THERMODYNAMICS

AN ENGINEERING APPROACH

Prepared by:
Engr. Joselito A. Olalo, MSME-EgyE
 Introduction
 Basic Principles, Concepts and definition
 First Law of Thermodynamics
 Ideal Gases/ Ideal Gas Laws
 Processes of Ideal Gases
 Properties of Pure Substance
 Processes of Pure Substance
 Introduction to cycle analysis: Second Law of Thermodynamics
 Introduction to Gas and vapor cycles
 Real Gases
 Burghardt, David M. and Harback, J.A.. Engineering Thermodynamics,
4th
 Edition
 Huang, Francis F. Engineering Thermodynamics , 2nd Ed.
 Cengel and Boles. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 3rd
edition, McGraw-Hill, 1998
 Sonntag and Van Wylen. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 7th
edition, John
 Wiley and Sons, 2004
 Wark, Kenneth. Thermodynamics
 Shapiro and Moran. Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics,
6th edition, John Wiley and sons, 2007
Thermodynamics

- is that branch of the physical sciences

that treats of the various phenomena of energy
and related properties of matter, especially of the
laws of transformation of heat into other forms
of energy and vice versa.

- (from the Greek therme,

meaning "heat and dynamis,
meaning "power“ or motion)
 Steam Engine

Transformation of Energy
Typical thermodynamic system, showing input from a heat
source (boiler) on the left and output to a heat sink
(condenser) on the right. Work is extracted, in this case by a
series of pistons.
 Chemical
Energy

Kinetic
Thermal Energy
Energy

Mechanic
al Energy
FOUNDERS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
 French chemist Antoine Lavoisier is considered
the founder of modern chemistry. He found that
the amount of matter before a chemical reaction
is equal to the amount of matter afterwards, even
though the matter may change form. Lavoisier
also experimented with the role of oxygen in
combustion and respiration in both plants and
animals.

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

(1743-1794)
 German Physician and Physicist Robert
Mayer formulates the law of conservation
of energy, later known as the first law of
thermodynamics. German scientist
Hermann von Helmholtz and British
physicist James Prescott Joule also are
credited with discovering this principle.

He is best known for enunciating during 1841

one of the original statements of the
conservation of energy or what is now known as
one of the first versions of the first law of
thermodynamics, namely:
Julius Robert von Mayer
(1814-78)
“ Energy can be neither created nor destroyed ”

Sadi Carnot (1796-1832):
the father of thermodynamics
Nineteenth-century French physicist
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot made
important contributions to the field of
thermodynamics. His theories of heat
exchange led to an improved
understanding of efficiency in engines and
were later formalized in the second law of
thermodynamics.
Discovered that heat cannot pass from a
colder to a warmer body, and that the
efficiency of an engine depends upon the
amount of heat it is able to utilize. He
described his conception of the perfect
engine, the so-called Carnot engine, in
which all available energy is utilized.

Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius
(1822-88)
German mathematical physicist
Clausius was the first to enunciate
(1850) the so-called second law of
thermodynamics: Heat cannot of itself
pass from a colder body to a hotter
body. He was one of the first to apply
the laws of thermodynamics,
particularly the concept of entropy, to
the theory of the steam engine. He
also played an important part in the
development of the kinetic theory of
gases. His theory of electrolysis
anticipated in part the ionic theory of
the Swedish chemist Svante
Arrhenius..
 British mathematician and physicist
Lord Kelvin is one of the leading
physical scientists and greatest
teachers of his time. Developed the
thermodynamic temperature scale,
and an absolute temperature scale
was named after him. Developed the
work done by the British physicist
James Prescott Joule on the
interrelation of heat and mechanical
energy.
William Thomson Kelvin
(1824-1907)
 British physicist James Joule is best
known for his work in electricity and
thermodynamics (the study of heat).
Joule discovered the relationship
between electrical current, electrical
resistance, and heat released by an
electrical circuit. The metric system
unit of energy is the joule (J), after
James Joule.

Determined the numerical relation

between heat and mechanical
energy, or the mechanical equivalent
of heat.
James Prescott Joule
(1818-1889)
 German Physicist von Guericke, built
and designed the world's first vacuum
pump and demonstrated a vacuum.
The history of thermodynamics as a
scientific discipline generally begins
with him.

Von Guericke investigated fields of

natural science other than pneumatics.
In 1672 he developed the first machine
for producing an electric charge.

Otto von Guericke

(1602-86)
Basic Principles, Concepts,
and Definition
Fluid- is a resistance to flow and the tendency to
assume the shape of its container.

Fluids used in machineries:

1. fuel (engine) - substance that reacts chemically with

another to produce heat, or that produces heat by
nuclear processes.

2. steam (turbine) - water in vapor state, used in the

generation of power and on a large scale in many
industrial processes.
3. air (compressor) -mixture of gases that composes
the atmosphere surrounding Earth.

4. water (pump) - common name applied to the liquid

state of the hydrogen-oxygen compound H2O.
Substance- is something that usually made up of
molecules; sometimes atoms may be involved.

Working Substance – a substance to which heat can

be stored and from which heat can be extracted.
Working substance is categorized as:
•Pure substance - is a working substance whose
chemical composition remains the same even if
there is a change in phase. (example is water)

•Ideal Gas – a working substance which remains

in gaseous state during operating cycle and
whose equation of state is PV = mRT. (example
is air)
 The System Model

System- is that portion of the universe, an atom, a

galaxy, a certain quantity of matter, or a certain volume
in space, that one wishes to study.

Boundary- it encloses the system. It may be imaginary,

either fixed or moving.
Boundaries are of four types:

•Fixed
•Movable
•Real
•Imaginary

For an engine, a fixed boundary means the piston is locked at

its position; as such, a constant volume process occurs. In that
same engine, a moveable boundary allows the piston to move
in and out.

For closed systems, boundaries are real while for open system
boundaries are often imaginary.
There are five dominant classes of
systems:

• Isolated Systems – matter and

energy may not cross the boundary
and is not influenced by the
surroundings

•Adiabatic Systems – heat must not

cross the boundary

•Diathermic Systems - heat may

cross boundary
A microwave oven,
•Closed Systems – matter may not cross the boundary,
mass does not cross the boundaries but energy may have
crossed it.
Ex. Piston and cylinder
• Open Systems – heat, work, and matter may cross
the boundary (often called a control volume in this case)
Surrounding/Environment- is the region all about the system.

Non-flow System- is a process that takes place in a closed system.

Example: Compressor
Steady flow process- process that takes place in
an open system in which the quantity of matter
within the system is constant:

Example: Turbine
 Properties and State

Intensive properties- are independent of mass such as temperature,

pressure, and voltage.
Extensive properties- are dependent upon the mass of the system and
are total values such as total volume and total energy.

Specific properties- are those for a unit mass, and are

extensive by definition such as specific volume.
State
- for a pure substance, this refers to the condition as identified through the
properties of the substance and is defined generally by particular values
whenever a certain mass of the substance in this particular macroscopic
state.
- Standard values of the temperature and pressure have been agreed
internationally.

Example:
Standard atmospheric pressure = 101.325 Kpa
Standard air temperature = 21 degrees Celcius

The standard state of a substance is then its state at this

pressure

Gas state: Ideal Gas at 101.325 kPa

Liquid state: Pure liquid at 101.325 kPa
Solid state: solid in its most stable crystal structure at 101.325 kPa
Meter
is the unit of length and is equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths
in vacuum of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the levels 2p10 and 5d5 of the krypton 86 atom.
Kilogram
is the unit of mass and is equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram, is the only base unit with
a prefix.
Second
is the unit of time and is the duration of 9,192, 631, 770 periods
of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two
hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
Ampere
is the unit of electric current and is
that constant current which, if we
maintained in a two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross- section, and
placed one meter apart in vacuum,
would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7
Newton per meter length.
Kelvin
is the unit of thermodynamic
temperature and is the fraction
1/273.16 of the triple point of water.
Mole
is the unit of substance and is the amount of
substance of a system which contains as many
elementary entities as there are in atoms 0.012
kg of carbon C-12.
Candela
is the unit of luminous intensity, in the
perpendicular direction, of a surface of
1/600,000 m2 of a black body at the
temperature of freezing platinum under a
pressure 101 325 N/m2.
Mass
in a body, it is the absolute quantity of matter in it, an
unchanging quantity for the particular mass when the speed of
the mass to be is small compared to the speed of light.
Conversion units for Mass
1 kg = 2.205 lbs
1 slug = 14. 594 kg
= 32.174 lbm
1 metric ton = 1000 kg
1 tonne = 2000 lbs
1 kip = 1000 lbs
Weight- is the product of mass and the local acceleration.
W= mg/k
where:
m – mass in kg or lbs
g = local acceleration of the body.
k = constant for conversion, kg –m/s2/1N
Conversion Units of Weights
1 kgf = 9.80665 N
1 lbf = 4.4482 N
= 444 820 dynes
1N = 1055 dynes
1 gmf = 980. 665 dynes
Density- is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
ρ = m/v
Specific volume- is the reciprocal of density of a substance.
υ = v/m
Specific weight – is the weight per unit volume of the
substance.
γ= W/v
Pressure – is the force per unit area.
P = F/A
Fluid pressure – is the pressure generated by a column of fluid.
Pf =ρgh
Conversions Units of Pressure
1 atm = 101 325 Pa
= 14.7 psi
= 29.92 in Hg
= 760 mmHg
= 1.033 kg/cm2
= 1.01325 bar
Manometer
is a device that used to
measure fluid pressures.

Archimedes’ Principle
states that when an object
immersed in a liquid, the liquid
exerts an equivalent opposing
force called buoyant force,
which is usually equal to the
weight of the object.
Temperature
is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body. This also
indicates the thermal energy of the body. Common units are
Kelvin and Rankine as the absolute temperature and Cecius
and Fahrenheit as the basic unit.
Conversion Units of Temperature
T(oC) = (5/9)(ToF – 32)
T (K) = T(oC) + 273
T(R) = )(ToF) +460