Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
PREPARED BY
BHARUCH-393002
2012-2013
CHAPTER 5 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN IC ENGINE
INTRODUCTION
Fuel injection is a system for admitting fuel into an internal combustion engine. It has
become the primary fuel delivery system used in automotive engines, having replaced
carburetors during the 1980s and 1990s. A variety of injection systems have existed since the
earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.
The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection
atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a
carburetor relies on suction created by intake air rushing through a venturi to draw the fuel
into the airstream.
Modern fuel injection systems are designed specifically for the type of fuel being
used. Some systems are designed for multiple grades of fuel (using sensors to adapt the
tuning for the fuel currently used). Most fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel
applications
MPFI
M.P.F.I. means Multi Point Fuel Injection system. In this system each
cylinder has number of injectors to supply/spray fuel in the cylinders as compared to one
injector located centrally to supply/spray fuel in case of single point injection system.
Stage(1) Stage(2)
Stage(3) Stage(4)
ADVANTAGES OF MPFI
(1) More uniform A/F mixture will be supplied to each cylinder, hence the difference in
power developed in each cylinder is minimum. Vibration from the engine equipped
with this system is less, due to this the life of engine components is improved.
(2) No need to crank the engine twice or thrice in case of cold starting as happens in the
carburetor system.
(3) Immediate response, in case of sudden acceleration / deceleration.
(4) Since the engine is controlled by ECM* (Engine Control Module), more accurate
amount of A/F mixture will be supplied and as a result complete combustion will take
place. This leads to effective utilization of fuel supplied and hence low emission level.
(5) The mileage of the vehicle will be improved.
1. STEELS
Here is an example. Suppose a company has been making successful con rods
from 4340, and it decides to add a higher strength product. The engineers at the company have
heard that 300-M is a great material, so they decide to use it for the new con rod. At a hardness
of 44-46 HRc, their 4340 con rod has good strength (220 UTS / 200 YS) and impact resistance
(22 ft-lb CVN). However, although the strength of 4340 increases at hardness values above 46
HRc, the impact resistance becomes quite poor, so 44-46 HRc is the typical compromise
hardness for 4340 cranks and con rods.
2. SUPERALLOYS
There are some unique material selection challenges in the design of very-
high-strength threaded fasteners. High-grade fasteners are exposed to high stress concentration in
the thread roots caused by the tensile stresses produced from extremely high clamping loads, on
top of which are superimposed any fatigue loads (as in the case of a con rod bolt).
There has been lots of research and experimentation with making ultra-high-
strength threaded fasteners out of 280+ ksi quenched / tempered and maraging steels, but there
have been problems with notch sensitivity, stress corrosion, fatigue, and other issues.
Because of the large amount of cobalt in AMS-5844, the material cost is quite high
(currently around $80 per pound). To find a more economical solution that provides the same
performance, a leading US fastener manufacturer (ARP) worked with Carpenter Technology to
develop Custom-Age-625-PLUS (a modification of Carpenter’s CA-625 chemistry).
3. ALUMINUM ALLOYS
When compared to the base alloy, this process yields substantial improvements in
the yield and ultimate stress values (10-15%) and in the fatigue performance across the usable
temperature range of the base alloy, plus a significant reduction in the thermal expansion rate,
and a dramatic increase in stiffness, with the elastic modulus increased as much as 40% (to
nearly the value of titanium).
For example, comparing the new 2000-based alloy (‘DW 2-15’) to 2618 at
400°F, the yield strength of 2618 is 26.8 ksi, while the yield strength of the 2-15 is 32.6 ksi, an
improvement of more than 21%. But that’s not all. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the 2-
15 alloy is 24% lower than 2618, and is even 8% lower than the “low expansion” 4032 alloy.
The fatigue testing of the 2000-based alloys has yet to be completed. However,
preliminary indications are that the results will show strength and fatigue improvements similar
to the improvements realized in the 7000-series. If the expected results are verified, that will
present the opportunity for yet another improvement in piston technology: strength and fatigue
properties exceeding 2618 with expansion less than 4032. The materials will be available in
extruded bar and plate form, with planned release in late 2008
4. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Certain contemporary sand-casting magnesium alloys are ideal for high-strength cast housings
which are exposed to operating temperatures up to 400°F (204°C). High-strength magnesium
alloys are currently used in aircraft gearboxes, WRC transmission components, and (allegedly) in
Formula One engine ancillaries. A low-creep die-casting magnesium alloy is used in a new
BMW production engine block.Magnesium alloys are approximately 35% lighter than
7luminium alloys, and certain alloys can be heat-treated to UTS values approaching 43 ksi,
making them attractive because of their high strength / weight ratio. The stiffness of magnesium
is generally only about 63% of 7luminium alloys, so components being switched from
7luminium to magnesium will require larger cross-sections and section moduli to achieve the
same stiffness as the 7luminium part, and can result in a weight saving of 20-25% depending
upon the design.
It was the need for good sand-casting magnesium alloys which provided part of the motivation
for the development of the second major alloying system. That system consists of magnesium
alloyed with various combinations of other elements (rare earths, zinc, thorium, silver, but NOT
8luminium) to achieve a set of desired properties. This system includes a small, but essential
quantity of the grain-refiner zirconium, which produces a very tiny grain size in the metal, thus
giving the alloys very consistent, homogeneous properties, without the need to rely on a fast
cooling rate.
An interesting new wrought mag-nesium alloy is currently under development. This alloy
(Elektron-675) represents a step-change upward in mechanical properties. The tensile / yield
values are listed as 62 / 47 ksi respectively, with initial tests showing excellent fatigue properties.
The chemistry, thus the alloying system, is presently undisclosed while the patent is being
sought. The strength versus tem-perature properties are shown in, constructed from data provided
by the manufacturer. This material, being in the early stages of life, is not yet available in
production volumes.
Figure
BMW Magnesium Block
Using this alloy, BMW developed a composite inline-6 engine block (Figure ) which uses AJ-62
for the external block, and an 8luminium alloy for the liners, coolant passages and main bearing
bulkheads. This block is reported to be 24% lighter than a conventional aluminum block and
contributes to BMW's claim that the R6 engine, at 161 kg, is the lightest 3.0 litre inline-six in the
world.
5. TITANIUM
Titanium based alloys have been commercially available for just a little over 50
years. However, they have achieved widespread use in aerospace and various forms of
motorsport. The valves and con rods in Formula One engines and the valves in NASCAR Cup
engines are made from titanium alloys. It is used in various other applications including springs,
torsion bars, fasteners, flywheels and clutch components.
There are several manufacturers producing aftermarket titanium conrods. I was told
by one major titanium supplier that the most frequently used alloy for conrods is the old standby
Ti-6Al-4V (6% aluminum, 4% vanadium), also known as Grade 5 titanium. This alloy can be
solution heat-treated and aged up to tensile strengths of 181 ksi (1250 mpa). It is interesting to
note that the nomenclature "6Al-4V" has become nearly a generic, because there are more than
20 different variations available, all having the same basic chemistry but with differing melt
practices, impurity tolerances, inspection requirements, etc.
I was told (by Allegheny Technologies Ltd.) about a new alloy under development
that achieves a step-change in titanium material properties. This alloy was developed from the
old existing alloy known as Beta-C (grade 19: Ti-3Al-8V-6Cr-4Mo-4Zr).
Yet another interesting titanium based material is the alloy known as 15V-3Al. This
is a cold-formable beta alloy produced in sheet form (1.0 - 1.5 mm thickness). Unlike many
titanium alloys, this one is easily bendable to form complex fabricated sheet metal parts. When
fabrication is complete, the part can be solution treated and aged, and the net result is a very
high-strength, lightweight fabricated part. Imagine the possibilities for a fully-titanium
monocoque chassis……
It has been discovered through experience that this microstructure also has
crack-arresting properties. Sample exhaust valves which had been subjected to extreme
mechanical and thermal loads have been found during teardown to have hundreds of tiny cracks
in the stem-to-head transition area, but they had not failed in service.
The electrical motor and the direct connected diesel engine can run the propeller
separately or in parallel. Typical operation for pure diesel mechanical setup is steaming. Typical
operation for electrical set-up is transit at lower speed and DP operation. Parallel boosting
operation between mechanical and electrical is typically heavy towing, fast steaming and anchor
handling operations.
A hybrid propulsion system can be realized with both azimuths and conventional
propellers, but for many reasons the best layout is with conventional propellers and controllable
pitch control. By the use of the conventional and well proven conventional propeller system, it is
possible to combine electrical and mechanical operation of the propeller. And, full advantage of
both variable speed control and variable pitch can be taken.Summarized the Hybrid propulsion
system's properties compared to conventional systems can be described as follows;
ADVANTAGES:
Generally speaking, ICE efficiency measures come in two forms: (1) specialized
components, add-ons, and auxiliary systems that are worked into the basic framework design of a
conventional reciprocating internal combustion engine; and (2) highly modified or novel engine
designs, which seek to re-engineer the internal combustion engine from the ground up, using
alternative and novel designs and processes. Measures in the former group are being more widely
pursued by the existing automotive and ICE production industries, where manufacturers are
focusing on incremental design updates to conventional engines. These technologies include
engine deactivation, cylinder deactivation, variable valve timing and lift, turbochargers and
superchargers, direct fuel injection, smaller displacement motors, hybrid and partial hybrid
systems, and homogeneous charge compression ignition. These measures apply to conventional
designs with relatively little modification.
The second category of ICE energy efficiency measures provides a more radical
break from convention, and is being forwarded primarily by various small and mid-sized start-
ups and venture capital firms, alongside breakthrough-oriented government grants and other
funding mechanisms. These endeavors significantly redesign internal combustion engines, and
include redesigned combustion chambers, opposing piston designs, split cycle engine designs,
opposed piston/opposed cyclinder engines, and updated rotary engine designs. Proponents and
investors in these technologies are focusing on the larger industry’s current lack of interest in
breakthrough-oriented ICE technologies, and generating a race toward commercialization for
potential new technologies.
Now is therefore an exciting time in the ICE engineering and technology industry.
Mainstream industry investment in design upgrades will drive typical operating engine efficiency
up from 15-20% to upwards of 30%. Some of the potential breakthrough/redesigned systems
claim efficiencies upwards of 40 and 50%, although commercialization of these technologies has
not yet been achieved. Accordingly, many industry insiders and durable goods manufacturers are
banking on sharp increases in demand for energy efficient ICEs in the transportation and
distributed generation industries worldwide. Expectations are driven by a lack of foreseeable
near term technological maturity and competition from fuel cells, electric motors and batteries
for transportation, and other envisioned high efficiency transport and distributed generation
solutions. Thus, while the gap between demand for higher efficiency engines and available high
efficiency technologies continues to widen, the ICE industry is betting on itself to fill that gap
more quickly than fuel cells or other technologically immature solutions.
Demand for energy efficient ICEs has strengthened notably with the ongoing
economic recovery. Following stagnation during the 2008 and 2009, efficient ICE demand
rebounded strongly in 2010 and 2011, increasing from a total global value of $80 billion in 2009
to $121 billion in 2011. From 2006 through 2011, the market showed an overall increase of $70
billion, equivalent to a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of nearly 19%. Through 2021, the
efficient ICE market is expected to expand significantly, in spite of near term softening in
emerging markets. Specifically, the global market is expected to reach $401 billion by 2021,
equivalent to a 10-year CAGR of nearly 13%.
The market expansion projected for efficient ICEs maintains strong roots in the
automotive and light truck industries. Other key markets include ground transport, distributed
power generation, marine transport, and industrial/mechanical uses, including mineral extraction,
petroleum extraction, wastewater treatment, and many other industries where mechanical energy
is not typically provided by electric motors. A significant advantage of these multiple drivers is
that demand for efficient ICE technologies is resilient in comparison to goods that serve more
limited markets. While the automotive and transport markets are highly competitive, other non-
transport markets provide diverse niche opportunities that may be available to well-positioned
start-ups.
EMISSION CONTROL
Diesel engines provide important fuel economy and durability advantages for large
heavy-duty trucks, buses, nonroad equipment and passenger cars. They are often the power plant of
choice for heavy-duty applications. While they have many advantages, they also have the
disadvantage of emitting significant amounts of particulate matter (PM) and oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) and, to a lesser amount, hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and toxic air pollutants.
Particles emitted from diesel engines are small – in most cases less than 2.5 microns
in diameter. The particles are complex, consisting of a carbon core, adsorbed hydrocarbons from
engine oil and diesel fuel, adsorbed sulfates, water, and inorganic materials such as those produced
by engine wear. Because of their extremely small size and composition, the particles emitted by
diesel engines have raised many health concerns. Health experts have expressed concern that diesel
PM may contribute to or aggravate chronic lung diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema.
There is growing evidence that exposure to diesel PM may increase the risk of cancer
in humans. As early as 1988, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded
that diesel particulate is probably carcinogenic to humans. The term “carcinogen” is used by the
IARC to denote an agent that is capable of increasing the incidence of malignant tumors. In August
1998, California Air Resources Board identified PM emissions from diesel-fueled engines as a toxic
air contaminant and adopted its ground breaking Diesel Risk Reduction Plan in September of 2000
with the goal of reducing diesel PM levels by 85 percent in 2020. In 2000, the U.S. EPA declared
diesel PM to be a “likely human carcinogen.” A recent report, “Diesel and Health in America: The
Lingering Threat,” issued in February 2005 by the Clean Air Task Force (CATF), reviews the health
impacts of diesel particulate emissions in the U.S. This report states that fine particulate pollution
from diesel engines shortens the lives of nearly 21,000 people in the U.S. every year, with health-
related damage from diesel PM estimated to total $139 billion in 2010.
NOx emissions from diesel engines also pose a number of health concerns. Once in
the atmosphere, oxides of nitrogen react with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of
sunlight to form ozone. Ozone is a reactive and corrosive gas that contributes to many respiratory
problems. Ozone is particularly harmful to children and the elderly. The CATF published a report in
1999 on ozone related respiratory incidents in 37 Eastern states and the district of Columbia for the
ozone period of April to October in 1997. The report estimated that there were over 50,000 hospital
admissions and approximately 160,000 emergency room visits related to high ozone levels. NOx
emissions themselves can damage respiratory systems and lower resistance to respiratory infection.
As with ozone, children and the elderly are particularly susceptible to NOx emissions. The American
Lung Association estimates that 55 percent of the U.S. population lives in counties which have
unhealthy levels of either ozone or particulate pollution.
Compression and spark ignition engines for light and heavy duty applications, automotive
and other markets
Internal combustion engines for hybrid power trains
Air-path and other technology to achieve improved performance and fuel economy
benefits through downsizing
Challenges, needs and responses to the introduction of low-carbon alternative fuels
Combustion systems, fuel delivery and mixture preparation: advances in low-temperature
combustion systems, expanded range of operation, improvements in conventional
combustion
Strategies to reduce pollutant formation and advances in after treatment
Instrumentation, sensors and diagnostic techniques for development and/or engine
electronic control
Unconventional designs or operating strategies: performance analysis or data
comparisons
Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since
the 18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first
commercial central electrical generating stations in the Pearl Street Station, New York and the
Holborn Viaduct power station, London, in 1882, also used reciprocating steam engines. The
development of the steam turbine allowed larger and more efficient central generating stations to
be built. By 1892 it was considered as an alternative to reciprocating engines [2] Turbines offered
higher speeds, more compact machinery, and stable speed regulation allowing for parallel
synchronous operation of generators on a common bus. Turbines entirely replaced reciprocating
engines in large central stations after about 1905. The largest reciprocating engine-generator sets
ever built were completed in 1901 for the Manhattan Elevated Railway. Each of seventeen units
weighed about 500 tons and was rated 6000 kilowatts; a contemporary turbine-set of similar
rating would have weighed about 20% as much.
1. Cooling tower. 2. Cooling water pump. 3. Transmission line (3-phase). 4. Unit transformer (3-
phase). 5. Electric generator (3-phase). 6. Low pressure turbine. 7. Condensate extraction pump.
8. Condensor. 9. Intermediate pressure turbine. 10. Steam governor valve. 11. High pressure
turbine. 12. Deaerator. 13. Feed heater. 14. Coal conveyor. 15. Coal hopper. 16. Pulverised fuel
mill. 17. Boiler drum. 18. Ash hopper. 19. Superheater. 20. Forced draught fan. 21. Reheater. 22.
Air intake. 23. Economiser. 24. Air preheater. 25. Precipitator. 26. Induced draught fan. 27.
Chimney Stack.
Coal is conveyed (14) from an external stack and ground to a very fine
powder by large metal spheres in the pulverised fuel mill (16). There it is mixed with preheated
air (24) driven by the forced draught fan (20). The hot air-fuel mixture is forced at high pressure
into the boiler where it rapidly ignites. Water of a high purity flows vertically up the tube-lined
walls of the boiler, where it turns into steam, and is passed to the boiler drum, where steam is
separated from any remaining water. The steam passes through a manifold in the roof of the
drum into the pendant superheater (19) where its temperature and pressure increase rapidly to
around 200 bar and 570°C, sufficient to make the tube walls glow a dull red. The steam is piped
to the high pressure turbine (11), the first of a three-stage turbine process. A steam governor
valve (10) allows for both manual control of the turbine and automatic set-point following. The
steam is exhausted from the high pressure turbine, and reduced in both pressure and temperature,
is returned to the boiler reheater (21). The reheated steam is then passed to the intermediate
pressure turbine (9), and from there passed directly to the low pressure turbine set (6). The
exiting steam, now a little above its boiling point, is brought into thermal contact with cold water
(pumped in from the cooling tower) in the condensor (8), where it condenses rapidly back into
water, creating near vacuum-like conditions inside the condensor chest. The condensed water is
then passed by a feed pump (7) through a deaerator (12), and pre-warmed, first in a feed heater
(13) powered by steam drawn from the high pressure set, and then in the economiser (23), before
being returned to the boiler drum. The cooling water from the condensor is sprayed inside a
cooling tower (1), creating a highly visible plume of water vapor, before being pumped back to
the condensor (8) in cooling water cycle.
2. GAS TURBINE
If the device has been designed to power a shaft as with an industrial generator
or a turboprop, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible. In practice it is
necessary that some pressure remains at the outlet in order to fully expel the exhaust gases. In the
case of a jet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the
compressor and other components. The remaining high pressure gases are accelerated to provide
a jet that can, for example, be used to propel an aircraft.
Brayton cycle
As with all cyclic heat engines, higher combustion temperatures can allow for
greater efficiencies. However, temperatures are limited by ability of the steel, nickel, ceramic, or
other materials that make up the engine to withstand high temperatures and stresses. To combat
this many turbines feature complex blade cooling systems.
As a general rule, the smaller the engine the higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s)
must be to maintain tip speed. Blade tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can
be obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This in turn limits the maximum power and
efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the
diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example large Jet
engines operate around 10,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm.
More sophisticated turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may
have multiple shafts (spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator blades, and a vast
system of complex piping, combustors and heat exchangers.
(1)Dam
Dams are structures built over rivers to stop the water flow and
form a reservoir.The reservoir stores the water flowing down the river. This water is diverted to
turbines in power stations. The dams collect water during the rainy season and stores it, thus
allowing for a steady flow through the turbines throughout the year. Dams are also used for
controlling floods and irrigation. The
dams should be water-tight and should be
able to withstand the pressure exerted by
the water on it. There are different types
of dams such as arch dams, gravity dams
and buttress dams. The height of water in
the dam is called head race.
(2)Spillway
A spillway as the name suggests could be
called as a way for spilling of water from
dams. It is used to provide for the release of flood water from a dam. It is used to prevent over
toping of the dams which could result in damage or failure of dams. Spillways could be
controlled type or uncontrolled type. The uncontrolled types start releasing water upon water
rising above a particular level. But in case of the controlled type, regulation of flow is possible.
(4)Surge Tank
Surge tanks are tanks connected to the water conductor system. It serves the purpose of reducing
water hammering in pipes which can cause damage to pipes. The sudden surges of water in
penstock is taken by the surge tank, and when the water requirements increase, it supplies the
collected water thereby regulating water flow and pressure inside the penstock.