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Class Khata
Communication: The word communication may be defined as the exchange of information of any kind by any means from one location to
another location. Other word, communication is the transfer of information over distance. Information can take many forms, including picture,
writing, speech, signal and so on.
Telecommunication: Telecommunication is the transfer of information over distance via transmission media such as wire or optical fiber.
Information: Information itself is what is conveyed. The amount of information contained in a given message can be measured in bits or dits.
Signal: A signal is an event that changes with time and can be used to convey information as a means to facilitate communication
Baseband signal: A signal with frequency content centered around DC. Typically the modulating signal for an RF carrier
Link: The radio connection between a transmitter and a receiver.
Downlink: The transmission path from the base station down to the mobile station. Downlink 869 – 894 MHz
Uplink The transmission path from the mobile station up to the base station. Uplink 824 – 849 MHz
Guard band: A set of frequencies or bandwidth used to prevent adjacent systems from interfering with each other. Guard bands are typically
used between different types of systems at the edges of the frequency allocations.
Fresnel zone: The Fresnel zone is the area of a circle around the line of sight.
Aliasing effect: A type of signal distortion that occurs when sampling frequency of a signal is less that the Nyquist rate.
Cross talk: The ability for unwanted information from one channel to "spill over" into an adjacent channel.
Image frequency: An image frequency is any frequency other than the selected radio frequency that, if allowed to enter a receiver and mix with
the local oscillator, will produce across. Product frequency that is equal to the intermediate frequency.
1. Modulation: Modulation is the process by which a low frequency signal (base band signal) is combined with a high frequency signal
(carrier signal) for transmitting to a long distance.
2. Encoding: Encoding is the process of putting a sequence of characters (letters, numbers, symbols etc.) into a specialized format for efficient
transmission or storage. Simply-encoding means converting message, information or an instruction into code.
3. Transmission: Transmission is the process of sending and propagating an analogue or digital information signal over a physical point-to-
point or point-to-multipoint transmission medium either wired, optical fiber or wireless.
Transmission Media:
1. Wire 2. Wireless
• Cable a) Air
• Optical Fiber b) Plasma (ionized gas)
• Wave guide
Characteristics:
a) Fading: The property of a channel which opposes the flow of information through the channel.
b) Noise: Noise may be defined as any unwanted introduction of energy tending to interfere with the proper reception and reproduction
of transmitted signals.
c) Interference: The interaction between the two signals generated from two different sources of same frequency or very close
frequencies is known as interference.
Transmission Capacity: The maximum transmission rate through a channel with minimum error probability is known as transmission
capacity of a channel.
a) Bandwidth, B 𝑃𝑡
𝑐 = 𝑏 log 𝑒 (1 + )
b) Transmit signal power, 𝑃0 𝑁𝑜
c) Noise signal power, 𝑁𝑜 𝑐 = 𝑏 log 𝑒 (1 + 𝑆𝑁𝑅)
a) 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ, 𝐵
b) 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃𝑡
1
c) 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∝
𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑁𝑡
Bandwidth Requirement:
FM signal BW calculation:
1. Carson’s rule: This rule recognizes only the power in the most significant sidebands with amplitudes greater than 2 percent of the carrier
2. 𝐵𝑊 = 2𝑓𝑚 𝑁
𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
Here N= number of significant sideband; N is determined from chart using the modulation index 𝑚 =
𝑓𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑎𝑥)
𝑓𝑚 =Modulating frequency
AM signal BW calculation:
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Section B: Noise
Kennedy Chapter 2
Noise: Noise may be defined in electrical terms as any unwanted introduction of energy tending to interfere with the proper reception and
reproduction of transmitted signals.
Types of noise:
Noise characteristics:
Disadvantage of noise:
1. It decreases capacity of channel 2. It reduces the quality of received signal 3. It reduces SNR of the channel
The noise generated in a resistance or the resistive components is random and is referred to as thermal agitation / white/ Johnson noise.
Derivation of equation:
Let
𝛿𝑓= bandwidth of interest T= Absolute temperature Pn=Maximum noise power output of a resistor
Then,
𝑃𝑛 ∝ 𝑇
𝑃𝑛 ∝ 𝛿𝑓
So,
𝑃𝑛 ∝ 𝑇𝛿𝑓
𝑃𝑛 = 𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓
Now
𝑉𝑛 2
𝑉𝐿2 ( 2 ) 𝑉𝑛2
𝑃𝑛 (𝑚𝑎𝑥) = = =
𝑅 𝑅 4𝑅
𝑉𝑛2 = 4𝑅𝑃𝑛 = 4𝑅𝐾𝑇𝛿𝑓
𝑽𝒏 = 𝟐√(𝑹𝑲𝑻𝜹𝒇)
Flicker: At low frequencies a poorly understood form of noise called flicker or modulation noise is found in transistor.
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Shot noise: The noise caused by random variation in the arrival or electrons (or holes) at the output electrode of an amplifying device and appears
as a randomly varying noise current superimposed on the output is known as shot noise.
𝑆 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
=
𝑁 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
The signal to noise in dB is expressed by
𝑆 𝑆
( ) = 10 log10
𝑁 𝑑𝑏 𝑁
Purpose of SNR
𝑃
𝐶 = log 𝑒 (1 + ) … … … … (1)
𝑁
From (1) it is observed that
Therefore, at constant bandwidth if the transmit signal power increases or noise power decreases, then the channel capacity will increase.
Similarly, at constant bandwidth if the transmit signal power decreases or noise power increases, then the channel capacity will decrease.
If the SNR is high (i.e. the signal power is much greater than the noise power) few errors will occur. However, as the SNR reduces, the noise may
cause symbols to be demodulated incorrectly, and errors will occur.
1. 𝑍𝑖 = 𝑍𝑜
𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝑡
𝑉𝑠𝑡 = −
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
𝑉𝑠𝑖2 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑡
𝑃𝑠𝑖 = =
𝑅𝑡 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )2
2 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏
𝑉𝑛𝑖 = 4𝑘𝑇 𝛿𝑓
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡
2
𝑉𝑛𝑖 4𝑘𝑇𝛿𝑓𝑅𝑎
𝑃𝑛𝑖 = =
𝑅𝑡 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )
𝑆
𝑁𝑖 2
𝑉𝑆𝑜 𝑅𝑡 𝐴2 𝑉𝑠2 𝑅𝑖2
𝐹= = ÷
𝑆 4𝑘𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 ) (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )2 𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝑛𝑜
𝑁𝑜
𝑅𝐿 𝑃𝑛𝑜 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑡 )
𝐹=
4𝑘𝑇𝛿𝑓 𝑅𝑎2 𝐴2 𝑅𝑡
The temperature generated in a receiver or amplifier due to the generation of noise voltage.
𝑉𝑛2 = 4𝐾𝑇𝑅 𝛿𝑓
𝑉𝑛
= 4𝐾𝑇 𝛿𝑓
𝑅
𝑃𝑛 = 4𝐾𝑇 𝛿𝑓
𝑃𝑛
𝑇=
4𝐾 𝛿𝑓
C/I ratio: The ratio of the carrier to the interference (from both sources) is called the carrier-to-interference ratio (C/I). A certain C/I ratio is
required to provide adequate quality transmission. Increasing the carrier power at the receiver will increase the interference for other mobiles
in the network.
Example: 2.1-2.5
Exercise: 2.1-2.6
Internal noise
Types Sources Cause Effect
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Thermal Agitation Resistance or It is due to rapid motion of molecules Noise voltage is given by
resistive inside component itself 𝑉𝑛 = 2√𝑅𝐾𝑇 𝛿𝑓
components
Shot noise All amplifying Due to random variation of electrons For a diode the noise current is given by 𝑖𝑛 = √2𝑒𝑖𝑝 𝛿𝑓
devices and at the output electrode of an
virtually all amplifying device and appear as a
active devices randomly varying noise current
superimposed on the output.
Transmit noise Amplifiers If the time taken by an electron from Once the high frequency noise makes it presence felt, it
(usually the emitter to the collector of goes on increasing with frequency at a rate that soon
transistor) transistor becomes significant to the approaches 6dB per octave and this random noise then
period of the signal being amplified , quickly predominates over the other forms.
the so called transit time effect takes
place and the noise input of the
transistor increases
External noise
Atmospheric noise Atmosphere Atmospheric noise is radio noise It is propagated over the earth in the same way as
caused by natural atmospheric ordinary radio waves of the same frequencies, so that at
processes. Primarily lighting any point on the ground, static will be received from all
discharges in thunderstorm. thunderstorms, local and distant. The static is likely to be
more severe but less frequent if the storm is local.
Again, atmospheric noise becomes less severe at
frequencies above about 30MHz.
Extraterrestrial a) Solar noise The sun radiates too many things to Sun radiates over a very broad frequency spectrum which
noise our way in which we can find that includes the frequencies we use for
noise is noticeable among them. communication.
Because it is a large body at a very
high temperature, there is a constant
noise radiation from the sun.
b)Cosmic noise Since distant stars are also suns and Because of lack of nearness cosmic noise can make up in
have high temperatures, the radiate numbers which in combination can
RF noise in the same become significant
manner as our sun.
Industrial noise Automobile and The noise is produced by the arc The nature of this noise is so variable that it is difficult to
aircraft ignition, discharge present in all these analyze it on any basis other than the
electric motors operations and under these statistical. It does, however, obey the general principle
and switching circumstances this noise is most that received noise increases as the receiver
equipment, intense in industrial and densely bandwidth is increased.
leakage from populated areas
high-voltage
lines and a
multitude of
other heavy
electric
machines are all
included.
Prove
𝑷
1. 𝑺𝑵𝑹 =
𝑵
𝑺
2. 𝑺𝑰𝑵𝑹 =
𝑵+𝑰
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Class Khata
The system of transmission and reception between transmitter and receiver with the help of a proper communication medium is known as
communication system.
Block
diagram
Amplifier:
>>It amplifies the input signal
>>Increases the strength of input signal
>>It adds additional power to the baseband signal
>>Increases magnitude (average, rms, amplitude Regenerative repeater:
etc.) >>Reception >>Reconstruction>>Retransmission
Comparisons:
Kennedy
Transmission types: According to the nature of reception there are three types of transmission types
3. Multicasting: The transmission from a single source to a group of receivers. Example: Video
conference, military communication
Analog Transmission: If the transmitted information is analog Digital Transmission: If the transmitted information is digital
then, the transmission is known as analog transmission. then, the transmission is known as digital transmission.
Advantage: Advantage:
1. Low cost and portable 1. Immunity to noise and fading
2. Simple circuitry 2. Less expensive, better quality
3. No quantization error 3. Better signal strength even for long transmission.
4. No synchronization problem like digital 4. Faster processing
communication. 5. Easier for storage
5. Does not need encoder or decoder. 6. Parallel processing is possible
6. Use less bandwidth and smaller guard band 7. Error correction possibilities
7. More accurate. 8. Digital communication provides more secure
Disadvantage: communication than analog transmission.
1. More prone to noise, interference and fading. 9. More reliable
2. Comparatively slower 10. Easy to manipulate
3. Requires high quality processing which in turns 11. Compatibility with other digital systems
requires high costly hardware 12. Only digitized information can be transported through a
4. High power requirement noisy channel without degradation
5. Costly storage equipments Disadvantage:
6. No security / encryption is possible 1. Sampling error
2. Digital transmission requires greater bandwidth than
analog
3. Synchronization is required for the detection of digital
signals.
Modulation
Modulation: Modulation is the process by which a low frequency signal (Base band signal) is combined with a high frequency signal for
transmitting to a long distance.
Demodulation: Process of recovering the original modulating signal from a modulated carrier. The original modulating signal is usually the
information being transmitted, typically voice or data.
Significance of Modulation:
a) To reduce antenna size
b) To reduce interference
c) To increase signal strength (S/N ratio or capacity of the system)
Modulation
Analog Digital
Amplitude Frequency Phase Amplitude Shift Frequency shift Phase shift keying
Modulation(AM) Modulation(FM) modulation(PM) keying (ASK) keying (FSK) (PSK)
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Analog Modulation
Application: Application:
1. AM broadcast radio 1. FM Radio broadcasting
2. TV picture (vedio) 2. Television sound information is transmitted using FM
3. TV color signal -(QDSB) 3. Mobile and handheld radio
4. Aircraft radio 4. VCR
5. Computer modem by FSK, PSK, QAM(AM+ PM) 5. Cordless telephone by FM,PSK
Merits: Merits of FM:
1. Coverage area of AM receiver is wider than FM 1. Less prone to noise and hence increase in S/N ration. Noise
2. AM circuitry is cheaper and non complex system may be decreased by increasing deviation
3. AM requires lower bandwidth and lower guard band for each 2. Frequency allocation allows for a guard band which reduces
signal channel interferances.
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AM FM
Technology AM stands for amplitude modulation where the FM means frequency modulation where the frequency of the
amplitude of the carrier is modulated as per the modulated signal is varied by the modulating signal while it’s
message signal. amplitude, phase remain the same.
Frequency Frequency range is 540-1650 KHz with 10 KHz Frequency range is 88-108 MHz with 200 KHz guard band
guard band
SNR SNR is worse than FM Superior SNR in FM
Power It consumes less power FM based signal transmission consumes a higher amount of
consumption power than an equivalent AM based system.
Signal Comparatively less than FM A lot superior than AM
quality
Noise AM based systems are more susceptible to noise Less prone to noise
Fading Fading refers to power variation during signal Less prominent
transmission. Fading is more prominent in AM
BW AM consumes 30 KHz of BW for each FM consumes 80KHz by each signal
consumption
Circuit It is a n older process and has simple circuitry Requires more complex circuitry for transmission and
complexity reception
Useful Carrier power and one sideband power is useless All transmitted power is useful
power
Channel AM use amplifier FM use regenerative repeater
Commercial Setting up an AM based radio communication is Fairly complex communication system and requires high
aspect economic and requires less complex circuit. capital investment.
Types of AM:
Power of AM:
2
𝑉𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑉 2
Here power of unmodulated carrier signal, 𝑃𝑐 = = ( 𝑐 ) /𝑅
𝑅 √2
𝑚𝑉𝑐 2
2
𝑉𝑠𝑏 ( ) 𝑚2 𝑉𝑐2
Similarly, 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = 2
=
𝑅 √2 𝑅 4×2 𝑅
Am modulator:
AM demodulator: Demodulators, or detectors, are circuits that accept modulated signals and recover the original modulating information.
The simplest and most widely used amplitude demodulator is the diode
detector. The AM signal is usually transformer-coupled and applied to a
basic half wave rectifier circuit consisting of D1 and R1. The diode
conducts when the positive half-cycles of the AM signals occur. During
the negative half-cycles, the diode is reverse-biased and no current
flows through it. As a result, the voltage across R1 is a series of positive
pulses whose amplitude varies with the modulating signal. A capacitor
C1 is connected across resistor R1, effectively filtering out the carrier
and thus recovering the original modulating signal.
What is SSB?
Single sideband modulation is a form of amplitude modulation. As the name implies, single sideband SSB uses only one sideband for a given
audio path to provide the final signal.
Single sideband modulation provides a considerably more efficient form of communication when compared to ordinary amplitude modulation.
Advantage of SSB:
1. The improvement in signal to noise ratio is 10 to 12 decibels at the receiver output over DSB.
2. The bandwidth required is reduced to half. Thus twice the number of channels can be accommodated in a given frequency.
Extension of SSB:
What is DSB:
Double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) transmission is transmission in which frequency produced by amplitude modulation AM are
symmetrically spaced above and below the carrier frequency and the carrier level is reduced to the lowest practical level, ideally being
completely suppressed.
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i. 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.5 𝑃𝑐
𝑃𝑐 𝑚2
ii. 𝑃𝑠𝑏 =
4
FM demodulation circuits:
The simplest frequency demodulator, the slope detector, makes use of a tuned
circuit and a diode detector to convert frequency variations to voltage variations.
To use the circuit to detect or recover FM, the circuit is tuned so that the center or
carrier frequency of the FM signals is approximately centered on the leading edge
of the response curve, as shown in Fig. 6-12(b). As the carrier frequency varies
above and below its center frequency, the tuned circuit responds. If the frequency
goes lower than the carrier frequency, the output voltage across C1 decreases. If
the frequency goes higher, the output across C1 goes higher. Thus, the ac voltage
across C1 is proportional to the frequency of the FM signal. The voltage across C1
is rectified into dc pulses that appear across the load R1. These are filtered into a
varying dc signal that is an exact reproduction of the original modulating signal.
Phase modulation: Phase modulation consists in varying the phase angle of a carrier voltage in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating voltage.
Haykin
Problems of Quantizing:
Sampling theorem: In 1993 Nyquist gave this theory of sampling which is as follows-
“If the sampling rate in any pulse modulation system exceeds twice the maximum signal frequency, the original signal can be reconstructed in the
receiver with minimal distortion.”
Nyquist rate: The minimum rate at which a signal can be sampled without introducing errors, which is twice the highest frequency present in the
signal.
Circuit description:
It consists of a sampling switch, a discharge switch, a pulse generator to control the switches and a capacitor to hold the charge
and discharge.
Working procedure:
1. Discharge capacitor and open all switch
2. Generate and appropriate pulse using timing pulse generator.
3. Close switches by timing pulse by and start charging
4. Open sw1 and close sw2 and discharge.
5. Again open sw2 and close sw1 to get charged.
Quantizing: Quantization is the process of mapping a large set of input values to a smaller set. Rounding and truncations are the examples of
quantization.
Quantizing Noise: The difference between the input and output signals of the quantizer becomes the quantizing error or quantizing noise.
Aliasing effect: Aliasing is caused by discrete sampling below the Nyquist frequency.
It can be minimized by
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1. Prior to sampling, a low pass anti-aliasing filter is used to attenuate those high frequency components of the signal that are not essential
to the information being conveyed by the signal.
2. The filtered signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher than the nyquist rate.
Encoding: To convert any signal into binary expression in accordance with amplitude, time and position is known as coding.
Pulse modulation
Definition: Pulse modulation is the process of changing a binary pulse signal to represent the information to be transmitted.
Types:
1. Analog Pulse modulation
a. Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM): In pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), the amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in
proportion to the corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal
b. Pulse timing modulation (PTM)
i. Pulse width modulation (PWM): A fixed amplitude and starting time of each pulse, but the width of each pulse is made
proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the instant
ii. Pulse position modulation (PPM): The amplitude and width of the pulses in kept constant in the system, while the position of
each pulse, in relation to the position of a recurrent reference pulse is varied by each instantaneous sampled value of the
modulating wave.
iii. Pulse frequency modulation (PFM)
2. Digital Pulse modulation
1. Pulse code modulation (PCM): In pulse code modulation (PCM), a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which
is accomplished by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude.
2. Delta modulation (DM): A pulse modulation technique in which a continuous signal is converted into a binary pulse patterns, for
transmission through low quality channels. A technique that is used to sample voice waves and convert them into digital code. Delta
modulation typically samples the wave 32,000 times/ sec, but generates only one bit per sample.
Definition: Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), is a form of signal modulation where the message information is encoded in the amplitude of a
series of signal pulses. It is an analog pulse modulation scheme in which the amplitudes of a train of carrier pulses are varied according to the
sample value of the message signal.
Or, In PAM, amplitude of pulses is varied in accordance with instantaneous value of modulating signal.
Or, in pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), the amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportion to the corresponding sample values of
a continuous message signal
Graphical representation:
Advantage Disadvantage
it’s a base for all the digital modulation technique 1.since amplitude keeps varying so there is noise
associated with it.
2.due to nyquist criteria its require high bandwidth.
3.due to amplitude variation peak power of receiver
also varies with it
Application:
PCM is the most basic form of digital pulse modulation. In pulse code modulation (PCM),
a message signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses, which is accomplished by
representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude.
The essential processes of PCM are sampling, quantizing, and encoding, as shown in the
figure below.
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PCM DM
1. Consists of sampling 1. Deals with sampling with 1 bit quantization
2. It is used for voice communication 2. Used for satellite communication
3. Comparatively much Error 3. Less error
4. Power requirement is greater 4. Less power is required.
Pulse modulation
Definition: Pulse modulation is the process of changing a binary pulse signal to represent the information to be transmitted.
Types:
3. Analog Pulse modulation
a. Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
b. Pulse timing modulation (PTM)
i. Pulse width modulation (PWM)
ii. Pulse position modulation (PPM)
iii. Pulse frequency modulation (PFM)
4. Digital Pulse modulation
a. Pulse code modulation (PCM)***
b. Delta modulation (DM)
Demodulation of PAM
Demodulation of PWM
Demodulation of PPM
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Digital Modulation
• ASK:
o ASK is a simple version of amplitude modulation used for digital modulation.
o Two binary values (1 and 0) are represented by two different amplitudes of the carrier frequency (normally, ‘on’ and ‘off’)
• FSK:
o FSK is the simplest (binary) form of frequency modulation used for digital modulation
o The two binary values are represented by two different frequencies near the carrier frequency
o Normally, the carrier is shifted high for a 1 and low for a 0
• PSK
o PSK is a form of modulation in which the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent digital data
• QAM:
o Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a modulation technique in which both the phase and amplitude of a carrier are
varied by the symbols of the message
o Amplitude and phase-shift keying are combined
o Reduces probability of error
•
Types of PSK modulation:
1. BPSK: Binary Phase Shift-Keying (BPSK) is PSK between two phase states, normally 180° apart
2. QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying): Quadrature Phase Shift-Keying (QPSK) is a form of PSK using four phase states, normally 90°
apart to represent digital data
3. M-ary:
a. BPSK/ 2PSK: Binary Phase Shift-Keying (BPSK) is PSK between two phase states, normally 180° apart
Definition: If the information signal is digital and the amplitude of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally
modulated signal called amplitude shift keying (ASK) is produced.
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Rectifier:
1. Rectifies the input ASK waveform to contain only positive signal
2. However, signal still contains unwanted carrier wave components, and waveform is too rounded and of unreliable amplitudes
Low pass filter: Remove remnants of carrier wave
Voltage comparator: Signal passes through a voltage level to output a true copy of the original data stream
Definition: If the information signal is digital and the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK)
is produced.
Definition: Phase Shift-Keying (PSK) is a form of digital modulation in which the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent digital data.
Section H: Multiplexing
Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is a switching system in which a particular switch is turned on based on the select input. Multiplexing is the process of simultaneously
transmitting two or more individual signals over a single communication channel, cable or wireless.
Application:
1. In telephone system
2. Long distance fiber optics lines
3. Satellites
4. Wireless paths
5. Telemetry
6. Modern FM stereo broadcasting
7. Stereo sound in modern TV
1. Time division multiplexing (TDM): In TDM, the multiple signals are transmitted in different time slots on a single channel
2. Frequency division multiplexing (FDM): In FDM, individual signals to be transmitted are assigned a different frequency within a
common bandwidth.
Spatial multiplexing: Spatial multiplexing is the term used to describe the transmission of multiple wireless signals on a common frequency in
such a way that they do not interfere with one another. Spatial multiplexing is sometimes referred to as frequency reuse. This technique is
widely used in satellite and cellular telephone systems.
FDM
In frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), multiple signals share the bandwidth of a common communication channel.
TDM:
The multiplexing system which enables the joint use of common transmission channel by a polarity of independent message sources without
mutual interference.
In time-division multiplexing (TDM), each signal occupies the entire bandwidth of the channel. However, each signal is transmitted for only a
brief time.
Each user is given a time slot to transmit his data and this time slot is periodic in a round robin fashion.
1. Synchronous TDM: There should be synchronism between the MUX and DEMUX otherwise signal will be lost. And in this system there
is a fair chance of time slot waste. That’s why statistical TDM is used.
2. Statistical TDM: Time slots are given on demand rather than in round fashion. Each user is given two consecutive slots. If time slots is
not required it is not allocated. Hence the time slot is not wasted.
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FDM TDM
Advantage:
1. It increases the number of communication channel Advantage:
2. Greater speed 1. Better flexibility and efficiency
3. FDM provides much better latency 2. Less costly
4. No synchronization is required 3. Less complex circuitry
Disadvantage: 4. Cross talk problem is not severe like FDM
1. Less flexibility Disadvantage:
2. Much costly 1. Synchronization is required
3. Complex circuitry Application:
4. Suffer from crosstalk problem 1. Digital transmission of several telephone calls
Application:
1. Telemetry:
2. Cable TV
3. FM stereo broadcasting
FDM TDM
Definition FDM divides the channel into multiple, but smaller TDM divides a channel by allocating a time period for each
frequency ranges to accommodate more users channel.
Preference FDM is preferred for analog signals TDM is preferred for digital signals
Flexibility FDM provides less flexibility TDM provides much better flexibility and efficiency
Latency FDM proves much better latency. Latency is the time it Less latency
takes for the data to reach its destination
Cost Much costly Less costly
Carrier Multiple carrier Same carrier
Speed Greater Comparatively Less
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Goldsmith
Based on antenna configuration channel is 6 kinds:
Multiple access: The technique by which multiple transmitter communicate with a single receive without making any interference is known as
multiple access technique.
TDMA:
Definition: The MA in which he system dimensions are divided along the time
axis into non-overlapping channels and each user is assigned a different
cyclically repeating time slot is known as TDMA.
Application:
Because of same frequency TDMA can used in low cost area and also can
easily transmit a carrier signal by creating oscillator
Advantage:
• Easy to understand.
• As a low cost system, TDMA is the most cost effective technology to convert an analog system to digital.
• TDMA can easily adapt to transmission of data as well as voice communication
• TDMA has an ability to carry 64kbps to 120 mbps of data rates.
• Since TDMA technology separates users according to time, it ensures that there will be no interference from simultaneous
transmissions
• TDMA provides users with an extended battery life, since it transmits only portion of the time during conversations.
Disadvantage:
• Its main disadvantage is that user has a predefined time slot. When moving from one cell to another, if all the time slots in this cell are
full the user might be disconnected.
• Slow speed, time delay is high.
• Synchronization is required and possibilities of cross correlation is high.
• A disadvantage of TDMA system is that they create interference at a frequency which is directly connected to the time slot length.
• Another disadvantage is the “dead time” between time slots limits the potential bandwidth of a TDMA channel.
FDMA:
Definition: The multiple access method in which the system signaling dimensions are divided along the frequency axis into non-overlapping channels
and each user is assigned a different frequency channel is known as FDMA.
In FDMA multiple users can transmit at the same time but on different frequency channel.
Application:
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1. FM radio
2. First generation 1G cellular system
3. Cable television system
4. Fiber optics communication
5. Original aerospace telemetry system
Advantage:
Disadvantage:
CDMA:
Definition: The communication technique in which the information signal of different users
is modulated by orthogonal or non-orthogonal spreading codes is known as CDMA.
In CDMA users may transmit at the same time using the same frequency band but using
different codes so that we can decode to identify particular user.
Application:
• GPS unit, PDA’s, wireless laptop modems, internet capable cell phones.
Advantage:
Disadvantage:
• Channel pollution where signals from too many cell sites are present in the
subscriber’s phone but none of them are dominant.
• When compared to GSM is the lack of international roaming capabilities.
• Speed varies
• Low speed transmission.
• Maintenance is difficult.
SDMA:
Space division multiple access optimizes the use of radio spectrum and minimizes system cost by taking advantage of the directional properties
of dish antennas.
Application:
• It is often implemented using sectorized antenna arrays.
Advantage:
• Faster speed
• Less fading effect
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Disadvantage:
• Reproduction problem
• Interference
• It requires careful choice of zones for each transmitter and also requires precise antenna alignment.
• A small error can result in failure of one or more channels, interference among channels and confusion between surface coverage
zones.
TDMA FDMA CDMA
Def Def Def
Orthogonal channelization method Orthogonal channelization method Orthogonal/non orthogonal
channelization method
Time limit No time limit No time limit
Synchorization is needed. Synchorization is not needed. Orthogonalization is needed.
No Near and far problem No Near and far problem Near and far problem exits
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