The next sets of waveforms in Fig.7-9(c) are
drawn for a value of CS = CS1, which causes the capacitor voltage to reach the Vd exactly at the
current fall time tfi. In this case; the value of the capacitor CS1 can be calculated by substituting t = tfi
and vCS = Vd in the Equation (7-27) and is given by:
Io t f i
CS 1 = (7-28)
2 Vd
For large snubber capacitance with CS > CS1, the waveforms in Fig.7-9(c) show that the
transistor voltage rises slowly and takes longer than tfi to reach Vd. Beyond tfi, the capacitor current
equals IO and the capacitor and the transistor voltages rise linearly to Vd. The turn-off switching loci
with the three values of CS used in Fig.7-9 are shown in Fig.7-10 [8].
73
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
+
Io +
iDf Df Io
Df
Vd DS Vd
Io - iC
RS _ iC
T CS iCS CS
_
(a) (b)
iC iC iC
IO
Vd Vd Vd
vCs
To optimize the snubber design it is necessary to consider the transistor turn-on in the
presence of turn-off the snubber. To understand the transistor behavior at turn-on, initially it is
assumed that the resistor is essentially zero, which means a pure capacitance without RS and DS is
used as the turn-off snubber, as shown in Fig.7-11(a) The presence of CS causes the turn-on current
to increase beyond IO and the freewheel diode reverse-recovery current. It is still assumed that
diC/dt is constant during turn-on. The shaded area in Fig.7-11(a) represents the charge of the
capacitor that is discharged into the transistor. This charge is equal to the area of one of the shaded
areas in Fig.7-9(c) depending on the value of CS used. In the absence of the snubber capacitor CS,
the transistor voltage would have fallen almost instantaneously (since the voltage fall time is usually
quite small) as shown by the dashed line in Fig.7-11(a). Hence, the energy dissipated in the
74
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
transistor during the voltage turn-on would have been small. The presence of CS lengthens the
voltage fall time so the additional energy is dissipated in the transistor. The additional energy
dissipated in the transistor during the capacitor discharge time can be expressed by the following
Equation:
t2 t2 t2
∆WQ = ∫ iC vCE dt = ∫ iCS vCE dt + ∫ I o vCE dt (7-29)
tri + trr tri + trr tri + trr
The first term, in the right-hand side, equals the energy stored in the capacitor, which is dissipated
in the transistor at turn-on. However, there is additional energy dissipated in the transistor as
expressed by the second term in the Equation (7-29).
iC RBSOA
IO
Cs = 0
Cs small
Cs = Cs1
Cs Large
vCE
Vd
Fig.7-10 Switching trajectory during turn-off with various values of snubber capacitance CS.
The dissipated energy is normally larger. This energy dissipation is due to the lengthening of the
voltage fall time brought about by the presence of CS. The transistor turn-on waveforms in presence
of the snubber resistance RS is shown in Fig.7-11(b). Here, unlike the pure capacitively snubbed
transistor, the voltage can be assumed to fall almost instantaneously. Therefore, no additional
energy dissipation due to the snubber occurs in the transistor at turn-on. The capacitor energy,
which is dissipated in the snubber resistor, is given by:
1
WR = CS Vd2 (7-30)
2
The snubber resistance in Fig.7-11(b) should be chosen so that the peak current through it is less
than the reverse-recovery current Irr of freewheel diode, which can be formulated as follows:
Vd
< I rr (7-31)
RS
The circuit designer usually attempts to limit Irr to 20% I O or less so that the Equation (7-31)
becomes approximately:
Vd
= 0.2 I rr (7-32)
RS
75
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
Discharge
of CS
+
Io
Df
vCE
Vd IO
Vd
CS 0
T iC
_ 0 tri t2
tri+trr
(a)
vCE
trr Vd
+
Df Io 0
Irr
RS iDf
Vd
IO
DS iC
0
T CS Irr
_
vCs (t = 0) Vd
=
RS RS
(b)
Fig.7-11 Effect of the snubber capacitance CS on the turn-off transient without (a) snubber
resistance RS and (b) with the resistance.
Based on the above assumption, comparing of Fig.7-11(a) with Fig.7-11(b) indicates that
including the resistance RS has the following beneficial effect during the transistor turn-on:
• All the capacitor energy is dissipated in the resistor which is easier to cool than the transistor.
• No additional energy dissipation occurs in the transistor due to the turn-off snubber.
• The peak current that the transistor must conduct is not increased due to the turn-off snubber.
In order to support choosing an appropriate value for CS, the energy dissipated in the transistor
during turn-off and the energy dissipated in the snubber resistance RS during turn-on are plotted as
functions of the CS in Fig.7-12. Based on the previous assumption, these plots are independent of RS
76
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
and there is no additional energy dissipation in the transistor during turn-on due to the presence of
the turn-off snubber. CS should be chosen based on the following issues:
• Keeping the turn-off switching locus within the reverse-bias safe operation area.
• Reducing the transistor losses based on its cooling consideration.
• Keeping the sum (shown as a dashed line in Fig.7-12) of the transistor turn-off energy
dissipation and snubber resistance energy dissipation low.
Fehler! Es ist nicht möglich, durch die Bearbeitung von Feldfunktionen Objekte zu
erstellen.
Fig.7-12 Turn-off energy dissipation in the power switching device and the
snubber resistance RS as a function of the snubber capacitance CS.
Having made initial selection of RS based on the Equation (7-32) and CS based on design trade-
off, previously discussed, the designer must ensure that the capacitor has sufficient time to
discharge down to low voltage, 0.1Vd, during the minimum on-state time of the transistor in order
that the turn-off snubber be effective at the next turn-off interval [8].
During the on-state of the transistor, the capacitor discharge with a time constant τ C = RS CS
and the capacitor voltage given by:
vCS = Vd e −t /τ C (7-33)
therefore, discharging vCs down to 0.1Vd requires a time interval of 2.3τc thus:
ton state > 2.3 RS CS (7-34)
As an example, assuming CS = CS1 (given in the Equation (7-28)) and RS is chosen using the
Equation (7-32). Then the minimum on-state time of the transistor must be six times the transistor
current fall time tfi (see Fig.7-15) [8].
77
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
transistor is conducting and the voltage vC ,OV across the over-voltage snubber capacitor equals Vd.
At turn-off, assuming the BJT current fall time to be small, the current through Lσ is essentially IO
when the transistor current decreases to zero, and the output current then free-wheel diode Df. At
this stage, the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.7-13(b), where the Df, Io combination appears as a
short circuit, and the transistor is an open circuit. Now the energy stored in the stray inductances
gets transferred to the over-voltage capacitor through the diode DOV and the over-voltage ∆VCE
across the transistor (in the state, the capacitor COV and the transistor have the same voltage) can be
obtained by replacing the recharged capacitor with its equivalent circuit as shown in Fig.7-11(c).
Using the energy consideration and noting that ∆VC ,OV = ∆VCE gives:
+ Lδ
Df
Io Lδ
ROV DOV ROV
Vd
+
Cd
DOV
Vd
COV _
T COV
_
(a) (b)
+ +
Vd Vd vCE
_ _
0.0 0.0
Without COV tfi With COV
(c) (d)
Fig.7-13 (a) Over-voltage snubber, (c, b) its equivalent circuit during transient turn-off, (d) the
collector-emitter voltage with and without the snubber.
The equation above shows that a large value of COV will minimize the over-voltage ∆VCE,max.
Once the current through the Lσ has decreased to zero, it can reverse its direction due to the diode
DOV, and the over-voltage on the capacitor decreases to Vd through the resistor ROV. The capacitor
78
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
discharge time constant ROV COV should be small enough so that the capacitor voltage has decayed
approximately to Vd prior to the next turn-off of the transistor. To support the estimation of the
proper value of COV, the circuit waveforms with and without the over-voltage snubber are shown in
Fig.7-13(d). The observed over-voltage of k Vd without the over-voltage snubber is used to estimate
Lσ as given by the following Equation:
k Vd = Lσ I o / t fi (7-36)
If an over-voltage, for example, ∆ VCE , max = 0.1 Vd is acceptable, then using Equation (7-35) and
substituting for Lσ from the Equation (7-36) yields:
(100 I o t f i )
COV = , (∆ VCE , max = 0.1 Vd ) (7-37)
Vd
In terms CS1which given by (7-28), COV from Equation (7-37) can be rewritten as:
COV = 200 k CS 1 (7-38)
This shows that the substantially larger capacitance is needed for over-voltage protection
compared to the values used in the turn-off snubber, which are on the order of CS1. It can be shown
that even with a large value of COV the dissipated energy in ROV is of the same order as the energy
dissipated in the resistor of the turn-off snubber. Both the turn-on and the over-voltage protection
snubbers should be used simultaneously [8], [19], [20].
where, tri is the current rise time as shown in Fig.7-14(c) for small values of LS. For such small
values, di/dt is dictated only by the transistor and its base drive circuit and is assumed to be the
same as without the turn-on snubber. Therefore, the diode peak reverse-recovery current is also the
same as without the turn-on snubber. If it is important to reduce the diode peak reverse-recovery
current, it can be achieved with a large value of LS as shown by the waveforms in Fig.7-14(d). Here
the current rate of rise is di/dt = Vd/LS and the voltage across the transistor is almost zero during the
current rise time. During the on-state of the transistor, LS conducts Io. When the transistor turns off,
the energy stored in the snubber inductor ( LS I o2 ) / 2 will be dissipated in the snubber resistor RLS.
The snubber time constant is τ L = LS / RLS . When selecting RLS, the following two factors must be
considered. First, during transistor turn-off, the turn-on snubber will generate an over-voltage across
the transistor which is given by:
79
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
∆VCE ,max
∆VCE ,max = RLS I o ⇒ RLS = (7-40)
IO
Io + Io Io
Df DLS
+
LS
RLS
Vd DLS Vd
LS
RLS Df
_ T _ T
(a) (b)
LS small
LS Large iC
iC
di vCE
LS
dt
Vd
vCE
trí trr
(c) (d)
Fig.7-14 Turn-on snubber circuit (a) in series with the power switching device or (b) in
series with the free-wheel diode, (c) The power switching device voltage and current
waveforms for small value of Lσ and (d) for Large values of Lσ.
Second, during the off-state the inductor current must decay to a low value, for example 0.1IO,
so that the snubber can be effective during the next turn-on. Therefore, the minimum interval for the
off state of the BJT should be:
toff state > 2.3( LS / RLS ) (7-41)
Thus a large inductance will result in lower turn-on voltage and lower turn-on losses. But it will
cause over-voltage during turn-off, lengthen the minimum required off-state interval, and result in
higher losses in the snubber. Therefore, LS and RS must be selected based on the above design trade-
offs following a procedure similar to that described for the turn-off snubber. Since the turn-on
snubber inductance must carry the load current, which makes this snubber expensive, it is rarely
used alone.
However, if the turn-off snubbers are to be used in transistor bridge configurations, then turn-on
snubbers must be used. It is possible to use all snubbers simultaneously or in any other combination.
80
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
A circuit configuration that include all three snubber but having a reduced components count (the
Undeland snubber) is shown in Fig.7-15 [8], [14], [15], [18], and [19].
DF IO
COV
CS
Cd
DS
RS LS
Fig.7-15 A modified circuit with an over-voltage snubber, a turn-on snubber, and turn-
off snubber; the Undeland snubber for step-down converter.
81
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
the turn-off snubber section. There is a considerable power loss in RS and therefore it may
require mounting on heat sink.
+
Df IO
Turn-on
RON snubber
Cd
Vd LON
DON
Turn-off
snubber
GTO RS
DS CS
_
It has already been described why the stray inductance in the turn-off snubber current loop
should be as small as possible. To achieve this objective, the snubber components should be
mounted as close to the GTO as possible. The design considerations for turn-on snubber for the
GTO are similar to those described in the turn-on snubber section [8], [15], [19], and [20].
82
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
dependent on current and voltage as well as temperature, is typically in the range of 3 − 6kA / ms ;
values of up to 10kA / ms can be reached under short circuit conditions. Due to the falling current a
voltage drop of (− LS (dioff / dt )) occurs across the stray inductance LS.
LS IC1
IGBT1
VGE1 D1 VCE1
Load
Ed
ID2(=-IC2)
LO
D2
VD2(=-VCE2)
IGBT2 RO
If IGBT1 is turned on again, the load current commutates back from the branch of the diode D2
and is taken over again by IGBT1. Due to the rising current in this path a voltage drop of
LS (dion / dt ) occurs over the stray inductance. This reduces the DC link voltage as long as diode D2
is still conducting. No voltage is taken over, until the peak of the reverse recovery current is
exceeded. If this point is reached, it depends strongly on the recovery behavior of the diode, with
which rate-of-rise the current goes through zero and with which rate-of-rise diode and anti-parallel
IGBT must take over blocking voltage. High stray inductances and/or a snappy diode behavior may
lead to considerable overvoltage spikes VCESP at this point. The VCESP: the turn-off surge voltage
peak can be calculated as follows:
VCESP = Ed + (− LS (diC / dt )) (7-42)
where: diC / dt is the maximum collector current change rate at turn-off. If the voltage VCESP
exceeds the IGBTs C-E (VCES) rating, then the module will be destroyed [21], [22], [23], [24], and
[25].
83
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
• To reduce the inductance of the main as well as snubber circuits wiring, and use thicker and
short wires. It is also very effective to laminate the copper bars in wiring [21], [22], and [23].
IGBT1 turn-on
IGBT1 turn-off
0
VGE
VIGBT1
VCEPS1 VCEPS2
0 I IGBT1
I D2
0 VIGBT2
Fig.7-18 IGBT Switching waveforms during the turn-off and turn-on processes
84
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
85
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
P
P RCD
P
RC
RCD
N N N
C
RCD
N N
(d) (e)
Fig.7-19 Schematic type of individual snubber circuits: (a) RC snubber circuit, (b) Charge
discharge RCD snubber circuit, (c) Discharge suppressing RCD snubber circuit, (d) C snubber
circuit and (e) RCD snubber circuit.
86
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
but the discharge-suppressing RCD snubber circuit has the advantage of small loop inductance as it
is attached to the collector and the emitter of each device. This circuit cannot use in low inductance
snubber capacitors designed to attached directly to the IGBT, and the blocking diode added to
protection circuit can increase the total snubber inductance. Furthermore, if the recovery
characteristics of the diode are not good, VCE over-shoot and dv/dt at either sides of the IGBT/diode,
or the output voltage can oscillate. The Turn-off mechanism is nearly the same as that of the
discharge-suppressing RCD snubber circuit [21], [22].
IC
(Pulse) VCE
RBSOA
iC
I0 VCESP VCES
VCEP
VCE
VCESP VCES
Fig.7-20 Turn-off locus waveform of IGBT. Fig.7-21 Voltage and current waveforms at turn-
off. IGBT.
87
Chapter 7 Snubber Circuits
CS = L I o2 /((VCEP − Ed ) 2 ) (7-46)
where: L: the main circuit wiring inductance, VCEP: the snubber capacitor peak voltage, Io: the
collector current at IGBT turn-off and Ed: DC supply voltage. The VCEP must be limited to less than
or equal to the IGBT C-E withstand voltage [21].
88
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
8.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the three-level Voltage-Sourced Converter with the common snubber and the
new suggested snubber circuit will be discussed. Depending on the snubber circuit strategy, which
was studied in the chapter7, recommended and new snubber circuit design will be presented which
are suitable for the three-level Voltage-Sourced Converter. The Study will be supported by
computer simulations and practical tests.
The main goal is to keep the power semiconductor device within the SOA (Safe Operation Area)
defined by the manufacturer [26], [27], [31]. Basically, the power semiconductor switching devices,
which can be used in the high-power systems described above, require a series snubber circuit
(inductance) that limits the current-time-divertive di/dt at turn-on, and a parallel snubber circuit
(capacitance) that limits the voltage-time-divertive dv/dt during the turn-off. The two snubber
circuits cannot be considered as disjoint circuits but they must be seen as a coupled auxiliary circuit
design (see Fig.8-1) [28], [29], [30]. In fact, snubber circuits can be divided in three types:
Unpolarized series RC snubbers, polarized RCD snubbers and polarized RLD (which were discussed
in Chapter7). In details, a single-phase schematic of a three level converter is shown in Fig.8-1. The
snubber circuit for the shown partial network of a three level converter uses separate elements and
integrated into separate sub-circuit [31], [32], [33], [34], and [35].
89
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
the simultaneous maximum of the voltage and the current. In this way, the proposed circuit allows a
minimization of both the over voltage and the switching losses [31], [34], and [36]. The common
snubber circuit shown in Fig.8-1 composes of two standard turn-on RLD snubbers (RON1, LON1 DON1,
RON2, LON2, and DON2), but the double snubber configuration consisting of the same snubber circuit
configuration and an extra RC network connected in parallel to the RCD as shown in Fig.8-2.
RS1
DS1
DON1 RON1 GTO1
Df1
CS1
Ed C1
RS2
DS2
GTO2
DC1 Df2
CS2
Rd
The Load
Vd RS3
DS3
GTO3
DC2 Df3
CS3
Ed
C2
RS4
RON2 DON2 DS4
GTO4
Df4
CS4
LON2
The RC snubber has several advantages: It allows reducing losses in the circuit and the
switching device. Additionally, the peak voltage is limited. During the charging of CS which is
limiting the dv/dt during the off process, the effective value of RS is essentially close to zero. This is
not the optimum value for RS. In most cases, transient phenomena will cause an essentially higher
over voltage or at least more than necessary [8], [37], [38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43], and [44].
Table 8.1 shows the total number of protection elements RSµ, CSµ, Ronµ, Lonµ and snubber diodes Dµ
in the common- and proposed double snubber circuit configurations. However, the common
snubber circuit uses fewer elements than the proposed double snubber circuit, where the proposed
double snubber circuit design needs more passive components. Therefore, the implementation of the
90
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
double snubber circuit is favorable, especially, in cases when the optimization of losses and/or over
voltages is of highest interest [28], [30], [42], [43], [44], and [45].
Components Capacitors Diodes Inductors Resistors
Common Snubber Circuit configuration 4 6 2 6
Double Snubber Circuit configuration 8 6 2 10
Table 8.1 the total number of snubber elements for the different snubber designs. [28], [32].
RS1 RP1
DS1
DON1 RON1 GTO1
Df1
CS1 CP1
Ed C1
RS2 RP2
DS2
GTO2
DC1 Df2
CS2 CP2
Rd
The Load
RS3 RP3
Vd DS3
GTO3
DC2 Df3
CS3 CP3
Ed C2
RS4 RP4
RON2 DON2 DS4
GTO4
Df4
CS4 CP4
LON2
Fig.8-2 Proposed double snubber circuit configuration in a three level inverter system.
91
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
Table 8.2 the total number of snubber elements for different snubber designs.
RS1
Turn-Off snubber
LNO1
The Load Turn-on
Vd snubber RON
LNO2
DON2
Ed GTO3 CS3
DCD2 Df 3
C2
Fig.8-3 An optimized snubber design for Single phase three level GTO inverters.
Additionally, the new optimized snubber design allows leaving out two diodes and has the
following advantages:
• Inverters based on the optimized snubber design are suitable for high voltage applications
(like FACTS equipments and HVDC systems) since the voltage sharing between serially
connected power devices is guaranteed.
• The number of elements, which are necessary for the optimized snubber design, is less than
those which are needed for the conventional circuit.
• The manufacturing cost, the complexity, and also the converter size can be reduced.
• The performance of the optimized snubber design in the direction of the over-voltage
protection of the power semiconductors is better than that of conventional snubber circuits.
• There are only two resistors used to discharge the capacitors. So the total losses are lower
than those of the conventional design [50], [51], [52], [53], and [54].
92
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
Because of the fewer elements in the snubber circuit, the theoretic reliability will be higher.
Therefore, the implementation of the optimized snubber design is favorable especially in cases of
the optimization of the losses and/or over-voltage is of highest inertest. To analyze the physical
background of the protection performance, some of the basics of different switching operations
have to be discussed. Therefore, the possible switching states of a single phase of a three level
inverter system are listed in Table 8.3. Due to the symmetry, it is sufficient to consider only a
complete cycle of communication process: S0 → S1 → S0 → S−1 assuming that the load current is
flowing.
Switching states S1 S0 S-1
GTO1 ON OFF OFF
GTO2 ON ON OFF
GTO3 OFF ON ON
GTO4 OFF OFF ON
Table 8.3 the three Switching States.
There is an important assumption which simplifies the analysis of the snubber design: The
Thyristor current changes linearly in time with a constant di/dt (the load current is constant, In most
applications the time constant of the load (some milliseconds) is much larger than the switching
time (in the sub-microseconds), so the load current IL remains almost constant during the switching
period), which is only dictated by the GTO-Thyristor current (or other devices) and its base driver’s
circuit. Therefore, di/dt, which may be different for the turn-on and the turn-off processes, is
assumed not to be affected by adding the snubber circuits. Also, it is assumed that the time constant
of the load (milliseconds) is much larger than the switching time (in the microsecond range). So the
load current IL remains almost constant during the switching period. Based on these premises the
relevant transition or commutation phases will be closer analyzed later in this Chapter [50].
93
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
RS1
GTO1 DS1 Df 1 GTO1 DS1
Df 1
(OFF) CS1 C1 (ON) CS1
Ed C1 Ed
GTO2 GTO2
DCD1 Df 2 DCD1 Df 2 CS2
(ON) CS2 (ON) D
Rd DON1 Rd ON1
LNO1 LNO1
RON Ö Vd LNO2
RON
Vd LNO2 TheLoad
TheLoad
DON2 DON2
Ed GTO3 Ed GTO3
DCD2 Df 3 CS3 DCD2 Df 3 CS3
(ON) (OFF)
C2 C2
GTO4 CS4 CS4
(OFF) DS2 GTO4
Df 4 Df 4 DS2
(OFF)
RS2 RS2
( a) (b)
RS1
GTO1 DS1
Df 1
(ON) CS1
Ed C1
DCD1 Df 2 GTO2
CS2
(ON) D
Rd ON1
LNO1
Ö Vd TheLoad
LNO2
RON
DON2
Ed GTO3
DCD2 Df 3 CS3
(OFF)
C2
CS4
GTO4
Df 4 (OFF) DS2
RS2
(c)
Fig.8-4 Commutation path of the transition form S0 to S1: (a) initial state, (b) phase 1 and (c)
phase-2
Phase 1: In Phase 1, iGTO1 decreases linearly from ILOAD to zero during the current fall time period
and the load current starts to charge CS1 through the turn-off diode DS1.This step ends when iGTO1
reduces to zero see (Fig.8-5(b)).
Phase 2: In Phase 2 the CS1 is completely charged. Finally the complete load current flows through
the clamping diode DC1. After that, GTO3 begins to turn-on after a suitable dead time. In this case
the commutation process is completed (see Fig.8-5(c)) [28], [37].
94
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
RS1 RS1
GTO2 GTO2
DCD1 Df 2 (ON) CS2 DCD1 Df 2 CS2
(ON)
Rd DON1 Rd DON1
LNO1 LNO1
Vd TheLoad
LNO2
RON Ö Vd TheLoad
LNO2
RON
DON2 DON2
Ed DCD2 GTO3 Ed DCD2 Df 3 GTO3
Df 3 CS3 CS3
(OFF) (ON)
C2 C2
CS4 GTO4 CS4
GTO4
Df 4 DS2 Df 4 (OFF) DS2
(OFF)
RS2 RS2
( a) (b)
RS1
GTO1 DS1
Df 1
(OFF) CS1
Ed C1
GTO2
DCD1 Df 2 CS2
(ON)
Rd DON1
LNO1
RON
Ö Vd TheLoad
LNO2
DON2
Ed GTO3
DCD2 Df 3 CS3
(OFF)
C2
GTO4 CS4
Df 4 (OFF) DS2
RS2
( c)
Fig.8-5. Commutation path of the transition form S1 to S0: (a) initial state, (b) phase 1 and (c)
phase-2.
95
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
Phase 1: When GTO2 is turned off the load current will be absorbed by CS2 charging it. During
GTO2 is turned off, the voltage drop across GTO1 remains Ed, while the voltage drop across GTO2 is
increasing. iGTO2 decreases linearly from ILOAD to zero during the current fall time. This step ends
when iGTO2 reached zero (see Fig.8-6(b))[28], [31], [36], and [50].
Phase 2: The voltage over GTO2 continues to rise in this which ends when VC reaches Ed. The S2
energy which is stored in LON1 will be dissipated through the loop DON2, RON, DON1, LON1 (see Fig.8-
6(c)) [28], [31], [36], and [50].
Note: During the discharging process of the capacitor CS2, the discharging current will flow through
the following elements: GTO2, LON1, LON2, DON2, RON, CS2 (see Fig.8-6c).
RS1 RS1
GTO1 GTO1 D
Df 1 DS1 Df 1
(OFF) CS1
C1
(OFF) CS1 C1 S1
Ed Ed
GTO2 GTO2
DCD1 Df 2 DCD1 Df 2 CS2
(OFF) CS2 (OFF)
DON1 Rd DON1
Rd
LNO1 LNO1
RON
RON Vd LNO2
Vd LNO2 TheLoad
TheLoad
DON2
DON2
GTO3 Ed DCD2 Df 3 GTO3
Ed DCD2 Df 3 (OFF) CS3
CS3 (OFF)
C2
C2 CS4
GTO4 CS4 GTO4
Df 4 DS2
Df 4 (OFF) D (OFF)
S2
RS2
RS2
(a) (b)
RS1
Df 1 GTO1 DS1
(OFF) CS1
Ed C1
GTO2 CS2
DCD1 Df 2 (OFF) CS2 discharging
Rd DON1 -path
LNO1
Ö Vd TheLoad
LNO2
RON
DON2
GTO3
Ed DCD2 Df 3 (ON) CS3
C2
CS4
GTO4
Df 4 (ON) DS2
RS2
(c)
Fig.8-6 Commutation path of the transition form S0 to S-1: (a) initial state, (b) phase 1 and (c)
phase-2.
96
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
• The first function is during the discharge process of CS1. The capacitor energy will be
dissipated in it and the discharge current will be limited.
• The second function is during the charging process of CS2, The resistor has a damping effect
of the over-voltage across the power switching device while charging process of CS2.
Therefore, the over-voltage will be reduced, especially in the beginning of turn-off process
[55], [56], and [57].
97
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
CS1
GTO1 DS1
Df 1
C1 RS1
Ed
LNO1
The Load
Vd RON
LNO2
DON2
Ed DCD2 Df 3 GTO3 CS3
RS1
C2
Df 4 GTO4 DS1
CS4
Fig.8-7 One phase of a three level inverter with the new dual-use snubber circuit design.
• The dual-inductive snubber design suppresses the over-voltage protection of the power
semiconductors much more than that of conventional snubber circuits, because of the new
arrangement of the snubber circuit elements.
• The parallel inductor will decay the current during the turn-on process to a lower value. So
the turn-on snubber circuit is more effective.
• The resulting voltage over RON will drop nearly to zero when the turn-on process is over
because of the parallel inductor LONP. Therefore the losses in RON during the on-states drop
fundamentally when the transient processes are decayed.
• The parallel inductor can be a primary winding of transformer which can be effective as a
power recovery system.
98
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
• The theoretical reliability is higher because of the fewer elements in the snubber circuit
[36], [50], and [57].
CS1
GTO1 DS1
Df 1
C1 RS1
Ed
LNO1
RON LONP
Vd The Load L
NO2
DON2
Ed DCD2 Df 3 GTO3 CS3
RS1
C2
Df 4 GTO4 DS1
CS4
Fig.8-8 One phase of a three-level inverter with the new dual-inductive snubber circuit.
1 0.001 1 5 5 1
Load and source data Load voltage Ed (V) Load current IL (A) Power factor Pf
Table 8.4 the parameters of the used GTO and the load information.
99
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
Power semiconductor devices are used as mentioned before to control the voltage and the
current of converter systems, because it has lower energy losses compared with other continuous
controller like resistor. The pulsed control system will be used to drive the power semiconductor
devices for achieving high efficiency The pulse width modulation (PWM) is the most widely used
type of control system for the power semiconductor devices when it needs to control the output of
the converter systems. For achieving smooth control of the voltage or current the switching
frequency (commutation frequency) should be relative high (kHz).
The circuitry of the PWM will be built in Matlab®/SimulinkTM tools. The circuitry consists of
the block components, which can give the needed PWM (e.g. 2-3kHz), those components contain
the sine wave (50Hz) which is the voltage reference, the pulse generator which give pulse scheme
which will be generate the saw wave (tri-angle pulse scheme) at the required switching frequency
(see Fig.8-9), and the comparison box which contains the comparison elements like great- or less-
than, and logic elements And/Or, the main aim of this box is to compare between the sine wave and
the saw wave, as presented in Fig.8-9 and Fig.8-10. The output of the comparison will be true (1) if
the sine wave is bigger than the saw wave, this means that the IGBT will switch on during this time,
or false (0) when the saw wave is bigger than the sine wave, as shown in Fig.8-11. Fig.8-12 shows
the pulse scheme of the Matlab®/SimulinkTM simulation which will drive the IGBT at the
frequency of e.g.3 kHz. This pulse scheme will be used as reference in other programming tools
(will be discussed in Chapter9). With the programming tools, the pulse scheme, which will drive the
gates of IGBT converter, is the output of the microcontroller chip which will be the driver system.
100
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
1,0
Sine, Saw [p.u]
-0,5
-1,0
101
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
1,0
IGTO1 0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 0,020 t[s] 0,025 0,030
1,0
0,8
IGTO2 0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 0,020 t[s] 0,025 0,030
1,0
IGTO3 0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 0,020 t[s] 0,025 0,030
1,0
0,8
IGTO4 0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 0,020 t[s] 0,025 0,030
8.7.2 Comparison of the proposed double snubber configuration and the common
snubber circuit
In this simulation, the proposed double snubber configuration will be compared with the
common snubber circuit. The parameters of the common snubber circuit are constant (standard
values). The values of the proposed double snubber configuration were chosen exactly in the same
way, but the value of CS and RS were reduced to other values as in Table 8.5. While this reduction
improves the performance of the double snubber circuit, the results for the common snubber
configuration remain nearly the same. Additionally the values of the parallel parameter will be set
to different values to indicate to its effect. Table 8.5 gives the values of snubber circuits in all
simulation cases.
CS (µF) 1 0.5 1
RS (Ω) 5 2.5 5
RP (Ω) 5 1 -
The simulation’s results for the first value ( CP = 0.05µ F ) are presented in Figs 8-13 to 8-18.
Figs 8-13 and 8-14 show the current and the voltage on GTO1 and GTO2. The overvoltage is limited
in a better way by the double snubber configuration and the current peaks are much smaller as
shown in Fig.8-14.
102
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
uGTO1 [V]
7000
uGTO1-C
uGTO1-D
6000
5000
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
uGTO2-C
uGTO2 [V]
uGTO2-D
6000
Fig.8-13 The voltages on GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the double snubber
configuration (CP=0.05µF).
6000
5000
iGTO1-C
iGTO1 [A]
4000
iGTO1-D
3000
2000
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
6000
iGTO2-C
iGTO2 [A]
5000
4000 iGTO2-D
3000
2000
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-14 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the double snubber
configuration (CP=0.05µF).
The Figs 8-15, 8-16 and 8-17 show the current and the voltage in the freewheel diode and in the
turn-off diode. It can easily be seen that the current and the voltages resulting from the new
proposed protection circuits are more favorable than those simulated for the conventional circuit. In
Fig.8-18 the total losses in the conventional circuit in the proposed double snubber design are
compared based on energy function over two cycles of the fundamental frequency. As indicated, the
energy lost in the entire new snubber circuit is much lower than in the standard snubber design.
Also, the losses in the GTO itself are less for the new design but do not differ too much.
103
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
5000
iDs1 [A]
4000
3000
iDs1-C
iDs1-D
2000
1000
0
t [s]
iDs2 [A]
2500
2000 iDs2-C
1500 iDs2-D
1000
500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-15 The currents in Df1 and Df2 in the common and the double snubber Configuration
(CP=0.05µF).
-1500
uDs1-C
uDs1-D
-3000
uDs1 [V]
-4500
-1500
-3000 uDs2-C
uDs2 [V]
uDs2-D
-4500
Fig.8-16 The voltages on DS1 and DS2in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.05µF).
104
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
5000
iDf1 [A]
4000
3000
iDf1-C
2000
iDf1-D
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
3000
iDf2 [A]
iDf2-C
iDf2-D
2000
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-17 The currents in DS1 and DS2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.05µF).
140000
120000
100000
Losses [Ws/p.u.]
80000
60000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-18 The total losses (energy function) in RS1 in the conventional- and in RS1, RP1 in the
proposed double snubber design over one cycle of the fundamental frequency (CP=0.05µF).
In the following figures, the effect of varying the CP to a smaller value is demonstrated
(CP=0.01µF). Despite the additional reduction of the over-voltage and the current in the switching
device GTO1 and GTO2 (Figs.8-19, 8-20), the effect on the over-voltage across GTO1 is small in
comparison with the same parameter on GTO2 .But the current’s spikes are much smaller in the new
design compared with the currents of GTO1, 2 in the common snubber circuit switching devices. The
effect of changing the CP is much better visible in the time functions for the turn-off diode (Figs 8-
105
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
21, 8-22, and 8-23). This tendency also holds for the freewheel diode. Also, the total losses were
fewer for the double snubber configuration than those in common snubber circuit (see Fig.8-24).
uGTO1 [V]
6500
6000
5500 uGTO1-C
uGTO1-D
5000
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
6500
uGTO2 [V]
uGTO2-C
uGTO2-D
6250
6000
Fig.8-19 The voltages in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the double snubber
configuration (CP=0.01µF).
iGTO1 [A]
6000
4500
iGTO1-C
3000 iGTO1-D
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
iGTO2 [A]
6000
iGTO2-C
4500
iGTO2-D
3000
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-20 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.01µF).
106
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
5000
iDs1 [A]
4000
3000
iDs1-C
iDs1-D
2000
1000
0
t [s]
iDs2 [A]
2500
2000 iDs2-C
1500 iDs2-D
1000
500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-21 The currents in DS1 and DS2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.01µF).
-1000
-2000
uDs1-C
uDs1-D
-3000
uDs1 [V]
-4000
-5000
0,000 0,001 0,002 0,003 0,004 t [s] 0,005
0
-1000
-2000
-3000 uDs2-C
uDs2 [V]
-4000 uDs2-D
-5000
Fig.8-22 The voltages on DS1 and DS2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.01µF).
107
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
iDf1 [A]
4000
3000
iDf1-C
2000 iDf1-D
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
iDf2 [A]
3000
iDf2-C
iDf2-D
2000
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-23 The currents in Df1and Df2 in the common and the double snubber Configuration
(CP=0.01µF).
125000
Losses [Ws/p.u.]
100000
75000
50000
Losses-C
25000 Losses-D
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-24 The total losses (energy function) in RS1 in the conventional and in RS1, RP1 in the
proposed double snubber design over two cycles of the fundamental frequency (CP=0.01µF).
108
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
systems. The advantages of the new design is the ability to minimize both, the over voltage and the
losses in the entire circuit by using an additional parallel RC damping snubber. Therefore, the
additional RC circuit can compensate the disadvantage of the conventional RCD snubber design,
that the effective value for RS during the charging of snubber capacity CS is essentially zero. But the
main cost of the snubber circuit will be high compared with the common snubber circuit design
while the number of passive elements is large.
RS (Ω) 5 5 2 5
In the following Figures, the stresses in different semiconductor devices (GTOs and diodes) will
be analyzed for CS =1µF. Figs 8-25 and 8-26 show that the over-voltages across and the currents in
GTO1 and GTO2. The over-voltages across GTO1, 2 are limited in a better way by the optimized
snubber than the common snubber design during the turn-off process, and the current spikes are also
much smaller in GTO2 and about the same in GTO1 than those in the common snubber circuit as
shown in Fig.8-25.
uGTO1 [V]
6500
uGTO1-C
6250
uGTO1-Opti
6000
5750
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
6500
uGTO2 [V]
uGTO2-C
uGTO2-Opti
6250
6000
0,0050 0,0075 0,0100 0,0125 t [s] 0,0150
Fig.8-25 The voltages in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design.
109
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
Figs.8-27, 8-28 and 8-29 show the voltages and the currents in diodes DS1 and Don1 and the total
losses as an energy function. It can easily be seen, that the currents resulting from the optimized
snubber design are more adequate than those simulated for the common snubber circuit, especially
in the turn-off diode DS1 and turn-on diode Don1. The current in freewheel diode Df1 is about the
same but in Df2 the current in the optimized snubber circuit design is clearly smaller the common
snubber circuit (see Fig.8-24(a)).
iGTO1 [A]
7500
5000 iGTO1-C
iGTO1-Opti
2500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
iGTO2 [A]
6000
4500 iGTO2-C
iGTO2-Opti
3000
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-26 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2in the common and the optimized snubber design.
6000
iDf1 [A]
4000
iDf1-C
2000
iDf1-Opti
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
iDf2-C
iDf2 [A]
3000
iDf2-Opti
2000
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
(a)
Losses [Ws/p.u.]
150000
100000
50000 Losses-C
Losses-Opti
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
(b)
Fig.8-27 (a) The currents in Df1 and Df2 and comparing the total losses in conventional and (b)
the optimised snubber configuration (energy function).
110
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
iDs1 [A]
4500
3000 iDs1-C
iDs1-Opti
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
iDon1 [A]
4500
iDon1-C
3000
iDon1-Opti
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-28 The current in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the optimized snubber configuration.
The over-voltages across Don1 and DS1 are the same as shown in the two snubber circuit as
presented in Fig 8-29. The total losses in the circuit (GTO, diode and snubber element losses) for
the two different snubber designs (conventional snubber circuit and optimized snubber design) are
illustrated in Fig.8-27(b). The losses are shown as an energy function over one cycle of the
fundamental frequency. As indicated, the energy lost in converters based on the optimized snubber
design is much lower than that dissipated in the common snubber design.
0
-1500
uDs1 [V]
-3000 uDs1-C
uDs1-Opti
-4500
-1500
uDon1-C
uDon1-Opti
-3000
uDon1 [V]
-4500
-6000
Fig.8-29 The voltages in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the optimized snubber
configuration.
111
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
In the next two simulations, CS was set to 0.5µF and then 0.25µF. Figs 8-30 to 8-34 present the
simulation results for the value of CS. Figs 8-30 and 8-31 show the voltage and the current resulting
in GTO1,2. The over-voltage shown in Fig.8-30 across GTO1 and GTO2 in the optimized snubber
design is more limited than it is in the common snubber design and the current spikes through GTO2
are much smaller as presented in Fig.8-31.
uGTO1 [V]
6500 uGTO1-C
uGTO1-Opti
6000
5500
5000
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
6500
uGTO2 [V]
uGTO2-C
uGTO2-Opti
6250
6000
Fig.8-30 The voltages on GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design
(CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω).
iGTO1 [A]
8000
6000
iGTO1-C
4000 iGTO1-Opti
2000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
iGTO2 [A]
6000
iGTO2-C
4000
iGTO2-Opti
2000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-31 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design
(CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω).
The currents through freewheel-, turn-off and turn-on diodes are better improved in the
optimized snubber design than in the common snubber circuit. Fig.8-32 shows currents through DS1
and Don1, and Fig.8-34(a) illustrates the current of Df1,2. The over-voltage across the DS1 and Don1 in
112
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
the optimized snubber design becomes more acceptable than the same voltage in the common
snubber circuit comparatively with the result of the last simulation as clarified in Fig.8-33.The total
losses in the optimized snubber design and the common snubber circuit are compared as an energy
function over one cycle of the fundamental frequency in Fig.8-34(b).
4500
iDs1 [A]
3000
iDs1-C
iDs1-Opti
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
iDon1 [A]
4500
3000
iDon1-C
iDon1-Opti
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-32 Currents in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the optimized snubber configuration
(CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω).
-1500
uDs1-C
uDs1 [V]
-3000
uDs1-Opti
-4500
-1500
-3000 uDon1-C
uDon1-Opti
uDon1 [V]
-4500
-6000
Fig.8-33 Voltages on DS1 and Don1 in the common and the optimized snubber configuration
(CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω).
113
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
6000
2000 iDf2-Opti
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
150000
Losses [Ws/p.u.]
100000
50000 Losses-C
Losses-Opti
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
(b)
Fig.8-34 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and the optimized snubber
configuration, and (b) the comparison of the total losses in the conventional and the optimized
snubber configuration (energy function) (CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω).
As mentioned before, the total energy lost in the optimized snubber design in this simulation is
much lower than in the common snubber circuit. One of the reasons therefore is that the losses are
related to the capacitor CS. Also, the losses in the GTO’s itself are less for the optimized snubber
design but the difference here is not so much. For the other value of (CS =0.25µF), the performance
of the optimizer snubber will be more typical, especially in the over-voltage protection and
minimization of the total losses. Fig.8-35 and Fig.8-36 show the effect of CS reduction, the over-
voltage becomes smaller and also the spikes in the current for GTO1,2.
The current of freewheel diodes and total losses energy function are presented in Fig.8-37. The
current in Df1 in the optimizer snubber design has about the same value, but in Df2 the current is
smaller in comparison of the common snubber circuit, while the total losses are clearly smaller than
these of the common snubber circuit.
Based on the aforementioned results, the optimized snubber design is based on a new and
simple structured snubber, which depends on passive elements. As a result, the number of required
components is reduced, and the reliability increases distinctly. The presented optimized snubber
design provides several additional advantages: It increases the optional performance of the three
level converters due to the lower clamping over-voltages across the switching devices, it improves
the efficiency because of the lower snubber and total losses, its suitable structure can be extended to
114
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
energy recovery snubbers and there is no unbalance problem. Additionally, the manufacturing costs,
the complexity and therefore the converter size can be reduced.
6500
uGTO1 [V]
uGTO1-C
6250
uGTO1-Opti
6000
5750
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015
t [s] 0,020
uGTO2 [V]
6500
uGTO2-C
uGTO2-Opti
6250
6000
Fig.8-35 The voltages in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design
(CS=0.25µF, RS=2Ω).
7500
iGTO1 [A]
6000
4500 iGTO1-C
3000
iGTO1-Opti
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015
t [s] 0,020
iGTO2 [A]
6000
iGTO2-C
4500
iGTO2-Opti
3000
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-36 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design
(CS=0.25µF, RS=2Ω).
115
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
4500
3000
iDf2-Opti
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
(a)
150000
Losses [ws/p.u.]
Losses-C
100000
Losses-Opti
50000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
(b)
Fig.8-37 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and the optimized snubber
configuration, and (b) the comparison of the total losses in the conventional and the optimized
snubber configuration (energy function) (CS=0.25µF, RS=2Ω).
8.7.4 Comparison of the common and the dual-use snubber circuits for different values
for CS-D
In the first simulation, a comparison between the common snubber circuit and the dual-use
snubber design will be done. Two different scenarios were analyzed as follow: In the first, the
parameters were defined by maximum values for modern power semiconductor device for an MV
inverter system. The turn-off snubber parameters were set to the standard parameter values and
other values (see Table 8.4 and Table 8.7) while the load current will be IL= 5000A to get the
optimal values for the snubber circuit elements.
In the following figures the stresses for different power semiconductor devices (GTOs and
diodes) will be discussed and analyzed. Fig.8-38 and Fig.8-39 show that the voltages and the
current in GTO1, 2 in the two circuits, the over-voltage (shown in Fig.8-38) is limited in a better way
by the dual-use snubber circuit and the current pecks are smaller as presented in Fig.8-39.
116
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
Figs.8-40 and 8-41 present the current and the voltage in DS1 and Don1. It is explicitly seen that
the currents in DS1 and Don1 in the dual-use snubber circuit are smaller than those of the common
snubber circuit. The voltage in the diode in the dual-use snubber circuit is suppressed much more
than the common snubber circuit. For the free-wheel diodes, it can be see that the currents of
freewheel diodes resulting from the dual-use snubber circuit are more favorable than those of the
simulated for the common snubber circuit as shown in Fig.8-42(a).
uGTO1 [V]
6400
uGTO1-C
6200
uGTO1-Dual
6000
5800
uGTO2-C
uGTO2 [V]
6400
uGTO2-Dual
6200
6000
Fig.8-38 The voltages on GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the dual-use snubber
configuration (CS-D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω).
7500
iGTO1 [A]
6000
iGTO1-C
4500
iGTO1-Dual
3000
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
6000
iGTO2 [A]
4500
iGTO2-C
3000 iGTO2-Dual
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-39 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the dual-use snubber
configuration (CS-D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω).
117
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
iDs1-C
3000
iDs1-Dual
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
iDon1 [A]
4500
iDon1-C
3000 iDon1-Dual
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-40 The currents in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the dual-use snubber
configuration (CS-D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω).
In Fig.8-42(b), the total losses in the power semiconductor devices and in RSµ in the two
inverters are compared as energy function over one cycle of the fundamental frequency.
0
-1500
uDs1 [V]
-3000
uDs1-C
-4500
uDs1-Dual
-1500 uDon1-C
uDon1-Dual
-3000
uDon1 [V ]
-4500
-6000
Fig.8-41 The voltages in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration
(CS-D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω).
118
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
4500
iDf1 [A]
3000
iDf1-C
1500 iDf1-Dual
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
4500
iDf2-C
iDf2 [A]
3000 iDf2-Dual
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
(a)
150000
Losses [Ws/p.u.]
100000
50000 Losses-C
Losses-Dual
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
(b)
Fig.8-42 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and dual-use snubber configuration,
and (b) comparison of the total losses in the conventional and the optimized snubber
configuration (energy function) (CS-D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω).
As indicated, the energy lost in the entire power semiconductor device and snubber circuit
resistors in the dual-use snubber circuit is much lower than that in the common snubber circuit.
Also, the losses in the GTO’s itself are less for the dual-use snubber circuit but do not differ too
much.
This next simulation was carried out for a small value of CS-D = 0.25µF and RS-D = 2.5 Ω. The
simulation results are analyzed as the following: Figs 8-43 and 8-44 illustrate the voltages and the
current in GTO1 and GTO2. The over-voltage across the GTOµ is limited much better, and the peak
of current is smaller than the first simulation. For the turn-off diode, the over-voltages across DS1,
Don1 are also less than in the first simulation; the currents have the same advantages (see Fig.8.-45
and Fig.8-46). The currents in the freewheel diodes Df1 and Df2 are more adequate as shown in
Fig.8-47(a), in which the current in Df2 is smaller than the same current in the other simulation. The
total losses are illustrated in Fig.8-47(b) as energy function: The total energy lost in the inverters
based on the dual-use snubber circuit is lower than that dissipated in the common snubber circuit.
119
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
uGTO1 [V]
6500
uGTO1-C
6250
uGTO1-Dual
6000
5750
t [s]
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 0,020
6500
uGTO2 [V]
uGTO2-C
uGTO2-Dual
6250
6000
Fig.8-43 The voltages in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the dual-use snubber
configuration (CS-D=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω).
6000
iGTO1 [A]
4500
3000
iGTO1-C
1500 iGTO1-Dual
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
6000
iGTO2 [A]
4500 iGTO2-C
iGTO2-Dual
3000
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-44 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the dual-use snubber
configuration (CS-D=0.25µF, RS-D =2.5Ω).
120
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
iDs1 [A]
4500
3000
iDs1-C
iDs1-Dual
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
iDon1 [A]
4500
3000
iDon1-C
iDon1-Dual
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-45 The voltages in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the dual-use snubber
configuration (CS-D=0.25µF, RS-D =2.5Ω).
-1500
uDs1-C
uDs1 [V]
-3000
uDs1-Dual
-4500
-1500 uDon1-C
uDon1-Dual
-3000
uDon1 [V]
-4500
-6000
Fig.8-46 The voltages in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration
(CS-D=0.25µF, RS-D=2.5Ω).
Based on the aforementioned results, an optimized snubber design is proposed to be used in
high voltage and high power more-level converter systems and partially in FACTS devices. The
121
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
main advantage of the new design is the simple structure snubber circuit, which realizes the facility
to minimize the over-voltage, the total losses in the entire circuit, no unbalance problems and the
manufacturing costs of the snubber circuit. Using a Matlab®/ SimulinkTM simulation based on an
MV three-level inverter system, the over-voltages and the losses are compared between the
common and the dual-use snubber circuits. The results clarify the features of the dual-use snubber
circuit especially for the operation close to the limits of the SOA (Safe Operation Area).
4500
iDf1 [A]
3000 iDf1-C
1500
iDf1-Dual
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
4500
iDf2-C
iDf2 [A]
3000
iDf2-Dual
1500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
150000 (a)
Losses [Ws/p.u.]
Losses-C
Losses-Dual
100000
50000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
(b)
Fig.8-47 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and dual-use snubber configuration
and (b) comparison between the total losses in the conventional and the optimized snubber
configuration (energy function) (CS-D=0.25µF, RS-D=2.5Ω).
122
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
circuit. The voltage across DS1 is less than the common snubber circuit, but the over-voltage across
the turn-on diode Don1 is a bit bigger than the same diode in the common snubber circuit, because
the Don1-D-Ind has now two functions: turn-on and turn-off diode (see Fig.8-50).
6400 uGTO1-C
uGTO1-D-Ind
uGTO1 [V]
6200
6000
5800
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
uGTO2-C
6400
uGTO2-D-Ind
uGTO2 [V]
6200
6000
Fig.8-48 The voltages on GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the Dual-indicative Snubber
design (Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω).
6000
5000
iGTO1 [A]
4000 iGTO1-C
3000
iGTO1-D-Ind
2000
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
6000
iGTO2-C
5000
iGTO2-D-Ind
iGTO2 [A]
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-49 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the Dual-indicative Snubber
design (Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω).
For other simulations parameters, Fig.8-51 presents the currents in DS1 and Don1 in the two
snubber circuits; it is clearly that the current in DS1 in the new snubber circuit is smaller than the
other snubber circuit. The current value depends on the capacitor value and the performance of the
123
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
turn-off snubber circuit. For the turn-on diode current iDon1, the effect of the parallel inductive is
abundantly clear, this current is produced from the stored energy in the turn-on and stray inductors,
so we can get more recovery energy from the turn-on snubber circuit by using recovery transformer
depending on that the inverter efficiency will be high and the losses will be smaller than that those
of the common snubber circuit.
0
-1000
uDs1 [V]
-2000
-3000 uDs1-C
-4000
uDs1-D-Ind
-5000
-2000
-3000 uDon1-D-Ind
-4000
-5000
-6000
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-50 The voltages on DS1 and Don1 in the common and the Dual-indicative Snubber design
(Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω).
5000
4000
iDs1 [A]
iDs1-C
3000
2000
iDs1-D-Ind
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
5000
4000
iDon1-C
iDon1 [A]
3000 iDon1-D-Ind
2000
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
Fig.8-51 The currents in DS1and Don1 in the common and the Dual-indicative Snubber
design (Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω).
124
Chapter 8 Simulation results of three-level VSC snubber circuits
The freewheel diodes current and the losses energy function are shown in Fig.8-52; the Dfµ
currents in new design is smaller than the other snubber circuit (Fig.8-52(a)), and the total losses
energy function for the dual-inductive snubber circuit is under the other function, this result comes
from the big influence of the new snubber circuit design .
5000
4000 iDf1-C
iDf1 [A]
3000
2000 iDf1-D-Ind
1000
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015
t [s] 0,020
3000 iDf2-C
2500
iDf2-D-Ind
iDf2 [A]
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
150000
Losses [Ws/p.u.]
100000
50000
Losses-C
0
Losses-D-Ind
0,000 0,005 0,010 0,015 t [s] 0,020
(b)
Fig.8-52 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and the Dual-indicative snubber
design and (b) comparison of the total losses in the conventional and the optimized snubber
configuration (energy function) (Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω).
This simulation gives an evolution of the common and dual-inductive snubber circuits. The
dual-inductive snubber circuit represents a compromise between snubber size, the number of
devices which compose the snubber circuit, and the total losses in the snubber circuit and in the
power switching devices. This choice will be suitable and fitting for the high voltage and FACTS
systems, because it has permitted losses, the complexity of the circuit, and the weight and the size
of the snubber circuit.
125
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
9.1 Introduction
For the testing the dual snubber circuit design, a three-level inverter system consisting of four
IGBT transistors, including the protection circuits has been established. To drive this circuit during
the test and prototyping phases, two possibilities were available. The first was to use a computer
program named D-Link. The D-Link takes the simulation output waveforms from
Matlab®/SimulinkTM and generates these waveforms on the serial port of the PC. This cheap
solution was not chosen because D-Link can generate a minimum pulse width of 100 microseconds
while the minimum pulse width required for the driving signals is 500 nanoseconds. The alternative
was using complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs) available from Lattice Semiconductor
Corporation. Even though this solution moves expensive, the CPLDs can be used in the prototyping
phases of future projects. This will distribute the CPLDs cost over many projects and hence makes
this solution feasible. The ispMach4A5 CPLD series was used in the signal generator circuit. In
principle series can generate pulse widths of 5ns and hence it satisfies the required minimum pulse
width constraint. The driving circuit logic was designed and verified using the ispDesignExpert
from Lattice. It contains a schematic editor and a simulator in addition to other utilities. The
designed logic was then programmed into the CPLDs using Lattice-Pro software.
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
1,0
Gate2
0,8
0,6
0,4 G2
0,2
0,0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
1,0
Gate3
0,8
0,6
0,4 G3
0,2
0,0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
1,0
Gate4
0,8
0,6
0,4
G4
0,2
0,0
0,00 0,01 0,02 0,03 t [s] 0,04
126
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
schematic of the logic circuit was drawn using ispDesignExpert from Lattice. The
ispDesignExpert contains a schematic editor and a functional and timing simulator. The
schematic of the logic circuit is shown in Fig. 9-2 and the functional simulation results are
presented in Fig. 9-3. After the simulating of the circuit, a JEDEC-file (*.jed) will be
generated. The JEDEC file contains the needed information which will configure the CPLD
according to the designed logic circuit.
• The last step was to transfer the program to the CPLD, then test it with and without the
optocoupler system, finally put them together on the same board as shown in Fig. 9-4.
127
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 9-4: The driving circuit including: (a) The 5 and 15 V power supply from a 12 V source
(b) CPLD Chip and (c) 4 optocoupler.
128
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
From Fig.9-5 of the pulse scheme, the following characteristics of the signals help in reducing
the logic complexity by factor of approximately 4:
• Each signal contains an active part consisting of many on and off (logic '1' and logic '0')
pulses and an idle part, in which the IGBT stays either on or off. The active part is
furthermore divided in two identical halves. For example, the active part of G1starts with a
narrow logic '1' pulse. The logic '1' pulse width increases until a maximum range in the
middle is reached, then it decreases in the same manner. As it will be described in section 9-4,
a logic block will be used to generate one half of the active part. Generating the second half is
established by using the same block.
• The G1and the G3 pulses are identical except for that the logic '1' in G1 corresponds to the
logic '0' in G3 and vice versa. This means that G3 is an inverted version of G1 and an inverter
was used to get G1 from G3. The same applies for G2 and G4. An inverter was also used to get
G4 from G2.
• The G2 is shifted from G1 by a half period. Achieving this shifting through a delay-line of
memory elements is ineffective because the clock period is 500 ns while the half period
equals 10 ms and a series of 20000 memory elements will be needed. Investing the first-
mentioned property of the signals, the same logic block which would be used to generate the
active part of G1, while G2 is idle, would be used to generate the active part of G2 while G1
goes idle. Additional control blocks were added for this purpose.
In other words, the series of integers representing the active part of the signal are
implemented on the circuit level as a series of digital counters. The counters outputs are connected
through an OR gate to a toggle flip-flop (T-flip-flop). Each counter in the series is also connected to
its neighbours through a logic block as shown in Fig. 9-6. This logic block does the two tasks:
• When the counter finishes counting, the control block enables the next counter in the series.
• One clock later, it gives the counter itself a reset pulse and disables it from counting. This
prepares the counter for the next counting.
129
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
The series of counters counts continuously. The counting begins with first counter in the
series (first_1 output in Fig. 9-7), continues until the tenth forming the first half of active period
(forward counting). Backward counting starts directly that after and continues until the first counter
(first_2 output in Fig. 9-7). Each forward and backward run of the counters in the series generates
on active part. The control block shown in Fig. 9-7 switches the output signal between the T-flip-
flop dedicated to generate G1 and the T-flip-flop dedicated to generate G2. When the active part of,
say, G1 is being generated, the G2 flip-flop keeps its last state, and hence, the idle part is generated
automatically.
One problem arises at the two ends of the counters' series. The first counter must count twice,
one in the forward counting and one in the backward counting. Instead of, two identical counters
(with first_1 and first_2 outputs in Fig. 9-7) were used. The count of the last counter in series (tenth
output) was doubled to generate the wide pulse in the middle of the active part as shown in Fig. 9-5.
130
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
CS [µF] RS [Ω] LON [µH] RON [Ω] LP [µH] IO [A] Rload [Ω] Lload [mH]
3 level IGBT
inverter system
Load
3~
Fig. 9-8 Control blocks of the complete Three-level IGBT inverter system.
131
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
The voltage waveforms across the turn-off snubber diode DS1 and turn-on snubber diodeDON1
are illustrated in Fig.9-11, it can easily be seen that the over-voltage waveforms are the same as
those resulted from the simulation results in Matlab®/SimulinkTM. The over-voltage is within the
range of the rated voltage values.
The output voltage and current of inverter are shown in Fig.9-12 for an inductive load. The load
voltage is a square wave and alternates between +Ed and - Ed While the load current waveform is a
sinusoidal wave.
UIGBT1
UIGBT2
132
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
IIGBT1,2
UDS1
UON1
133
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
of the three-level IGBTs inverter system. Then the waveforms of the voltage and current of the
IGBTs, the diodes and the load will be observed (see Fig.8-8).
UL
IL
The voltage and current waveforms of IGBT1, 2 are illustrated in Fig.9-13 and Fig.9-14. The
voltages across the IGBTs are the same of the simulated result in Matlab®/ SimulinkTM which are
presented in Fig.8-48, and also the voltages are much more suppressed than the dual-use snubber
circuit design in the first experiment (see Fig.9-13 and Fig.9-9). The current waveforms in IGBT1, 2
are identical with those of Matlab®/ SimulinkTM which are shown in Fig.8-49 and there are no
peaks. The current is smoother than the current waveform of the first experiment. The voltages
across the snubber circuit diodes are better in comparison with the dual-use snubber circuit in first
test (see Fig.9-15). The parallel inductive is effective in the turn-on snubber circuit in limiting the
current and the measured current through it is much bigger than the current through the turn-on
snubber resistor, so the over-voltages will be suppressed more and more and the current is restricted
another time. Fig.9-16 presents the load voltage and current of the inverter system. Also, the
voltage was square waveform changing between ± Ed and the current is of a sinusoidal wave. The
load voltage waveform in this test is better than in the first test and much more restrained. In the
other side, the current waveform is identical, pure and no more peaks.
The dual-inductive snubber design is suitable for high rated power applications for e.g., in the
converter systems which are used in HVDC and FACTS devices. The most important feature of the
dual-inductive snubber circuit is the new simple structured snubber. So, the number of required
components will be minimized and the performance of the snubber circuits is improved. The dual-
inductive snubber design improves the efficiency due to low snubber losses and a better clamping
134
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
the over-voltages across the switching devices. Additionally it reduces the manufacturing costs and
the complexity so the converter size can be reduced. The experimental investigation were carried
out and very good findings. It shows the advantages of the dual-inductive snubber circuit especially
for the operation close to the limits of the SOA (safety operating area).
UIGBT1
UIGBT2
IIGBT1,2
135
Chapter 9 Experimental investigation on the dual snubber circuit design
UDS1
UON1
UL
IL
136
Chapter 10 Conclusion
10 Conclusion
In this work new and simple snubber circuits for three-level inverter system were proposed
and suggested, which have several new features. These suggested circuits were tested by using a
Matlab®/SimulinkTM Simulation which was based on a single phase model of a MV three level
inverter system. The overvoltages and the losses are compared between the conventional and the
other suggested snubber circuit configurations: the double snubber circuit, the optimized snubber
circuit design, the dual-use snubber circuit and the dual-inductive snubber circuit. The results
clarify the advantages of the proposed designs especially for the operation close to the limits of the
SOA (Safety Operating Area) as in the following:
• The double snubber circuit, which is suitable for high voltage and high power more level
converter systems and FACTS devices, has the advantages of both the RC and RCD
snubber circuit. This means, the facility to minimize both, the over voltage and the losses
in the entire circuit. Therefore the additional RC circuit can compensate the disadvantage
of the conventional RCD snubber design, that the effective value for RS during the
charging of the snubber capacity CS is essentially zero. But still the number of the total
snubber circuit elements is large, so the total losses will be bigger compared ti the
following snubber circuit designs.
• The optimized snubber design is proposed to be used in high voltage and high power more
level converter systems and partially FACTS devices. The optimized snubber design is
based on a new and simple structured snubber, which depends on passive elements. As a
result, the number of required components is reduced, and the reliability increases
distinctly. The presented optimized snubber design provides several additional advantages:
It increases the optional performance of the three level converters due to the lower
clamping over-voltages across the switching devices, it improves the efficiency because of
the lower snubber- and total losses, its suitable structure can be extended to energy
recovery snubbers and there is no unbalancing problem. Additionally, the manufacturing
costs, the complexity and therefore the converter size can be reduced.
• The dual-use snubber design has the same advantages of the optimized snubber design;
and more than that: the new position of turn-off snubber resistor RS which has two new
functions the first is during the discharge process of CS1, and the second is during the
charging process of CS2. So the resistor has a damping effect of the over-voltage across the
power switching device while charging process of CS2, this means that the over-voltage
will be reduced, especially in the beginning of turn-off process.
• The dual-inductive snubber design is also expedient for using in high- voltage and power
level converter systems and a FACTS devices. The dual-inductive snubber design has the
same structure und advantages of the dual-use snubber circuit. But the added inductance
suppresses the over-voltage across the switching device more effectively and improves the
efficiency due to minimize the losses.
In the experimental part of the dissertation, the dual-use and dual-inductive snubber circuits of
three-level inverter systems were tested. The investigation results show that:
• The dual-use snubber circuit has perfectly reduced the over-voltage across the IGBTs,
restricted the current changing, and suppressed the over-voltages across the snubber circuit
diodes. The results were compatible with those of the simulation results in
Matlab®/SimulinkTM.
• The dual-inductive snubber circuit tests were carried out and also the results correspond to
the simulation results of the Matlab®/SimulinkTM studies. The added inductive in the turn
on snubber circuit absorbs a big part of the current while a small part will flow through the
137
Chapter 10 Conclusion
turn on snubber circuit resistor which causes the over-voltage. The value of the measured
current through the resistor was about 10% of the total current of the turn on snubber
circuit. The shape of the load voltages and currents were much better than in the dual-use
snubber circuit. So, the dual-inductive snubber design will improve the total efficiency due
to the mentioned features.
138
Chapter 11 Zusammenfassung
11 Zusammenfassung
In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden Schutzbeschaltungen für Dreipunkt-
Zwischenkreisstromrichter entwickelt und vorgeschlagen, die neuartige Möglichkeiten beinhalten.
Die vorgeschlagenen Schaltungen wurden mit Matlab®/SimulinkTM Modellen entwickelt und
überprüft. Verwendet wurde ein einphasiges Modell eines Dreipunktumrichters für
Mittelspannungsanwendungen. Die Überspannungen und die Verluste werden zwischen der
konventionellen und den hier vorgeschlagen Schutzbeschaltungen verglichen: der
Doppelschutzbeschaltung oder auch „Double Snubber Circuit“, der optimierten Schutzbeschaltung,
oder „Optimized Snubber Circuit Design“, der Mehrzweckschutzbeschaltung oder „Dual-use
Snubber Circuit“ und der Doppel-induktiv Schutzbeschaltung oder „Dual-inductive Snubber
Circuit“. Die Resultate erklären die Vorteile der vorgeschlagenen Entwürfe besonders für den
Betrieb nahe der Grenze der SOA (Sicherer Arbeitsbereich) wie folgt:
139
Chapter 11 Zusammenfassung
Im experimentellen Teil der Dissertation, wurden die zweifache- und die doppel-induktive
Schutzbeschaltung der Dreipunktstromrichtersysteme überprüft. Die Resultate zeigen:
• Die zweifache Schutzbeschaltung konnte die Überspannungen über den IGBTs in sehr
guter Weise verringern, die Flankensteilheit des Stromes wird begrenzt und die
Überspannungen über den Schutzbeschaltungsdioden unterdrückt. Die Resultate stimmen
mit denen der Simulation in Matlab®/SimulinkTM überein.
140
Appendix A1 Abbreviation and symbols
141
Appendix A1 Abbreviation and symbols
Vo : Output voltage.
io : Output current.
VS : DC voltage.
Id : Supply DC current.
δ : Phase angle (pulse width).
Von : The rms value of the nth order AC output voltage.
Vo1 : The rms fundamental output voltage.
eC : Maximum value of the sinusoidal modulating voltage.
fo : Output frequency.
vtri : Saw-wave voltage.
vtri,max : Maximum value of the saw-wave voltage.
Vo1max : Fundamental output voltage.
vABC : Line-line voltages.
VAN: : Line-neutral voltage for phase A.
vl-N : Line-neutral voltage.
mf : Frequency modulation ratio.
Vmax : Peak value of the input AC voltage.
Lσ : Stray inductance.
IO : Load current.
RS : Snubber resistor.
CS : Snubber capacitor.
vCS : Snubber capacitor voltage.
ω : Angular frequency.
Irr : Reverse recovery current.
Cbase : Baseline capacitor.
vCS ,max : Maximum value of the snubber capacitor voltage.
Wtot : Total energy dissipated in the diode and its snubber resistor.
xC : Line impedance.
VLL : Line-to-line voltage.
Id : Load current.
Wsnubber : Total energy loss in the snubber circuit.
142
Appendix A1 Abbreviation and symbols
143
Appendix A2 List of Figures
144
Appendix A2 List of Figures
145
Appendix A2 List of Figures
Fig.7-15 A modified circuit with an over-voltage snubber, a turn-on snubber, and turn-off snubber;
the Undeland snubber for step-down converter. ................................................................................81
Fig.7-16 Step-down converter circuit using a GTO as the switching device with turn-on and turn-off
snubbers .............................................................................................................................................82
Fig.7-17 Test chopper circuit. ............................................................................................................83
Fig.7-18 IGBT Switching waveforms during the turn-off and turn-on processes .............................84
Fig.7-19 Schematic type of individual snubber circuits: (a) RC snubber circuit, (b) Charge discharge
RCD snubber circuit, (c) Discharge suppressing RCD snubber circuit, (d) C snubber circuit and (e)
RCD snubber circuit...........................................................................................................................86
Fig.7-20 Turn-off locus waveform of IGBT......................................................................................87
Fig.7-21 Voltage and current waveforms at turn-off. IGBT..............................................................87
Fig.8-1 Single phase of a three level converter (common snubber circuit). ......................................90
Fig.8-2 Proposed double snubber circuit configuration in a three level inverter system...................91
Fig.8-3 An optimized snubber design for Single phase three level GTO inverters. ..........................92
Fig.8-4 Commutation path of the transition form S0 to S1: (a) initial state, (b) phase 1 and (c) phase-
2..........................................................................................................................................................94
Fig.8-5. Commutation path of the transition form S1 to S0: (a) initial state, (b) phase 1 and (c) phase-
2..........................................................................................................................................................95
Fig.8-6 Commutation path of the transition form S0 to S-1: (a) initial state, (b) phase 1 and (c) phase-
2..........................................................................................................................................................96
Fig.8-7 One phase of a three level inverter with the new dual-use snubber circuit design. ..............98
Fig.8-8 One phase of a three-level inverter with the new dual-inductive snubber circuit.................99
Fig.8-9 The main flow chart of the PWM in Matlab®/SimulinkTM. ...............................................100
Fig.8-10 The internal part of the PWM in Matlab®/SimulinkTM. ...................................................101
Fig.8-11 The comparison functions of the PWM in Matlab®/SimulinkTM. ....................................101
Fig.8-12 the output of the PWM in Matlab®/SimulinkTM...............................................................102
Fig.8-13 The voltages on GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.05µF).....................................................................................................................................103
Fig.8-14 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.05µF).....................................................................................................................................103
Fig.8-15 The currents in Df1 and Df2 in the common and the double snubber Configuration
(CP=0.05µF).....................................................................................................................................104
Fig.8-16 The voltages on DS1 and DS2in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.05µF).....................................................................................................................................104
Fig.8-17 The currents in DS1 and DS2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.05µF).....................................................................................................................................105
Fig.8-18 The total losses (energy function) in RS1 in the conventional- and in RS1, RP1 in the
proposed double snubber design over one cycle of the fundamental frequency (CP=0.05µF)........105
Fig.8-19 The voltages in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.01µF).....................................................................................................................................106
Fig.8-20 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.01µF).....................................................................................................................................106
Fig.8-21 The currents in DS1 and DS2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.01µF).....................................................................................................................................107
Fig.8-22 The voltages on DS1 and DS2 in the common and the double snubber configuration
(CP=0.01µF).....................................................................................................................................107
Fig.8-23 The currents in Df1and Df2 in the common and the double snubber Configuration
(CP=0.01µF).....................................................................................................................................108
Fig.8-24 The total losses (energy function) in RS1 in the conventional and in RS1, RP1 in the proposed
double snubber design over two cycles of the fundamental frequency (CP=0.01µF)......................108
146
Appendix A2 List of Figures
Fig.8-25 The voltages in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design. ......109
Fig.8-26 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2in the common and the optimized snubber design.........110
Fig.8-27 (a) The currents in Df1 and Df2 and comparing the total losses in conventional and (b) the
optimised snubber configuration (energy function).........................................................................110
Fig.8-28 The current in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the optimized snubber configuration. ...111
Fig.8-29 The voltages in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the optimized snubber configuration. .111
Fig.8-30 The voltages on GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design
(CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω)..........................................................................................................................112
Fig.8-31 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design
(CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω)..........................................................................................................................112
Fig.8-32 Currents in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the optimized snubber configuration
(CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω)..........................................................................................................................113
Fig.8-33 Voltages on DS1 and Don1 in the common and the optimized snubber configuration
(CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω)..........................................................................................................................113
Fig.8-34 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and the optimized snubber configuration,
and (b) the comparison of the total losses in the conventional and the optimized snubber
configuration (energy function) (CS=0.5µF, RS=5Ω). .....................................................................114
Fig.8-35 The voltages in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design
(CS=0.25µF, RS=2Ω)........................................................................................................................115
Fig.8-36 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the optimized snubber design
(CS=0.25µF, RS=2Ω)........................................................................................................................115
Fig.8-37 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and the optimized snubber configuration,
and (b) the comparison of the total losses in the conventional and the optimized snubber
configuration (energy function) (CS=0.25µF, RS=2Ω). ...................................................................116
Fig.8-38 The voltages on GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration
(CS-D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω). ...................................................................................................................117
Fig.8-39 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration
(CS-D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω). ...................................................................................................................117
Fig.8-40 The currents in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration (CS-
D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω). .........................................................................................................................118
Fig.8-41 The voltages in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration (CS-
D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω). .........................................................................................................................118
Fig.8-42 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and dual-use snubber configuration, and (b)
comparison of the total losses in the conventional and the optimized snubber configuration (energy
function) (CS-D=0.5µF, RS=2.5Ω). ...................................................................................................119
Fig.8-43 The voltages in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration
(CS-D=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω). .................................................................................................................120
Fig.8-44 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration
(CS-D=0.25µF, RS-D =2.5Ω)...............................................................................................................120
Fig.8-45 The voltages in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration (CS-
D=0.25µF, RS-D =2.5Ω).....................................................................................................................121
Fig.8-46 The voltages in DS1 and Don1 in the common and the dual-use snubber configuration (CS-
D=0.25µF, RS-D=2.5Ω). ....................................................................................................................121
Fig.8-47 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and dual-use snubber configuration and (b)
comparison between the total losses in the conventional and the optimized snubber configuration
(energy function) (CS-D=0.25µF, RS-D=2.5Ω). .................................................................................122
Fig.8-48 The voltages on GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the Dual-indicative Snubber design
(Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω). ...............................................................................123
Fig.8-49 The currents in GTO1 and GTO2 in the common and the Dual-indicative Snubber design
(Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω). ...............................................................................123
147
Appendix A2 List of Figures
Fig.8-50 The voltages on DS1 and Don1 in the common and the Dual-indicative Snubber design
(Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω). ...............................................................................124
Fig.8-51 The currents in DS1and Don1 in the common and the Dual-indicative Snubber design
(Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω). ...............................................................................124
Fig.8-52 (a) The currents in Df2 and Df2 in the common and the Dual-indicative snubber design and
(b) comparison of the total losses in the conventional and the optimized snubber configuration
(energy function) (Ed=6000V, IL=5000A, CS=0.25µF, RS=2.5Ω). ..................................................125
Fig.9-1 Pulse scheme of Matlab®/SimulinkTM at 900Hz..................................................................126
Fig. 9-2: The schematic diagram of the driving circuit logic...........................................................127
Fig. 9-3: Functional simulation results from the ispDesignExpert. .................................................128
Fig. 9-4: The driving circuit including: (a) The 5 and 15 V power supply from a 12 V source (b)
CPLD Chip and (c) 4 optocoupler ...................................................................................................128
Fig. 9-5 One period of the driving signals .......................................................................................128
Fig. 9-6: The logic block schematic diagram...................................................................................130
Fig. 9-7: Control block of the driving circuit...................................................................................130
Fig. 9-8 Control blocks of the complete Three-level IGBT inverter system. ..................................131
Fig. 9-9 Voltage waveforms across IGBT1, 2....................................................................................132
Fig. 9-10 Current waveforms through IGBT1, 2................................................................................133
Fig. 9-11 Voltage waveforms across DS1, DON1. ..............................................................................133
Fig. 9-12 Load voltage- and current-waveforms. ............................................................................134
Fig. 9-13 Voltage waveforms across IGBT1, 2..................................................................................135
Fig. 9-14 Current waveforms through IGBT1, 2................................................................................135
Fig. 9-15 Voltage waveforms across DS1, DON1. ..............................................................................136
Fig. 9-16 Load voltage- and current-waveforms. ............................................................................136
148
Appendix A3 List of Figures
149
Appendix A4 References
Appendix A4 References
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Appendix A4 References
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151
Appendix A4 References
152