2.

Basics of Acoustics
2.1 Waves and Wave terminology
2.1.1 Vibrations
A vibration is a repeating motion that moves back and forth.
A mass on a frictionless surface is at rest at an equilibrium
position (A) when undisturbed. When the spring is
stretched (B) or compressed (D), then released (C), the
mass vibrates back and forth because restoring forces pull
opposite to and proportional to the displacement.

A vibrating mass is described by measuring

several variables.
A cycle is the movement from some point,
to another point and back again.
A period (T) is the time required for one
complete cycle.
Frequency (f) is the number of cycles per
second.
2.1.2 Kinds of Waves
A. Longitudinal Wave
A wave that travels in a back and forth movement. Longitudinal waves are created in a spring
when the free end is moved back and forth parallel to the spring. Sound is a longitudinal wave.

B. Transverse Wave
A wave that disturbs particles in a perpendicular motion in the direction of the wave. Transverse
waves are created in a spring when the free end is moved up and down.
2.1.3 Waves in Air
Longitudinal waves with frequencies below 20 Hz are termed Infrasonic.
Longitudinal waves with frequencies greater that 20,000 Hz are termed Ultrasonic.
Since humans can only hear waves in the 20 – 20,000 Hz range, they hear neither infrasonic nor
ultrasonic waves. Waves move the eardrum in and out with the same frequency as the wave,
which the brain interprets as sound.

During vibrations, wave particles can either undergo

condensation or rarefaction.
• Condensation; production of pulses of increased
density and pressure.
• Rarefaction; A zone of reduced density and pressure.
2.2 Speed of Sound
Sound is defined as a pressure disturbance that moves through a material at a speed which is
dependent on the material (Beranek and Ve´r, 1992).
Noise is usually defined as any perceived sound that is objectionable or damaging for a human.
Noise is somewhat subjective, because one person’s ‘‘music’’ may be another person’s ‘‘noise.’’
For an ideal gas, the speed of sound is a function of the absolute temperature of the gas (Pierre
Simon Laplace, 1816); 𝛾𝛾 = 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝑐𝑐𝑣𝑣 , and 𝑅𝑅 is the specific gas constant :
𝑐𝑐 = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 1⁄2 (2.2.1)
Alternatively, sound propagates with the velocity c defined by
𝑐𝑐 = 20.05 𝑇𝑇𝐾𝐾 (2.2.2)
where TK is temperature in Kelvin.
A simpler formula for the velocity of sound in air sufficiently accurate at normal temperatures, 0
to 30 oC, is
𝑐𝑐 = 331 + 0.6𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 (2.2.3)
where TC is the temperature in centigrade.
2.3 Wavelength, Frequency, Period and Wave number
The period (𝜏𝜏) for a wave is defined as the time elapsed during one complete cycle for the wave,
or the time elapsed between the passage of the successive peaks for a simple harmonic wave.
The frequency is the reciprocal of the period, 𝑓𝑓 = 1⁄𝜏𝜏 . The unit for the frequency is hertz
(Hz), named in honour of the German physicist Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, who conducted
pioneering studies in electromagnetism and in elasticity. The unit hertz is the same as the unit
cycle/sec.
The wavelength (𝜆𝜆) of the sound wave is the distance between successive peaks of the wave.
The wavelength and speed of sound for a simple harmonic wave are related by:
𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐 ⁄𝑓𝑓 (2.3.1)
Another parameter that is encountered in analysis of sound waves is the wave number (k), which
is defined by:
2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑘𝑘 = = (2.3.2)
𝜆𝜆 𝑐𝑐
Wave number is the number of waves per unit length.
This number sort of represents how closely the waves are packed, which is just another way of
talking about it’s frequency.
If the wave number is higher, the number of waves within a fixed amount of length is higher,
which naturally means wavelength has decreased to fit in more number of waves.
Example 2.1
A sound wave having a frequency of 250 Hz is transmitted through air at 25 oC. The specific gas
constant for air is 287 J/kg·K, and the specific heat ratio is 1.4. Determine the speed of sound,
wavelength, and wave number for this condition.
2.4 Acoustic Pressure and Particle Velocity
The acoustic pressure (p) is defined as the instantaneous difference between the local pressure
(P) and the ambient pressure (Po) for a sound wave in the material. Alternatively, acoustic
pressure is the local pressure deviation from the ambient (average, or equilibrium) atmospheric
pressure, caused by a sound wave. The acoustic pressure for a plane simple harmonic sound
wave moving in the positive x-direction may be represented by the following.
𝑝𝑝 𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑝𝑝max sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (2.4.1)
The quantity pmax is the amplitude of the acoustic pressure wave.
Acoustic instruments, such as a sound level meter, generally do not measure the amplitude of
the acoustic pressure wave; instead, these instruments measure the root-mean-square (rms)
pressure, which is proportional to the amplitude.
The rms pressure is related to the pressure amplitude for a simple harmonic wave by:
𝑝𝑝max
𝑝𝑝rms = (2.4.2)
2
To avoid excessive numbers of subscripts, the symbol p (without the subscript rms) is used to
denote the rms acoustic pressure, except where stated otherwise.
The instantaneous acoustic particle velocity (u) is defined as the local motion of particles of
fluid as a sound wave passes through the material.
The rms acoustic pressure and the rms acoustic particle velocity are related by the specific
acoustic impedance (Zs):
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑍𝑍s 𝑢𝑢 (2.4.3)
The SI units for specific acoustic impedance are Pa·s/m. This combination of units has been
given the special name rayl, in honour of Lord Rayleigh: i.e., 1 rayl = 1 Pa·s/m.
Acoustic impedance and specific acoustic impedance are measures of the opposition that a
system presents to the acoustic flow resulting from an acoustic pressure applied to the system.
For plane acoustic waves, the specific acoustic impedance is a function of the fluid properties
only. The specific acoustic impedance for plane waves is called the characteristic impedance
(Zo) and is given by:
𝑍𝑍o = 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 (2.4.4)
Example 2.2
A plane sound is transmitted through air (R = 287 J/kg·K) at 25 oC and 101.3 kPa. The speed of
sound in the air is 346.1 m/s. The sound wave has an acoustic pressure (rms) of 0.20 Pa.
Determine the rms acoustic particle velocity.
The magnitude of the specific acoustic impedance for a spherical sound wave is given by:
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑍𝑍o 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑍𝑍s = ⁄
= ⁄
(2.4.5)
1 + 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑟𝑟 2 1 2 1 + 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑟𝑟 2 1 2
The phase angle (𝜙𝜙) between the acoustic pressure and the acoustic particle velocity is found
from:
1 (2.4.6)
tan 𝜙𝜙 =
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
For long wavelengths or low frequencies (kr ≪ 1), the acoustic impedance approaches
(𝑍𝑍o 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, and the phase angle approaches 1⁄2 𝜋𝜋rad = 90o . This regime, kr < 0.1
approximately, is called the near-field regime. The acoustic pressure and acoustic particle
velocity are almost 90o out of phase, and the acoustic pressure produced by a spherical source is
very small near the source, for a given acoustic particle velocity.
For short wavelengths (high frequencies) or for distances far from the source (kr ≫ 1), the
specific acoustic impedance approaches the characteristic impedance 𝑍𝑍s ≈ 𝑍𝑍o , and the phase
angle is approximately zero. This region, kr > 5 approximately, is called the far-field regime. In
this regime, the spherical wave appears to behave almost as a plane sound wave.
2.5 Acoustic Intensity and Acoustic Energy Density
The acoustic intensity (I) is defined as the average energy transmitted through a unit area per
unit time, or the acoustic power (W) transmitted per unit area. The SI units for acoustic intensity
are W/m2.
For plane sound waves, the acoustic intensity is related to the acoustic
power and the area (S) by:
𝑊𝑊
𝐼𝐼 = (2.5.1)
𝑆𝑆

For a spherical sound wave (a sound wave that moves out uniformly in all
directions from the source), the area through which the acoustic energy is
transmitted is 4πr2, where r is the distance from the sound source, so the
intensity is given by:
𝑊𝑊
𝐼𝐼 = (2.5.2)
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
For the general case of spherical waves in which the sound is not radiated uniformly from the
source, but the acoustic intensity may vary with direction, the intensity is given by:
𝑄𝑄𝑊𝑊
𝐼𝐼 = 2
(2.5.3)
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟
The quantity Q is called the directivity factor, which is a dimensionless quantity that generally
depends on the direction and the frequency of the sound wave.
The acoustic intensity may be related to the rms acoustic pressure through:
𝑝𝑝2
𝐼𝐼 = (2.5.4)
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
where p = prms. This expression applies for a spherical and for a non-spherical sound wave.

When making sound measurements in a room or other enclosure, one parameter of interest is the
acoustic energy density (D), which is the total acoustic energy per unit volume. The SI unit for
the acoustic energy density is J/m3. The total acoustic energy is composed of two parts: the
kinetic energy, associated with the motion of the vibrating fluid; and the potential energy,
associated with energy stored through compression of the fluid.
The kinetic energy per unit volume, averaged over one wavelength, may be expressed in terms
of the acoustic particle velocity. For a plane wave:
𝑝𝑝2
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 2
(2.5.6)
2𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐
For a spherical sound wave, the acoustic pressure and acoustic particle velocity are not in-phase.
The kinetic energy per unit volume for a spherical wave is dependent on the frequency (or the
wave number, k) for the sound wave, and the distance from the sound source, r, as follows.
𝑝𝑝2 1
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = 2
1+ 2 2 (2.5.7)
2𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟
The potential energy may also be related to the acoustic pressure. Potential energy per unit
volume for a plane wave is:
𝑝𝑝2
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 2
(2.5.8)
2𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐
By comparison of Eqns. (2.5.6) and (2.5.8), we see that, for a plane sound wave, the kinetic and
potential contributions to the total energy are equal. The total acoustic energy is half kinetic and
half potential, for a plane sound wave: this is not the case for a spherical wave.
For a plane sound wave, the acoustic energy density is found by adding the kinetic energy, Eqn.
(2.5.6) and the potential energy, Eqn. (2.5.8):
𝑝𝑝2
𝐷𝐷 = 2 (2.5.9)
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐
If we compare Eqn. (2.5.9) with Eqn. (2.5.4), we see that (for a plane soundwave) the acoustic
intensity and acoustic energy density are related:
𝐼𝐼
𝐷𝐷 = (2.5.10)
𝑐𝑐
For a spherical sound wave, the acoustic energy density is given by:
𝑝𝑝2 1
𝐷𝐷 = 2
1+ 2 2 (2.5.11)
2𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟
Example 2.3
A plane sound wave is transmitted through air (speed of sound, 346.1 m/s; characteristic
impedance, 409.8 rayl) at 25 oC and 101.3 kPa. The sound wave has an acoustic pressure (rms)
of 0.20 Pa. Determine the acoustic intensity and acoustic energy density for the sound wave.
2.6 Directivity Factor and Directivity Index
The acoustic energy is radiated uniformly in all directions for a spherical wave; however, other
sources of sound may be highly directional. These directional sources radiate sound with
different intensities in different directions.
The directional characteristics of a sound source are changed substantially by the reflecting
surfaces around it. This can be quantified by Directivity Factor and Directivity Index.
The directivity factor (Q) is defined as the ratio of the intensity on a designated axis of a sound
radiator at a specific distance from the source to the intensity that would be produced at the
same location by a spherical source radiating the same total acoustic energy:
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝐼𝐼
𝑄𝑄 = (2.6.1)
𝑊𝑊
The directivity index (DI) is an expression in decibels of the directionality of a sound source.
Narrow coverage systems have a high directivity index, whereas wide coverage systems have a
low one.
The directivity index (DI) is related to the directivity factor by:
DI = 10 log10 𝑄𝑄 (2.6.2)
For a spherical source, the directivity factor Q = 1 and the directivity index DI = 0.
If a spherical source of sound is placed near the floor or a wall, sound is
radiated through a hemispherical area, 𝑆𝑆 = 2𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 . In this case, the
intensity is:
𝑊𝑊 2𝑊𝑊 𝑄𝑄
𝐼𝐼 = 2
= 2
=
2𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
For this case, we see that the directivity factor is Q = 2, and the
directivity index is:
DI = 10 log10 2 = 3 dB

Similarly, if the spherical source were placed on the floor near a wall,
the energy is radiated through an area, 𝑆𝑆 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 . For this case,
𝑊𝑊 4𝑊𝑊 𝑄𝑄𝑊𝑊
𝐼𝐼 = 2 = 2
=
𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
The directivity factor, in this case, is Q = 4 and the directivity index is 6
dB.
By going through the same reasoning, we may show that if the spherical
source were placed in a corner near the floor and two walls, Q = 8 and
DI = 9 dB.