Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
VOLUME 3· NUMBER 1
Editor's Note I
DECEMBER 1988
The East- West Center is a public, nonprofit educational institution with
an international board of governors. Some 2,000 research fellows, grad-
uate students, and professionals in business and government each year
work with the Center's international staff in cooperative study, training,
and research. They examine major issues related to population, resources
and development, the environment, culture, and communication in Asia,
the Pacific, and the United States. The Center was established in 1960
by the United States Congress, which provides principal funding.
Support also comes from more than twenty Asian and Pacific
governments, as well as private agencies and corporations.
Editor's Note
I
2 EDITOR'S NOTE
VIVIAN SOBCHACK
4
CITIES ON THE EDGE OF TIME 5
urban existence, the SF city and its concrete "realization" in American cin-
ema also offers the most appropriate representational grounds for a
phenomenological history of the spatial and temporal transformation of
the city as it has been culturally experienced from the 1950S (when the
American SF film first emerged as a genre) to the present (in which the
genre enjoys unprecedented popularity). Indeed, not as radical in its trans-
formations as Simak's City (nor as long-lived), the imaginary city of the
American SF film from the 1950S through the 1980s offers us a historically
qualified and qualifying site that might be explored as both literal ground
and metaphoric figure of the transformation of contemporary urban expe-
rience and its narratives in that period now associated with "postmod-
ernism:'l
My purpose, then, is not to analyze the American SF film from the per-
spective of classical urbanism, which describes the city as an "object" dis-
tinct from the subjects who inhabit it - or from the perspective of sociol-
ogy and political economy, which see the American city as essentially
shaped by general "laws" of social formation and capitalist modes of pro-
duction. Rather, my project is best summed up by the editors of Zone (a
new journal focusing on the city), who announce their desire to:
let "the city" emerge, in the complex and shifting fashion proper to it, as a
specific power to affect both people and materials - a power that modifies
the relations between them. This power is neither a side-effect nor an
attribute of a city-substance which transcends them; it is itself the very fab-
ric of the city's consistency (Zone 1987).
dence in the present (as in King Kong), but rather to abstractly represent
the city as eternal ideal. While both of these eternal cities were visualized
in aspiring architecture and explicitly located in transcendent space - that
is, in the highest reaches of the Himalayas and "somewhere over the rain-
bow" - the temporal nature of the "eternal" was differently encoded in
each. The Shangri-la of 1937 seems a mirage of aspiration shimmering in
an eternal nostalgia that has nothing to do with modernity - either
present or future. Aptly titled, Lost Horizon's idealized and lofty city sig-
nifies a utopian reach always in excess of its venal grasp, an eternal ideal
always already ephemeral, lost, always already relegated to the past.
However, the same year that saw the opening of the microcosmic, uto-
pian, and modern city that was the 1939 New York World's Fair (icono-
graphically architected in the idealist geometry of the Trylon and the Peri-
sphere) also saw the opening of The Wizard of Oz. There on the screen,
visualized as a fantasy within a fantasy, was another essential and ideal-
ized urban image: the Emerald City of Oz. Set off in the distance, framed
by a foreground field of poppies (the stuff that dreams are made of), given
to our sight for the first time, Oz stands as both eternal and modern city -
aspiring, weightless, ethereal, atemporal, and yet evergreen and contem-
porary, its softened skyscrapers at once recognizable and yet giving lie to
the term since they have no sharp rectilinear edges and, belonging to the
sky, have no need to assault it.
What is the theme of these few fantastic film images of the city that
stand apart from more contemporaneous, realist, and "grounded" visual-
izations of urban life in the 1930S? With the exception of Shangri-la (which
in its perpetual evocation of loss seems prescient about the grim side of
modernity, aspiration, and urbanism), they are architected as "modern:'
All are also concretized in an architecture of "aspiration;' and what is
"modern" and "aspiring" is visualized as having commerce with the "tran-
scendent:' Emphasis in these images is on the vertical, lofty, and aerial
quality of the city rather than on its pedestrian and base horizontal dimen-
sion. Thus, more than merely synonymous with "height;' since it further
entails the active reach of aspiration, the "highness" of the city concretely
stands as its most aesthetically significant architectural value - and meta-
phorically stands as its most ethically significant social value. In Topophi-
lia, Yi-Fu Tuan (1974, 28) notes what seems quite obvious, and yet needs
stating if we are to understand how our lived-experience of the city and its
poetic representations have changed from the 1930S to the present:
CITIES ON THE EDGE OF TIME 9
The vertical versus the horizontal dimension? Here a common response is to
see them symbolically as the antithesis between transcendence and imma-
nence, between the ideal of disembodied consciousness (a skyward spiritual-
ity) and the ideal of earth-bound identification. Vertical elements ... evoke
a sense of striving, a defiance of gravity, while the horizontal elements call
to mind acceptance and rest.
Those horizontal elements, as we shall see in the SF films of the 1970S and
1980s, can also call to mind less positive modes of being: resignation, sta-
sis, asphyxiation, and death - and more active modes of being: expan-
sion, dispersion, and play.
The dominant spatial mythology of America has been not only tradi-
tionally nonurban, but primarily antiurban (the paradise of the New
World symbolically located in the garden, the West, the frontier, the wil-
derness and now - with the help of Steven Spielberg - in suburbia).
Nonetheless, as we have seen in these few images from the 1930S, the fan-
tasy of the imaginary city constitutes it in a positive image of highness and
fullness, envisions it as the site of human aspiration - its vertical projec-
tion pointing toward spiritual transcendence and, perhaps, a better and
fuller (that is, a more "civilized" and materially expanded) future. In an
extremely popularized and "softened" way, then, the positive image of the
1930S city has its roots in the earlier urban and technological visions of
Futurism and Modernism.
Given that social events in the 1940S were not conducive to continuing
this utopian fantasization of the city, it is not surprising that, but for the
nightmarish and labyrinthine "low" life hyperbolically figured in the
urban introspections of film noir, most film images of the city during this
period are neither extrapolative nor speculative. We must move into the
1950S for our next set of explicitly poetic images. It is during this decade
marked by nuclear fear and Cold War tensions, by a growing dependence
upon electronic technology, by the emergence of new and global informa-
tion and communication systems, and by increasing consumerism and
suburbanism, that the American SF film coalesces as a recognizable genre
that, more often than not, poeticizes the city through what Susan Sontag
(1965) has called the "imagination of disaster." Two extremely powerful
images reverberate through the 1950S - each spectacularly and concretely
articulating a loss of faith in previous utopian and futurist visions of the
modern city as the architectural and transcendent embodiment of aspira-
tion. Although quite differently, both address the failure of concrete verti-
10 VIVIAN SOBCHACK
itself;' Thus, the failure of modern and urban civilization and its aspira-
tions is poetically represented in appropriately monumental images which
constitute an "aesthetics of destruction" whose peculiar beauty is found in
"wreaking havoc, making a mess" (Sontag 1965, 44). The city's aspiring
verticality, its lofty architecture, its positive "highness" that thrusts civili-
zation toward transcendence and the future is - through privileged special
effects - debased and brought low, and in a mise-en-scene that is bustling
with contemporary activity and traffic and emphatically temporalized
as "now;'
The other image of the failure of the aspiring city is equally powerful,
yet quite different - maintaining the city's highness, but temporalizing its
value as "past:' Here, the city's lofty architecture is not destroyed or
brought low; rather, its originally positive and transcendent value of
"highness" becomes dominated by the negative and nihilistic value of
«emptiness." Highness thus remains an ideal value but one that has little to
do with human being. Indeed, as Philip Strick (1984, 47) reminds us: "Sci-
ence fiction writers like Simak, Bradbury, and Kuttner, with varying
degrees of irony, have frequently recognized . . . the ideal city contains no
citizens whatever;' Again, appearing in numerous films, the basic elements
of this poetic response to the ideal of highness remain the same across a
variety of SF elaborations. In Five (1951), we see two characters enter New
York - an empty concrete canyon whose walls are skyscrapers, whose
floor is punctuated by static and forlorn automobiles distraughtly angled;
nothing moves but the car in which they slowly ride, and a skeleton stares
out at them from a window. In On the Beach (1959), trying to find the
source of a signal from a radioactively dead America, submarine crewmen
wander an empty San Francisco. And in The World, the Flesh and the
Devil (1959), the image of deadly stillness and emptiness overwhelms one
with a sense of irrevocable loss as a single character roams through New
York, into a vacant Times Square, down an abandoned Wall Street,
around an aseptic United Nations building. Cars eternally stalled on a
bridge, newspaper blowing down a city street caught up in some ill-begot-
ten draft, street lights and neon often blinking on and off in a mockery of
animate existence - this is the iconography of emptiness and stillness that
marks the American cinematic imagination of the post-holocaust city in
the 1950S to the mid 1970s. And this imagination is nostalgic - always
already fixed on an unrecoverable past rather than on a future that has not
yet occurred. One of the elements of our lived-experience of the modernity
12 VIVIAN SOBCHACK
of the city is a sense of its immediate vitality: its present-tense and up-to-
the-minute activity, its busyness, its people and traffic always in motion.
To see the city empty of that activity, that busyness, concretely emphasizes
its "highness;' but also temporally codes the value of such architectural
aspiration as "past:' Marking the death of the city as a functional as well
as architectural structure, skyscrapers in these films stand as monumental
gravestones. Although this emptiness seems to linger on into the 1980s -
in American films like Dawn of the Dead (1979) and Night of the Comet
(1984) - it appears less as this nostalgic response to the city's originallofti-
ness and the failure of its aspiration than as a positive opportunity to
dramatize the ultimate consumer fantasy of having a shopping mall all to
oneself (barring a few extremist shoppers in the form of ghouls and zom-
bies).
The destruction of the city and its symbolic architecture and the city as
empty graveyard - these two powerful poetic responses to the failure of
the city's aspiration (and to the failure of "modern" civilization) mourn the
outmoded value of highness, the ineffectual outcome of aspiration, but
they still hold highness as a positive value and offer no alternative to its
failure. Things get even worse in the 1960s and most of the 1970s. If the
utopian vision of the imaginary city emphasizes its concrete highness and
its spiritual fullness as positive values, then the 1950S SF imagination kept
at least one of those positive values operative - even if only in a literal
way. That is, in those films where the city's concrete highness is destroyed
and brought low, its literal fullness is asserted in busy activity and an
emphasis on the "masses" (whether they are screaming beneath the behe-
moth's scaly feet or cooperating with the "authorities"). And in those films
where the city's utopian fullness is challenged by a literal emptiness, at
least its concrete highness remains. However, from the late 1960s to 1977
(the year that marks the release of Close Encounters of the Third Kind and
Star Wars), the image of the SF city poeticized neither highness nor fullness
as positive values. Rather, both were imagined negatively - and turned in
on themselves to become lowering oppressiveness and crowdedness.
Indeed, if the utopian SF city is perceived as aspiring, then the SF city dur-
ing this period is clearly dystopian and perceived as asphyxiating.
Pointing to the despair of a country negatively involved in both domes-
tic and international contestation, Joan Dean (1978, 36-37) describes the
SF films of the late 1960s and early 1970S as articulating "a diminishing fear
of nuclear apocalypse" and "a growing concern with domestic, terrestrial
CITIES ON THE EDGE OF TIME I3
Escape From New York - that city in 1981 explicitly imagined as all
prison. These films rally a cinematic exodus from the constraints and pol-
lution of the failed city by all those upstanding and economically fran-
chised folks who believe (and rightly so) that the "Force" is with them, or
(wrongly so) that "when you wish upon a star, it makes no difference who
you are:' What results from this mass bourgeois exodus, however, is a
peculiar and hallucinatory screen liberation for those Others who are left
behind. They are the dregs of bourgeois society, the riff-raff, the punks,
the winos, the crazies, the gays, the druggies, the blacks, the hispanics, the
new orientals, the homeless, the hipsters - everyone previously marginal-
ized and disenfranchised in bourgeois urban culture. Let loose in a city
which now has no center and no constraints, which has been "junked"
rather than urbanly "renewed;' this newly dominant and diverse popula-
tion energizes and reformulates the negative and nihilistic urban values of
the 1960s and 1970S as sublimely positive. In a complete reversal, the
imaginary SF city's lowness, baseness, horizontality, its crowdedness, over-
populatedness, and overstuffedness are celebrated and aestheticized. That
is, the old imaginary and centered SF metropolis is totally resigned to its
ruination, its displacement to its own edges, its concrete transformation
from city as center to city as inner, from aspiring city to city dump. But
this totalized and concrete resignation to the debasement of the city results
in its symbolic and positive re-signing. The junkyard, the city dump, the
trashy edges of town are culturally reinscribed as an exotic urban space
that eroticizes and fetishizes material culture, that is valued for its marvel-
ously un selective acquisitive power, its expansive capacity to accumulate,
consume, and contain "things;' any thing, and its existential status as irre-
futable testimony to the success of material production. The omnipres-
ence of waste serves as a sign that the unseen digestive tract of advanced
capital's body politic must still be working, indeed working "overtime"
and at full capacity. The city is thus re-energized - finding both a new
function and formulating a new aesthetic. It explicitly serves as the most
monumental and concrete consumer, while its un selective juxtapositions
and conservation of material artifacts reconstitute it as both the world's
greatest collage and the world's greatest "pop" collector. As Fredric Jame-
son (1984, 76) puts it:
degree surely still inconceivable in the early years of the 20th century. . . .
How urban squalor can be a delight to the eyes, when expressed in commo-
dification, and how an unparalleled quantum leap in the alienation of daily
life in the city can now be experienced in the form of a strange new halluci-
natory exhilaration - these are some of the questions that confront us. . . .
Two powerful SF city images emerge within the context of this new
urban exoticism and its erotics of commodification and consumerism.
And, given that the postmodernist city is experienced as having no center
- being all center or decentered, dispersing its activities in every direction
- it is not surprising that the site of both these images is Los Angeles. The
first and most aestheticized comes, of course, from Blade Runner (1982).
Its Los Angeles of 2019 is a crowded, aggregate, and polyglot megalopolis
- one that is experienced less as base and degraded than as dense, com-
plex, and heterogeneous with its multinational and marginal populace,
additive architecture, sensuous "clutter;' and highly atmospheric pollu-
tion. This is a city that stimulates and exhausts the eyes, a city one never
wants to leave because there is always - literally - more to see. (It is
hardly coincidental that the eye is such a crucial element of the narrative.)
The architecture of this imaginary Los Angeles is built from "layers of tex-
ture;' so that:
Thus, the imaginary city of the most contemporary SF film, while not
mourning the failed aspiration of its past, is not really capable of envision-
ing its future and, rather, is euphorically lost in the play of its material
present. The imaginary Los Angeles of Blade Runner and Repo Man, the
New York of Liquid Sky (1983) only hallucinate their liberation from the
bourgeoisie who have gone off to live in Steven Spielberg films or gone
Back to the Future - only dream their complete reversal of bourgeois uto-
pian values. These cities, in visible fact, eroticize consumption and
fetishize material culture in a scenographic paean to advanced capitalism.
And, while these cities celebrate their countercultural funkyness, their
heterogeneity, horizontality, and cultural leveling, their alienated terrestri-
als and terrestrialized aliens whose differences supposedly don't make a
difference in this dispersed and marginalized culture (1984'S Moscow on
the Hudson and The Brother From Another Planet are, after all, the same
movie), they function as virtual ghettos - or, wishing upon the same bour-
geois star, effectively efface those differences that do make a difference
who you are: that is, gender, race, class. Positing, on the one hand, a new
and liberating model of the city and, on the other, buying back into its
failed model by merely reversing (rather than altering) its terms and val-
ues, the imaginary and postmodernist city of the American SF film is truly
a city on the edge of time, offering us a hallucinatory future we might
want to visit, but a present in which - unless we just happened to be bour-
geois cinemagoers and slumming - we wouldn't want to live.
Vivian Sobchack teaches film studies at the University of California, Santa Cruz.
Past president of the Society for Cinema Studies, she has published many articles
in diverse journals as well as several books: Screening Space: The American Sci-
ence Fiction Film; An Introduction to Film, 2d edition; and, forthcoming from
Princeton University Press, The Address of the Eye: A Phenomenology of Film
Experience.
18 VIVIAN SOBCHACK
I.Since there have been many debates surrounding the concept and definition
of "postmodernism;' for the purposes of this article, I refer the reader to Jameson
(1984) and to my use of Jameson's work in relation to the American science fiction
film in chapter 4 of Sobchack (1987).
2. On this issue, see also the chapter on figuration in Andrew (1984).
3. Quoted in Webb (1987, 9). Indeed, reading Lang's description of New York,
one is reminded more of Blade Runner's imaginative SF cityscape than of any
other - including Lang's own Metropolis.
4. Brosnan (1978, 47). See also Webb's (1987, II) description of the building's
"phallic crown, designed as a mooring for dirigibles:'
5. Of particular interest here (and specifically related to Steven Spielberg's
oeuvre) is Yi-Fu Tuan's (1974, 236-24°) discussion of suburban values and ideals.
Mancini, Marc
1985 "The Future Isn't What It Used To Be;' Film Comment, 21,3:13.
Mills, Bart
1982 "The Brave New World of Production Design;' American Film, 7,4:45.
Sobchack, Vivian
1987 Screening Space: The American Science Fiction Film. New York: Ungar.
Sontag, Susan
1965 "The Imagination of Disaster;' Commentary (October):42-48.
Strick, Philip
1984 "Metropolis Wars: The City as Character in Science Fiction Films;' in
Omni's Screen Flights/Screen Fantasies: The Future According to Sci-
ence Fiction Cinema, ed. Danny Peary. Garden City, New York: Dol-
phin I Doubleday.
Tuan, Yi-Fu
1974 Topophilia: A Study of Environmental Perception, Attitudes and Val-
ues. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Webb, Michael
1987 "The City in Film;' Design Quarterly, 136,9.
Zone
1987 "Forward;' Zone 112:11.
Future Noir: Contemporary
Representations of Visionary Cities
JANET STAIGER
20
FUTURE NOIR 21
views that go on and on, day after day, year after year.... In all directions
dramatic and glamour-filled Manhattan vistas delight the eye. The pano-
rama of the East River, the Rose Garden and the elegant greenery of the
United Nations, the vitality of the midtown cityscapes. They all serve to
give a special aura and a special value to 100 United Nations Plaza. (pp.
4-5)
This utopian vision of monopoly capitalism surely invites the desire of
those capable of sharing its dream ("Residences from $330,000 to
$5,000,000"). 100 United Nations Plaza, one hundred years from today,
will be clean, sleek, accessible by land or air, and visionary - in both
meanings of the word. It is, and will be, modern.
However, as modernism continues to respond only to the aesthetics of a
select few! and capitalism's benefits fail to spread evenly, the signifiers for
high modernism and monopoly capitalism are potential sites for a dialogi-
cal rewriting that implies the alienating decay and deadening of that
vision. If corporations assume that the designs of their buildings "commu-
nicate the company's identity to its various constituencies" (American
Way, IS November 1987, 52) and TransAmerica and Citicorp (echoing the
ambulatory Prudential Rock) devise commercials highlighting the pyra-
mid towers of their corporate headquarters as signifying their mobile or
personal presence in numerous cities and landscapes, then it is scarcely
much of a leap to argue that in today's popular imagination modernist
architecture is associated with dominant, powerful multinationals. Addi-
tionally, it is not surprising that texts and films skeptical or critical of the
effects derived from the institutions housed in a specific type of architec-
ture will "talk back" to that institution via the appropriation, transforma-
tion, and corruption of its signifiers - here the style and design of the
building. The firms' towering vision from which chief executive officers
gaze at the world below can be made to imply as well their cynicism
about, yet pervasive responsibility for, the failures of modern social and
economic life.
This discursive procedure is not new, being a long-standing practice in
the arena of science fiction, and theorists of SF have already noted that the
genre is as much about the present as the future, since any envisioned
tomorrow derives from premises about today. As Samuel Delany (1980,
179) notes about literary SF, "with each sentence we have to ask what in
the world of the tale would have to be different from our world in order
for such a sentence to be uttered - and thus, as the sentences build up, we
22 JANET STAIGER
uncertain, but the loser seems to be us. In addition, these cities are dark,
lit only indirectly and arguably from completely artificial light sources.
While part of the dimness is most likely due to advantages for special
effects technology, the metaphoric implication of an end to civilization or
alienation from natural light pervades the atmosphere. Darkness and
urban-design chaos as bricolage also permit labyrinthian and entropic cit-
ies where only overhead schematics can provide a sense of orientation
among debris, decay, and abandonment. Thus, in all four features, these
dystopias' uses of city architecture comment on a potential postindustrial,
age of communication society. The forecast is not favorable. For the
future noir city is more nightmare than vision, more anxiety than wish ful-
fillment.
To understand these films' pessimistic visions of the future, it is valuable
to trace strands of their historical sources in earlier architecture and uto-
pian social planning that work as subtexts for the veneers of modernist
cityscapes. Importantly, moreover, earlier and contemporaneous fictional
utopian and dystopian literature may have provided some imagery for
modern designers. Certainly, from the perspective of a Foucaultian
archaeology of knowledge, particular figures reappear in both fiction and
reality with eerie frequency. Having provided a cultural, symbolic, and
historical context for possible semantic ranges of meaning for particular
features of these films' representations of cities, I will then explore the four
features, simultaneously arguing that a cultural historian should ground
interpretations of iconic representations within both the historical logic of
their appearance and the specificity of their function within the individual
text.
poraries" (Walker 1985, 136). In opening his story, the narrator, Julian
West, describes to his audience in the year 2000 the misery and squalor
parts of humanity endured in 1887. By chapter three, West's miraculous
awakening concludes with his first sight of the future. Refusing to believe
it is some 113 years later, West is taken by his companions to the rooftop
and asked, " 'if this is the Boston of the nineteenth century.' At my feet;'
Bellamy (1960, 43) writes,
lay a great city. Miles of broad streets, shaded by trees and lined with fine
buildings, for the most part not in continuous blocks but set in larger or
smaller enclosures stretched in every direction. Every quarter contained
large open squares filled with trees, along which statues glistened and foun-
tains flashed in the late-afternoon sun. Public buildings of a colossal size
and architectural grandeur unparalleled in my day raised their stately piles
on every side. Surely I had never seen this city nor one comparable to it
before. Raising my eyes at last toward the horizon, I looked westward. That
blue ribbon winding away to the sunset - was it not the sinuous Charles. I
looked east - Boston harbor stretched before me within its headlands, not
one of its green islets missing. I knew then that I had been told the truth con-
cerning the prodigious thing which has befallen me.
As I suggested earlier, the SF effect works through the device of rewriting a
known city. More importantly, Bellamy's vision is literally first of all that
of a cityscape and of an architectural style. Subsequently, analogies
between this physical world and an invisible but real social formation will
be drawn out.
Walker (1985, 134) describes another utopian novel, Bradford Peck's
The World a Department Store (1900), in which "Peck united producer
and consumer in one great cooperative headquartered in buildings
designed to produce efficiency and unquestioning respect." But perhaps
the best-known - and most influential - writer of the period was British-
er H. G. Wells. Wells's writings might be considered to fall into both uto-
pian and dystopian categories (at times for the same novel), but his 1905
book, A Modern Utopia, clearly suggests Wells's more confident vision.
As Mark R. Hillegas (1967, 71) puts it, this utopia is the "archetypal wel-
fare state." The city represented there, however, is alarmingly similar to a
bleaker variation in Wells's earlier When the Sleeper Awakes (1899): "the
symbol in much twentieth-century utopian fantasy of the 'interdependence
of science, technology, industrialization, mass population, and social
organization' "(Hillegas 1967, 43, citing Richard Gerber). And what con-
FUTURE NOIR 27
the state's surveillance and control of its slave citizens" (p. 3). Such propo-
sitions, I would argue, lead to specific dominant connotations for features
of fictional cityscapes. Wellsian high-rise, climate-controlled, mass-
mediated, and sanitized megalopolises infer benefits of welfare socialism,
but they can also imply state observation and individual alienation. Yet lit-
erary SF is not the only venue for such iconic motifs. They also derive from
twentieth-century urban planning and specific theories of architecture for
modern cities.
Modern architecture died on April 21, 1972. Few architects noticed. The
public did not care. No one mourned. It was never popular. The end was
not unexpected. The International Style - as the architecture conceived by
Walter Gropius at the Bauhaus in Weimar and by Corbusier in his atelier in
Paris, came to be known - had long been feverish, erratic and contradic-
tory. But no one got at the basic affliction, which was that Modern architec-
ture is an abstract art - an abstraction that failed to meet practical human
needs. This affliction caused the authorities in St. Louis, that April morning
five years ago, to do the only thing left to do with the modern highrise slabs
of the Pruitt-Igoe public housing project. They blew them up. With dyna-
mite. The first of the 33 identical human filing cabinets collapsed in 20 sec-
onds flat.
In studying the history of social reform, Walker (1985, 12) maintains that
its dynamics as "directed social change" progress through a five-step
sequence. These are: (I) random negative (unorganized protest); (2) struc-
tured negative (organized protest); (3) random positive (various remedies);
(4) structured positive (organized movement with a constructive aim); and
(5) watchdog (surveillance of institutionalized reform). Obviously, not all
attempts at reform succeed; consequently, some criticisms of the social
formation never move much beyond steps one or two.
I find this outline of use, however, in characterizing the political action
of dystopian texts since the phrasing "random negative;' or unorganized
protest, strikes me as particularly apt. The advantage dystopias have is
that they do not have to provide alternate visions of tomorrow; they can
merely exaggerate or invert utopias, suggesting that aspects of the fantasy
ideal future will eventually produce distortions or contradictions. Consid-
ered as negations of specific fantasies of the future and as unorganized
protests about social tendencies, dystopian fictions criticize specific uto-
pias and function as warning messages about the present day. This is
tomorrow - if we don't watch out.
How soon this tomorrow may occur is part of each dystopia's alarm.
For our future noirs, Max Headroom is probably the bleakest: it is set
"twenty minutes into the future;' although Brazil may have already tran-
spired since it happens at 8:49 P.M., "somewhere in the twentieth century;'
Blade Runner takes place in Los Angeles, November 2019. Moreover, as
predictions of the future, these texts are consistent in their notions of the
city even if their criticisms of the implications of those cities' social systems
differ slightly. In particular, variant attacks on modern architecture as
representing twentieth-century late capitalism, commodity fetishism, and
a class system cross these texts, as well as an associated fear of an age of
information and multinationalism. However, as I mentioned earlier, Blade
Runner and Max Headroom link these problems more specifically to
34 JANET STAIGER
scouts his subjects via short-wave linkages to the home news center, where
his "controller" has access (via a computer that somehow has access to up-
to-date sensory input) to subjects' movements. Programmed much like the
source of his information, Edison receives his directions in a form that
matches his eye-level perspective while he must rely on those sequenced
commands to reach his destination. 11 Deckard's travels are similarly
through crowded carnival streets rather than long avenues. Lowry cannot
look beyond billboards or through glass walls as he travels. As I suggested
in my introduction, one implication of capitalism is the commodification
of space, with the attendant value placed on vistas. Yet Le Corbusier's
twenty-four skyscrapers have yielded to hundreds of structures obscuring
visions beyond the next-door building. Indeed, the external skeleton of
high modernism becomes a labyrinth of industrialization. If 100 United
Nations Plaza promises views that go on and on, future noir films ques-
tion who is able to share in that hope and how.
Seeing this labyrinthian view of space slightly differently, but in a com-
plementary way, Jameson (1984, 82-84) notes that due to the "absolute
symmetry of the [Bonaventura's] four towers it is quite impossible to get
your bearings in [its] lobby... :' For him, we are in a new "hyperspace" -
"a disjunction" finally exists "between the body and its built environment
... [which] can stand as the symbol and analogue of that even sharper
dilemma which is the incapacity of our minds, at least at present, to map
the great global multinational and decentered communication network in
which we find ourselves caught as individual subjects:' Thus, with space
as either labyrinthian or "hyper;' humanity's senses, particularly the privi-
leged one of sight, no longer guarantee ability to negotiate space and
determine perspective.
Finally, and consequently, entropy as randomness and disorder in-
creases, and predictions for the future are not of a turnaround. The spills
of waste and garbage, the graffitied walls, the breakdown of appliances
are constant parts of set design for future noir movies. Rain, probably
from smog and auto emissions, falls continually in the Los Angeles of the
androids. Urban hoodlums trash Lowry's car within minutes of his park-
ing it outside the Buttles' home. Carter often scouts around the edges of
his city, near where "blanks" - those on the margins of society and with-
out identity cards - warm themselves by barrel fires.
In "Imagination of Disaster;' Susan Sontag (1968, 213) makes a worthy
observation about SF. She writes, "Science fiction films are not about sci-
FUTURE NOIR 41
ence. They are about disaster, which is one of the oldest subjects of art .
. . . Thus, the science fiction film ... is concerned with the aesthetics of
destruction, with the peculiar beauties to be found in wreaking havoc,
making a mess:' If this is the case, dystopias surely must have the upper
hand over utopian fiction, for the ways humanity can allow its own civili-
zation to self-destruct are clearly the challenge for set designers.
Janet Staiger is an associate professor in critical and cultural studies at the Univer-
sity of Texas at Austin.
I would like to thank the participants of the 1987 Hawaii International Film Festi-
val and Symposium and Jeff Sconce for comments which I hope have helped me
sharpen my ideas. I also thank Scott Bukatman for many earlier conversations
about contemporary SF; some of this is undoubtedly influenced by his work on
this subject.
one that privileges nostalgia and is a throwback in narrative structure and mise-
en-scene to fairy tales and feudalism.
3. I find it significant in a period of poststructuralism that while I am not the
creator of the term "future noir;' simultaneously I cannot supply its origin. One of
my students, Bert Greene, used the term to describe these films, but he said he
heard it from another student whose last name he didn't know. I rather like the
fact that in an essay about postmodernist SF, I can't properly attribute my source
except to say it is circulating discourse in Austin, Texas.
4. Central only for this paper, not ontologically.
5. However, Melies's A Trip to the Moon (1903) bears many similarities to
Wells's The First Men in the Moon (1901).
6. Robert Venturi makes the opposition explicitly in his chart contrasting
urban sprawl with the megastructure, "Broad acre City" versus "Ville Radieuse;'
See Venturi, Brown, and Izenour (1977, 118).
7. The obvious allegory operating here is Christ's visit to earth to act as an
intermediary between his Father in Heaven and the workers. Yet this religious
symbolism only functions to reinforce a divided labor system - something that
socialists such as Wells would reject.
8. This is possible since the films themselves are not of a postmodern aes-
thetic; that is, these future noir films may display a postmodern mise-en-scene,
taking the value of spectacle associated with that style, but since that mise-en-
scene is represented as the environment for the characters, the filmic effect is that
of criticizing that environment. In every regard, these movies are quite traditional
in their narrative form and style.
9. This is based on Anthony Burgess's novel, where the device originates.
10. Always quick to observe a trend, Time magazine reported in 1968 that one
feature of new architectural shapes was "Honesty. . . . Today architects like to
show how buildings stand by calling attention to the structural system ....
Another school of architects feels that a building ought to tell what is going on
beneath its skin;' "To Cherish Rather than Destroy;' Time, 92, 5 (2 August
1968 ):4°.
II. This becomes even more convoluted since Edison's alter ego is Max Head-
room, a now self-generating computer image compiled from Edison's brainwaves
and a sophisticated software program.
FUTURE NOIR 43
Bellamy, Edward
1960 Looking Backward: 2000-1887. New York: New American Library;
reprint of 1888 edition.
Clay, Grady
1973 Close-Up: How to Read the American City. Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press.
Delany, Samuel
1980 "Generic Protocols: Science Fiction and Mundance;' in The Technologi-
cal Imagination: Theories and Fictions, ed. Teresa de Lauretis, Andreas
Huyssen, and Kathleen Woodward. Madison, Wisconsin: Coda Press.
Eisner, Lotte H.
1977 Fritz Lang. New York: Oxford University Press.
Fishman, Robert
1977 Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century. New York: Basic Books.
Giddens, Anthony
1987 Sociology: A Brief but Critical Introduction, 2d ed. San Diego, Califor-
nia: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Hillegas, Mark R.
1967 The Future as Nightmare: H. C. Wells and the Anti-Utopians. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Hughes, Robert
1971 "The Decor of Tomorrow's Hell;' Time, 98,26 (27 December):59.
Jameson, Fredric
1984 "Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism;' New Left
Review, no. 146 (July-August).
Kern, Stephen
1983 The Culture of Time and "Space, 1880-1918. Cambridge, Massachu-
setts: Harvard University Press.
Lowe, Donald M.
1982 History of Bourgeois Perception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Sontag, Susan
1968 "The Imagination of Disaster" [1965], in Against Interpretation. New
York: Dell Publishing Company.
44 JANET STAIGER
45
PATRICIA MELLEN CAMP
she had vanished, there would remain no avenue of escape. Those who
had arrived first could understand what drew these people to Zobeide,
this ugly city, this trap;' "The City" functions as a "delusion and dream"
"to keep women captive" - and it is ugly. Zobeide is a Greek maze, with
the minotaur or woman at the center, with no escape. As Teresa de
Lauretis (1983, 21-22) writes: "It does not come as a surprise, to us cinema
people, that in that primal city built by men there are no women; or that
in Calvino's seductive parable ... woman is absent as historical subject:'
Another detour beckons me. "High-stepping gait" has led me to a
byway or blind alley - to Freud and Delusion and Dream; Small World is
the comic remake. Like the mediocre novel that inspired him, Gradiva: A
Pompeiian Fancy by Wilhelm Jensen (translated in 1917), Freud analyzes
the male scholar's search for the classical woman. However, taking his cue
from Jensen, Freud knows that "the City;' in this case Pompeii, is an
excuse, a symptom; the dream girl has nothing to do with cities, science,
or research but everything to do with desirous men. Norbert Hanhold is
an archeologist; "his interest is fixed upon a bas-relief which represents a
girl walking in an unusual manner ... he spins a web of fantasies about
her ... transports the person created by him to Pompeii ... he intensi-
fies the fantasy ... of the girl named Gradiva [the girl splendid in walk-
ing] into a delusion which comes to influence his acts" (Freud 1956, 33).
Norbert travels to Rome, Naples, grumbling about encountering so many
married couples, and pursues his delusion through the ruins of Pompeii.
Norbert has confused the real, a girl from his childhood, with the imagi-
nary, her image. He is not a well man.
"There is no better reason for repression . . . than the burial which was
the fate of Pompeii and from which the city was able to rise again ... in
his imagination, the young archeologist had to transport to Pompeii the
prototype of the relief which reminded him of the forgotten beloved of his
youth" (Freud 1956,61). Along with the importance of the city and child-
hood memory to repression (and the unconscious; Rome was another of
Freud's metaphors), what intrigues me is Freud's analysis of Norbert's
problem: "A psychiatrist would perhaps assign Norbert Hanhold's delu-
sion to the large group of paranoia and designate it as a 'fetishistic eroto-
mania; because falling in love with a bas-relief ... the interest in the feet
... of women must seem suspiciously like fetishism;' But Freud dismisses
"erotomania" as "awkward and useless;' He goes on to hypothesize that
"An old-school psychiatrist would, moreover, stamp our hero as a degen-
LAST SEEN IN THE STREETS OF MODERNISM 49
erate ... and would investigate the heredity which has inexorably driven
him to such a fate:'
Freud's third and preferred analysis is the literary interpretation of Jen-
sen, the author, who was "engrossed in the individual psychic state which
can give rise to such a delusion .... In one important point Norbert
Hanhold acts quite differently from ordinary human beings. He has no
interest in living women; science, which he serves, has taken this interest
from him and transferred it to women of stone or bronze. Let us not con-
sider this an unimportant peculiarity" (Freud 1956, 66-67). Indeed, let us
not. Unfortunately, modernists paid scant heed to Freud. Scholastic delu-
sions have continued to "have no interest in living women:' The delusion
might be more telling than the cover-up journey or scholarship - a (bas-
relief) fetish. Freud's prognosis for Norbert might serve as a cure for the-
ories of modernism and postmodernism; otherwise, the future is bleak:
"The condition of continued avoidance of women results in the personal
qualification ... for the formation of a delusion; the development of psy-
chic disturbance .. :' (Freud 1956, 68). A real woman, Zoe, is the end of
the delusion, the end of the story, and Norbert's cure.
However commercially banal the brochure, or tongue-in-cheek popular
the novel, Small World, or mediocre Jensen's Gradiva, they share common
premises with the great writers of modernism - that is the myth of the city
as a woman. As Michel de Certeau argues in The Practice of Everyday
Life, when encapsuled as myth, "the City" works to contain specificity
and repress all differences or pollution; it is a myth which creates "a uni-
versal and anonymous subject" coterminous with "the city" itself (De Cer-
teau 1984, 94); the subject is male and the myth totalizing (albeit more
poetic than the concept generated by city planners) and functions to "elim-
inate and reject" waste products which, like poverty, homelessness, and
presumably women, can be reintroduced outside the myth, for example,
in welfare discourses. De Certeau's acute assessment of this "concept-city"
points to "its forgetting of space, the condition of any city's possibility:'
"The City" is neither place nor space but a universal figure of history, "the
machinery and hero of modernity" (De Certeau 1984,95). To this critique,
I must add contours: as this figure comes into focus, it is a shapely female
Image.
Before arriving at the movie theater, I want to stroll through Reflections
with Walter Benjamin. "A Berlin Chronicle" sketches a topography of
childhood memory (setting off desire or delusion?) - a provocative map
50 PATRICIA MELLEN CAMP
of his youth drawn from the streets of Berlin and Paris. "Now let me call
back those who introduced me to the city" (Benjamin 1986a, 3). Like
medieval chronicles, this vivid, spatial map of "moments and disconti-
nuities" (unlike the temporal sequence of autobiography which "has to do
with time ... and the continuous flow of life" [po 28]) begins with a
nursemaid, a trip to the zoo, mother and shopping, wanders through ado-
lescent encounters, fancies sex and love, is guided by poets, essayists (par-
ticularly Baudelaire), and friendship, meanders to finances, father, and
hated school discipline, and concludes with a paternal tale of death and an
ominous warning, "syphilis." As enchanted as I am by Benjamin, I will
focus on two recurring, interrelated figures, representative of the city,
which are superimposed over his oedipal walk: the labyrinth and the pros-
titute.
Childhood is a "period of impotence before the city" due to "a poor
sense of direction" (p. 4) blamed on his mother; adolescence is "a crossing
of frontiers not only social but topographical - a voluptuous hovering on
the brink in the sense that whole networks of streets were opened up
under the auspices of prostitution" (p. II). His political awareness of what
the city hides, the poor, and his social awakening, are equated with sexual
awakening: "crossing the threshold of one's class for the first time had a
part in the almost unequaled fascination of publicly accosting a whore in
the street" (p. II). Behind the facades of the city architecture, its public
image, hidden in the center was a prostitute or Ariadne - eroticism ini-
tially curtailed by his nursemaid or his censoring mother. No matter. "Nor
is it to be denied that I penetrated to its innermost place, the Minotaur's
chamber, with the only difference being that this mythological monster
had three heads: those of the occupants of the same brothel. ... Paris
thus answered my most uneasy expectations" (p. 9). (On his quest, The-
seus had an earlier encounter with Medea who, after her separation from
Jason, had become the wife of Aegeus, the father of Theseus. She con-
vinced her husband to try to poison Theseus, whose sword identified him
to his father. Bullfinch [1959, 125] writes: "Medea, detected in her arts, fled
once more ... and arrived in Asia, where the country afterwards, called
Media, received its name from her:' The shift from Medea to Media, from
woman to country, intrigues me. In Benjamin's account, Medea is the fig-
ure on a ring purchased with friends and destined for his fiancee - "you
only entered its secret by taking it off and contemplating the head against
the light" [Benjamin 1986a, 33]).
LAST SEEN IN THE STREETS OF MODERNISM 51
Benjamin sees Berlin through the streets of Paris and the eyes of Baude-
laire: "What is unique in Baudelaire's poetry is that the images of women
and death are permeated by a third, that of Paris" (Benjamin 1986b, 157).
In the city, the oldest technology, sex, combines with the newest technol-
ogy - mass culture, celebrated as mass transit, skyscrapers, or decried as
commodity fetishism. In his wonderful portrait of arcades and shopping,
"Paris, Capital of the Nineteenth Century;' Benjamin writes: "Such an
image is presented by the pure commodity: as fetish. Such an image are
the arcades, which are both house and stars. Such an image is the prosti-
tute, who is saleswoman and wares in one" (p. 157).
She, like the city, was fascinating and frightening, representing, as she
did, sex and death; like mass culture, she was available and dangerous.
The city existed paradoxically as the exemplar of art and creativity and as
the symptom of commodity culture - resolutely linked to the figure of
woman. As Patrice Petro (1987, 69) so decisively argues in "Joyless
Streets;' "Berlin also served as the decisive metaphor for modernity, and
modernity was almost invariably represented as a woman:' That Berlin
was the center for mass culture is critical to her thesis. Some critics were
not as subtle as Benjamin. Petro (1987, 72) quotes Carl Zuckmayer's
description of Berlin: "Some saw her as hefty, full-breasted, in lace under-
wear ... her very capacity for cruelty made them all the more aggressive.
All wanted to have her.... To conquer Berlin was to conquer the world:'
In "Mass Culture as Woman: Modernism's Other;' Andreas Huyssen
(1986,189) argues that modernism's fascination with imaginary femininity
"goes hand in hand with the exclusion of real women from the literary
enterprise and with the misogyny of bourgeois patriarchy itself:' Mass cul-
ture, site of the contemptible, is equated with women; real, authentic cul-
ture "remains the prerogative of men" (Huyssen 1986,191). The city is the
turf of both, although in mythology, one serves the other. Thus, the com-
modity fetish of Marx coincides with Freud's fetish - which as we know is
female.
The modernist art and commodity, cinema, picked up this division of
the fetish woman. And, if Benjamin is right that "Only film commands
optical approaches to the essence of the city ... like conducting the
motorist into the new center" (Benjamin 1986a, 8), then cinema, like mod-
ernism's city, is also built on a boyhood dream of woman, a dream
arrested in adolescence, endlessly repeated. Benjamin's chronicle of
modernity is also an old story, a bildungsroman in which the young boy
52 PATRICIA MELLEN CAMP
conquers the city, and woman via desire, on his way to manhood and mas-
tery; in the end, he casts his lot with his father in a shared secret, syphilis.
This old story and the need to retell it might explain why the image of "the
city" is such a totalizing figure. If Oedipus is our repeated narrative, then
the modern city is its site. However, as Petro says, modernism is not the
same as modernity, just as women and their experiences of modernity can
never be captured in accounts of male modernists.
Benjamin's remembrance of things past in Berlin and Paris turns to dys-
topia in the post-World War II emigration to the United States of German
Expressionism; modernism's equation of women with the city and sex is
all that's left in the migration; it becomes the repressed of Hollywood cin-
ema. In It's a Wonderful Life, the adventure of the bildungsroman - jour-
neying to far-off lands for fame and fortune represented by George
Bailey's travel brochures and graduation suitcase - is denied and undercut
in favor of staying at home, in a small town, Bedford Falls defining the
United States as rural! suburban; anti-European means anticity. The real
Christmas threat to the film and masculinity is the city (as well as the lack
of recognition for George Bailey, which sets off a crazed identity crisis) -
that transformation of Bedford Falls by jazz, black musicians, neon,
booze, and prostitutes into a nightmare of male identity - a nightmare
because no one recognizes or can name the hero, George Bailey. In this
nightmare city, women are either prostitutes or asexual and old; perky
Mary becomes a dull librarian who timidly looks down, Mom runs a
boarding house, and both are bleakly lighted by German Expressionist
lighting. The value of home, the nobility of building row, suburban, indi-
vidually mortgaged by savings and loan rather than investment banker
homes, is upheld - along with u.s. culture and strong fathers. 1
Ten years later, after an intense period of film noir, the city of Touch of
Evil, although supposedly only a border town, is equally menacing; it is a
fragmented, noisy, and anonymous place of race, sex, drugs, leather-jack-
eted gangs, and separated couples, traversed by automobiles (that city
emblem repeated from The Magnificent Ambersons as the symbol of
modernity and decline) and represented by motels, an ugly and dangerous
extension of the car and modernity to return, with a final vengeance, in
Psycho; jazz, linked to bars and motels, also means danger, sex. Remem-
ber Susan's attack by the Grandes in the motel. When Vargas returns to
the bar to beat up the Grande boys (meanwhile, missing his wife, once
again), he concludes the brawl by smashing a head against a jukebox,
LAST SEEN IN THE STREETS OF MODERNISM 53
stopping the film's jazz/rock. After this, order is restored. The film's
action, including the moving nostalgia of Tanya's room and player-piano
refrain, is set against the dystopia of modernism - tall oil derricks and
darkness, the detritus of industrialism and modernity. The nostalgic past
- Marlene Dietrich as Tanya - is that dream woman of modernism, here
returning as the good ole days. (The dream of Dietrich refuses to die;
Maximilian Schell tried to recapture her image but failed, left with her
voice and clips as she evaded his project while seemingly complicit
with it.)
Like other modern artists, Alfred Hitchcock built his cinema from an
impossible dream of woman - a dream that was not ugly until perversely
"psychoanalyzed" or viciously caricatured by Spoto without Freud's
understanding. In many ways, Hitchcock is the most sophisticated theo-
rist of tourism. In his films, travel is not always what it is cracked up to
be; tourism can be dangerous, particularly at Mount Rushmore (North by
Northwest) or at a Spanish mission in northern California. Vertigo is
Hitchcock's most direct dream of woman, almost a travelogue; the upper-
class, fashionable Madeleine "wanders" through the streets of San Fran-
cisco and out to various tourist attractions along the Pacific Coast High-
way; she is the seductive lure, the city woman who incites Scotty Ferguson
to obsessively chase her image, only to have this imaginary dream vanish,
like Zobeide, by presumably plunging to its death from the special effects
mission bell tower. That Scotty is a detective and motorist, following
Madeleine in his car, suggests that he is a protagonist of modernism;
caught in his delusion like Norbert Hanhold, he experiences a "psychic
disturbance" in the middle of the film and is hospitalized, shot from a high
angle, unable to speak or look.
The red-haired Judy is the shop girl, on foot, the working girl of the
streets of modernity; she and Scotty stroll together. Even after her fashion
transformation into the ideal, blond, quieter, more refined image of
woman, she is still fictively real - or excessive, which her make-over via a
hair style and a tailored, grey suit cannot contain. Thus, she must die.
Real women have little to do with the edifices of modernism, including
male desire (and Hitchcock's alteration of tourist attractions via special
effects matte shots). She can never be found because she cannot exist, her
nonexistence demanding her continual recreation in cinema. The chase
and her destruction are what counts; Hitchcock leads us on a merry narra-
tive tour of the United States (and earlier Britain), with cities as scenes of
54 PATRICIA MELLEN CAMP
the gains of the women's movement and feminism by jumping over them,
regression as forgetting, this might explain the anachronism. If I am right,
the appropriation is depleted and apolitical, divorced from Godard and
Oshima's political concern with the means of production. In the end, I
prefer the modernist image of woman out front, leading a merry and dan-
gerous chase, rather than pathetically tagging along behind.
But, unlike the celebratory take by critics who like mass culture, albeit
without discrimination, or the negative view of the city as a dingy museum
of copies and forgeries, the city as a tourist trap invaded and contami-
nated by mass culture, the view of Baudrillard, there are other ways of
thinking cities - that of Marguerite Duras's script for Hiroshima Mon
Amour and Michel de Certeau's metaphor of the pedestrian, a guide
highly recommended by Morris due to his fine style. To a degree, de Cer-
teau's "Walking in the City" is a revival or postmodern rendering of Ben-
jamin (read through Foucault and linguistics), who will again be my guide
through this spatial terrain. Later on in "A Berlin Chronicle;' the labyrinth
is imagined in another way; rather than what is installed "in the chamber
at its enigmatic center;' he is concerned with "the many entrances leading
into the interior - primal relationships, so many entrances to the maze,
with men drawn on the right and women on the left" (Benjamin 1986a,
31). This maze of stories, of books, of wandering through the city as a
place of unpredicted events, while rigidly gendered, is entrancing to Ben-
jamin and to me. The outline of the labyrinth has shifted - from the
Greek model with its central chamber in which "terror is born" (according
to Umberto Eco in Postscript) to the mannerist model, "a structure of
many blind alleys ... a model of the trial and error process;' and perhaps
on to the "rhizome" of Deleuze and Guattari, a labyrinth with no exit
because it is potentially infinite (Eco 1983, 57).
Benjamin calls this way of thinking the city "the art of straying?' "Not
to find one's way in a city may well be uninteresting and banal. It requires
ignorance - nothing more. But to lose oneself in a city - as one loses one-
self in a forest - that calls for quite a different schooling. Then, sign-
boards and street names, passers-by, roofs, kiosks, or bars must speak to
the wanderer like a cracking twig under his feet in the forest .. ?' (Ben-
jamin 1986a, 9). The wanderer, the strayer from the path, listens, gathers
clues, pays attention to the details of the city, without mastery or a map
yet with knowledge. The wanderer does not have a grand theory, or cen-
tral image, but learns (rather than proves) along the way; the adventure
LAST SEEN IN THE STREETS OF MODERNISM 59
does not have a predetermined destination. For me, this is the inventive,
scholarly path of discovery.
(In the spirit of Benjamin, I will stray, distracted: I just received the lat-
est issue of Time [23 November 1987]; on the bright cover is a declaration,
"Bringing the City Back to Life;' with a cute, cartoon painting of two
decaying, black row, townhouses juxtaposed with two Victorian, re-
vamped, high-style versions. The inside cover story is titled "Spiffing up
the Urban Heritage;' under the statement that "After years of neglect,
Americans lavish love and sweat on old downtowns" - the return, from
suburbia, to the downtown as small town. "How did Americans manage
to forget for so many years that downtowns are invigorating and old cities
grand ... the nation has had a great change of heart" [po 72]. Not eco-
nomics [or politics] and perhaps displacement of the poor but "a change of
heart;' the city as a site of upwardly mobile romance dependent on a lit-
eral erasure of poverty and race. Rather than dealing with the homeless
[and racism, the left-over of the 1950S emigration from cities to the sub-
urbs], we will redecorate the homes and reclaim the territory, without
compensation, like our methods with native Americans. The politics of
renovation/redecoration as a fashionable coverup, with restoration para-
doxically preserving history, the turn-of-the-century style, the original,
usually Victorian, while eradicating "modern" history, is more than trou-
blesome.)
The "art of straying" is the way of the lovers in Hiroshima Mon Amour,
wandering through the cafe streets of Hiroshima and the paths of their
mutual desires. The French woman is the traveler, making a peace film;
the Japanese man is an inhabitant of Hiroshima; trying to find each other /
avoid each other, they speak of history, of person, of otherness. In the
famous opening scene, their bodies form a topography of desire, of glis-
tening catastrophe. "Who are you? You destroy me. How could I have
known that this city was made to the size of love? How could I have
known that you were made to the size of my body?" (Duras 1961, 25).
Newsreels of the atomic bomb's victims, tourist monuments, Peace
Square, and a busload of Japanese tourists are intercut; place and history
are personal and impersonal. She has seen the tourists' view of Hiroshima
and catastrophe; he insists that she has seen nothing, that she knows noth-
ing. "No, you don't have a memory" (p. 23). Knowledge is inextricable
from memory, from lived experience, as is history. The film then precipi-
tates the memory of her history, France's cultural history, women's his-
60 PATRICIA MELLEN CAMP
tory - her humiliation, her victimization for desire, loving a German sol-
dier, in Nevers. It concludes with these remarks in the screenplay. "He
looks at her, she at him, as she would look at the city... :' "Hi-ro-shi-ma
... that's your name:' He: "That's my name. Yes. Your name is Nevers.
Ne-vers in France" (p. 83). Cities, proper names and sites of enunciation,
are lived places of memory, spaces for history, love, and desire - for
women travelers as well as men.
In an uncannily direct way, the film documents de Certeau's claim that
"The concept-city is decaying .... The ministers of knowledge have
always assumed that the whole universe was threatened by the very
changes that affected their ... positions. They transmute the misfortune
of their theories into theories of misfortune . . . they transform their
bewilderment into 'catastrophes' ... they seek to enclose the people in
the 'panic' of their discourses" (De Certeau 1984,96). De Certeau suggests
a way out of catastrophe; his Diogenes is Michel Foucault: "one can ana-
lyze the microbe-like, singular and plural practices which an urbanistic
system was supposed to administer or suppress ... follow[ing] the
swarming activity of ... everyday regulations and surreptitious creativi-
ties that are merely concealed by the ... discourses of ... organization"
(De Certeau 1984, 96). For him, in the footsteps of Foucault, who was
looking for a "theory of everyday practices, of lived space;' and like Ben-
jamin strolling and remembering history in the present, the scholarly and
creative act is that of passing by, the operation of walking, wandering -
the art of the strayer and consummate stylist.
(A parenthetical detour leads me wildly astray - perhaps flying off to
another country or essay. I question de Certeau's tinge of nostalgia, as well
as a politics of space which doesn't include the twentieth-century determi-
nant of time. Some of us might be driving rapidly in cities, on crowded
freeways, or flying from airport to airport, vague and similar networks
without borders or difference [a distillation of cultural differences into the
mass, institutional international airport style of bland sameness depicted
in Small World].
(Time dominates and narrates airports via the act of waiting and meet-
ing, punctuated by checking out the "times" which are electronically and
manually posted everywhere, now on banks of black-and-white TV moni-
tors like a costly, precious video installation piece at the Whitney Museum
of Art; the iconography is simple math, strings of disparate cities, repeti-
tively arranged in two categories which divide up the world with little rec-
LAST SEEN IN THE STREETS OF MODERNISM 6r
ognition or logic of space or specificity and which are difficult for the
onlooker to discern: arrivals and departures. Airports, like corridors, are
modern spaces of hasty passage [now adorned with high-tech neon or
other mural "art" to distract our nonmovement on the flat escalators on
which we do move forward but appear to be walking in place; we are
being moved and wonder whether we should move, too, held in a simula-
tion between active and passive], determined by regularity and forced
delay, the disruption of scheduled time by mechanical error [for which the
passengers are compensated] or the vagaries of the weather, nature [whose
foibles and cost we must bear, financially]. Time's extension and collapse
into international, standardized time zones traverses night and day
marked only by food - if it's breakfast, it must be morning and time to
chat. Passengers dash to distanced terminals, burdened by luggage and
.resentful of the long walks in architecture which has ignored the crowd,
the pedestrian on the ground; the plane is the destination, the port a place
of impermanence, of passage with microwave food stands of high-priced
junk food, pockets of idle chatter but no conversation, the confusion of
direction, the scrambling of destination. We are unable to tell arrivees
from departees, beginnings from endings; the vectors are rhomboid, going
off in all directions, like the airline maps in on-flight magazines; corporate
terrain is not clear, not determined any longer by place [American used to
be just that; Pan American flew to South America; Trans World did just
what its name implied - there was a territory, a spatial plan; now there
are cat's cradle graphs which all overlap]; there is no narrative other than
coming or going, either here or there, no public identity [and hence little
privilege or class, with the exception of first-class and executive lounges],
no nationality, only the mission, goal, and life-and-death desire of being
"on time" but feeling timeless, contextless, unmoored but safe in this ano-
nymity of suspended time; how many days have you "lost" by traveling, a
true waste of time.
(Thus the commandeering of tourists by terrorists, the taking of travel-
ers from their unseen anonymity into context and history, struggle and
cultural difference - turning the national into the international which air-
ports already are - randomly transforms passengers into bystanders, par-
tisans, characters in a political drama, witnesses of confrontation and
negotiation. Hostages embody the nightmare of waiting or being trapped
in airports and airplanes, our fears of death in flight, as well as the risk of
live theater. Yet unlike the touristic threat portrayed again and again by
PATRICIA MELLENCAMP
Hitchcock, these are dramas of time more than space, hence suitable to TV
special event coverage rather than cinema, which is quintessentially [but
not solely] a medium of space. The horror is being trapped, together, for
days rather than hours in the enclosed, claustropic plane [an inside, con-
fined terror which on TV we can only imagine, but on film would become
the scene which would be boring, like waiting for a plane is anxious bore-
dom], or meeting someone at a plane which is delayed or does not arrive.
Hostage dramas thus represent not the complexity of the political issues,
but images of waiting and entrapment - the very experience or paradox
of flight and temporality. The random move from bored obscurity to dan-
gerous celebrity is a surrealist one: there is no reason for the selection of
hostages, determined only by destination and chance. The terror is the
missing cause-effect logic including names which television, a medium
also obsessed with time rather than space, tries but inevitably fails to sup-
ply. Temporal disorientation amidst signs of efficient regularity and nor-
mality [sealed by tailored uniforms of employees who rarely freak out and
who are not in a hurry - for them, the airport and the place are work-
places, a job, a very different experiential temporality] is the experience of
time travel - jet lag reminds us of the real effects; the suspension of time
becomes the substance of hostage coverage. Like passengers and their
families, TV waits, counting time against death threats.
(Yet, commercial TV - so in chronotopic sync with airports - flowing
forth from little sets mounted on individual chairs, with slots for quarters
of time, is anomalous in those spaces; perhaps "watching" TV is too active
for, or repetitive of, this enforced passivity of waiting [one of the best
places, along with libraries, to watch people read is at the airport]; or air-
port time misregisters with TV time, one obsession cancelling out or mag-
nifying the other. However, while commercial TV seems out of place,
either old-fashioned or too complexly fragmented or too embarrassing to
watch in public unlike legit reading no matter how pulpy, at the airport,
TV is everywhere, monitoring time, surveying our bodies, x-raying our lin-
gerie and birth-control devices, and recording our automobile license
plates outside the parking structure. We literally watch time on banks of
television monitors while discretely mounted surveillance cameras moni-
tor our view and every move, "security" measures which will protect us
from terrorist acts; we might feel safe in the crowd of imagined obscurity,
but we have appeared and been recorded on television, like all the other
hostages yet not broadcast on the nightly news.)
LAST SEEN IN THE STREETS OF MODERNISM
In Hiroshima Mon Amour, the lovers walk away and toward each
other, their wandering the enunciation of desire. De Certeau might assess
that the museum, Peace Square, the newsreel footage, and the guided
tourists have the status of the "proper meaning" of grammar - it is a pro-
duced fiction. Theirs (urbanists and architects) is the image of a "coherent
and totalizing space." Against this official rendering is the space and mem-
ory of the lovers: "the pedestrian walker" tells a "story jerry built ...
from common sayings, an allusive and fragmentary story whose gaps
mesh with the social practices it symbolizes:' The fit of this chapter to the
film is almost too perfect. As if analyzing the film, he writes: "To walk is
to lack a place:' As if writing an epigram for the film: "Memory is a sort of
anti-museum; it is not localizable" (De Certeau I984, IOO, I02-I03, I05).
For de Certeau, like the woman from Nevers and perhaps Norbert
Hanhold, travel "produce[s] 'an exploration of the deserted places of my
memory; the return to nearby exoticism by way of a detour through dis-
tant places and the 'discovery' of relics and legends .... Haunted places
are the only ones people can live in:' Like Benjamin, travel involves a
return to childhood - "to be other and to move toward the other" (De
Certeau I984, Io6-I08, no). Unfortunately, for both writers, "walking" is
moving away from the mother, a game of Fort da! De Certeau's conclu-
sion (the royal road named Lacan), like Benjamin's "syphilis" and jabbing
denigrations of his mother, was unexpected, a letdown. While women
travelers have come at least some distance - just before the end, de Cer-
teau (I984, I09) says that this experience will be different for "the female
foetus . . . introduced into another relationship to space" - Barthes
might be right: to write, for men, involves the body of "the Mother:'2 If
one can live through this separation (Barthes could not), then one comes
out siding with the father, like Benjamin. In de Certeau's account, women
are still unborn.
I want to step up the pace and fast forward into I987 in which the
dream woman of modernism's city returns as a feminist monster - Nor-
man Bates's knife-wielding mother incarnate. In Fatal Attraction, Psyche
or the sexual woman of the city, the working, successful, glamorous
woman living in her dark loft-lair above hellish red fires in Soho, guarded
by street-people Charons, is fatal. Set against this demon is the soft-focus
wife-mother, a compliant, quiet woman of the countrified suburbs of New
York.
Replaying the city / sex-country / family dichotomy (for working wom-
PATRICIA MELLENCAMP
I.The tears and relief at the film's conclusion celebrate the restitution of the
patriarch, George Bailey, to his central role in the family and the town. Stewart
towers over the other characters and is given center-frame and intercut close-ups;
citizens, all very much shorter, observed from Stewart's point of view, like sup-
pliants, pay tribute to him. It is the hero's obsessive need for acclaim and verbal
recognition that marks so many of Capra's male-identity-crisis films.
2. Barthes's "meditation" on mother culminates in Camera Lucida.
Benjamin, Walter
I986a "A Berlin Chronicle;' in Reflections: Essays, Aphorisms, Autobiogra-
phy Writings, trans. Edmund Jephcott. New York: Schocken.
I986b "Paris, Capital of the Nineteenth Century;' in Reflections: Essays, Aph-
orisms, Autobiography Writings, trans. Edmund Jephcott. New York:
Schocken.
Bullfinch, Thomas
I959 Mythology. New York: Dell Publishing.
Cook, Pam
I984 "The Gold Diggers: Interview with Sally Potter;' Framework, 24
(spring):2o.
De Certeau, Michel
I984 The Practice of Everyday Life, trans. Steven Rendall. Los Angeles: Uni-
versity of California Press.
De Lauretis, Teresa
I983 "From a Dream of Woman;' in Cinema and Language. Frederick,
Maryland: University Publications.
Duras, Marguerite
I96I Hiroshima Mon Amour, trans. Richard Seaver. New York: Grove Press.
Eco, Umberto
I983 Postscript to The Name of the Rose. New York: Harcourt, Brace,
Jovanovich.
Freud, Sigmund
I956 Delusion and Dream. Boston: Beacon Press.
LAST SEEN IN THE STREETS OF MODERNISM
Huyssen, Andreas
1986 "Mass Culture as Woman: Modernism's Other;' in Studies in Entertain-
ment. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Lodge, David
1984 Small World. New York: Warners Books.
Morris, Meaghan
n.d. "At Henry Parkes Motel:' Unpublished manuscript (forthcoming from
Indiana University Press; a version is available in the Center for Twenti-
eth Century Studies "Working Papers:'
Petro, Patrice
1987 "Joyless Streets: Women and Melodramatic Representation in Weimar
Germany;' Ph.D. diss., University of Iowa (forthcoming from Princeton
University Press).
Attitudes Toward Tokyo On Film
THE CITY on film has a long history, as do changing attitudes toward it.
This is as true for Tokyo on film as it is for New York, London, or Paris.
At the same time, however, national attitudes are usually different from
each other. Hence, this paper will consider Japanese attitudes in compari-
son with those of the West.
Originally, of course, in all countries, it was the city which was the pri-
mary subject of the infant cinema. The Lumiere views of Paris and those
of anonymous movie cameramen of Tokyo's Shimbashi are identical. The
city is the spectacle and consequently the cityscape is shown rather than
the countryside.
And shown, initially, only to city dwellers. The earliest theaters were in
the city, and it was only later that towns and villages got theirs. People
went to the little theater next to the big train station to see a short film
about a train pulling into the station.
The theme of the city was so taken for granted in this very early cinema
that no attitude at all toward the subject is to be discerned. The city was
there to be photographed and looked at - like a forest fire or a naval
battle.
Once movies started being shown in the provincial capitals, and then in
smaller towns and villages, however, an attitude evolved. The city became
visible as a theme.
68
ATTITUDES TOWARD TOKYO ON FILM
In the West, the earliest reading of the city as theme saw it as a place of
promise, where one went to make one's fortune. In early story-films, pre-
dominantly in the United States but in Europe as well, the city was seen as
home of wealth and consequently culture. The manners of the country
were seen as provincial, and loutishness became a favorite comic theme.
At the conclusions of such pictures it was common to see the bucolic
young couple setting off for the city all smiles at the prospect. Often
indeed they set off walking, since this made a better pictorial effect.
Though Japanese cinema early imitated the American, this reading of
the city as promise had no place in the early Japanese story-films. The city
was often enough shown, but a division between city and country was not
indicated - though it later would be.
The reason, perhaps, was that Japan already had an attitude so persua-
sive that such dichotomies between city and country, and the attaching of
qualities to both, were understandably late in beginning. This was (and is)
the Japanese insistence upon the primacy of the /urusato, the hometown.
In Japan a mystique is given this location which is much stronger and
more persuasive than anything an American or German or Italian might
feel about the town in which he happened to have been born. In the West
such regard (and such resultant films) are usually dismissed as senti-
mental.
Not in Japan. The early cinema was filled with celebrations of life in the
/urusato and a consequent anguish experienced when separated from it.
This was the initial reading of the city theme in Japanese cinema and was
so for a time to remain. One might mention two films by Kenji Mizoguchi
actually named Furusato. The latter (I929) was a talkie, starred the tenor
Yoshie Fujiwara, and featured a song about these singular small-town vir-
tues.
This theme continues even now. Certainly one of the reasons for the
success of Yoji Yamada's Tora-san series is that the lovable hick after all
sorts of big-city adventures always returns to his hometown, little Shiba-
mata. This is pictured as a place that may have had some existence in the
I960s when the series began but that is in the late I980s pure film set.
Always romantic, the Tora-san series has now become historical fiction.
Nonetheless, many Japanese still subscribe to the myth of hometown
where everything was good, where people were nice, where things were,
somehow, much better than elsewhere.
Elsewhere was early defined in Japan. It was the city. Originally it was
DONALD RICHIE
not that the city was bad, it was simply that it was urban and conse-
quently small-town virtues could not exist in it. That these films were
made during a time when the millions were first beginning to pour from
the Jurusato into the metropolis indicates nothing - except, of course,
that this hometown longing is something that the Japanese exhibit more
often and more readily than do other peoples.
The idyllic qualities of small-town life are seen in the West mainly as
reflections of their lack in the big cities. After the initial view of the city as
promise came the opposite, though complementary, view of the city as
place of betrayal. The happy couple had walked into a scene of menace.
In many films the city was regarded with the most grave suspicions.
Lang's Metropolis (1926), Murnau's Sunrise (1927), and Vidor's The
Crowd (1928), among many other films, looked askance at the big city. It
was in popular cinema the home of the gold digger and the city slicker.
Innocent folks from the country (no longer seen as laughable bumpkins)
were here fleeced and sent back to where they came from sadder but wiser.
Just as Japan had no reason to glamorize the city (since it was glamoriz-
ing the Jurusato), it had no reason for denigrating the city. Nonetheless,
damnation makes for better drama than celebration and - following the
American example - the city was shortly being seen as a place of trauma.
After 1929 Mizoguchi dropped the Jurusato theme and was making
films about the disappointing city. Both Tokyo March (Tokyo koshinkyo-
ku) and Metropolitan Symphony (Tokai kokyogaku) were about the lives
of proletarian families of rural origin unable to make a living in the heart-
less capital. By the following year such films as Kiyohiko U shihara's The
Great Metropolis: Chapter on Labor (Daitokai rodohen) had deepened
and widened accusations of coldness and lack of fellow feeling.
Later, in the tradition of Bowery-based or Limehouse-set Western films,
Japanese were even discovering "dangerous" sections in Tokyo itself,
always the safest of cities. One such was the later but typical Lights oj
Asakusa (Asakusa no hi), directed by Yasujiro Shimazu in 1937. Here the
old section of Tokyo is seen as home of the "criminal:'
In the same year, Tomu Uchida made The Naked Town (Hadaka no
machi), in which the city conspires to beat down a good man. He acts as
guarantor to a bad friend, then must go to the moneylender, and from
then on tumbles to the depths. At one point, even his cat (city bred, no
doubt) refuses the milk he went to some lengths to obtain.
In the better Japanese films about cities the theme is not so much what
ATTITUDES TOWARD TOKYO ON FILM 7I
the city is as what it isn't. In Ozu's The Only Son (Hitori musuko), a I936
picture, the mother works hard so that her child can go to Tokyo and
make something of himself. She is later invited to visit. The stay is not a
happy occasion. Both he and his wife make only just enough money -
they are cut off from communal life. This is not claimed as the fault of the
city, but there is nevertheless the implication that the city is less caring,
indeed less human than the town from which he came. It is not the fault of
the city, but nonetheless the city is seen as no proper place to live.
This attitude is one often seen in the films of Ozu. Its major statement is
in the I953 Tokyo Story (TOkyo monogatari), where the city is contrasted
with the town (Onomichi, a port on the Inland Sea) and found wanting.
There is the suggestion that the children's selfishness might have some-
thing to do with their living in a metropolis. After all, the story of the con-
sequences of this coldness is called Tokyo Story.
In Ozu's later statement on big-city life, the I956 Early Spring (Soshun),
the young couple is seen at the end going off to live in the country (he has
been transferred), and this constitutes an indication that their marriage
may now be saved, since it will no longer be subjected to urban stresses.
Just what these consist of is seen in the opening sequence of the film,
which shows people moving from the distant suburbs to their work in the
city. At first there are only one or two persons catching their trains at rural
stations. Soon, however, these numbers grow, the various trains grow
crowded, then packed. When the passengers are disgorged at Tokyo Sta-
tion they are anonymous, faceless - an impression that Ozu intensifies by
shooting the final scenes of this opening sequence from high up, reducing
the workbound people to the size - and status - of insects.
The people, it will be noted, were human enough when they left the
suburbs. This is because in Tokyo - as in London and New York - these
are viewed as a kind of buffer zone between the hometown and the city.
Ozu seems to have found them this - he lived his adult life in the suburbs
of Kamakura. And even now a majority of Tokyo workers are happy to
commute enormous distances daily so that they can have a bit of the coun-
try, a sort offurusato.
Heinosuke Gosho's I93I The Neighbor's Wife and Mine (Madamu to
nyobo), Japan's first talkie, is about the suburbs. A philandering husband
contemplates adventures with the vamp next door, something that would
not have been allowed in the hometown and would have been thought
much too dangerous in the big city. In Ozu's I932 I Was Born, But . ..
DONALD RICHIE
(Umareta wa mita keredo) the trouble in the office worker's new home in
the suburbs is caused by conditions in his office in Tokyo. In its 1958
"remake;' Good Morning (Ohayo), we are again in the safe suburbs, and
the problem is that big-city presence, TV.
Later films about the suburbs, however, seem to have indicated that (on
film at any rate) the city infects as it grows. The 1957 Candle in the Wind
(Fuzen no tomoshibi) of Keisuke Kinoshita shows the suburbs as home of
avarice and violence. In Susumu Hani's 1963 She and He (Kanojo to kare)
the suburbs are seen as mere anteroom to the city, a place almost as cold
and impersonal as the metropolis itself is thought to be.
Still, japan has never had a genre of suburban films as devastatingly
detailed as those of the American Peyton Place variety. Perhaps one of the
reasons for this was that city-as-villain was never as strong a theme as it
was in the United States - ending there with the full horror of Soylent
Green, Escape from New York, and Blade Runner.
In japan it was not city-as-villain so much as it was life-as-villain, and
life can be awful just anywhere, even in the furusato. And it is indicative
that japan almost alone has a rehabilitating city-film genre, one that
attempts to find hometown-like qualities in the heart of the city itself.
Kurosawa's 1947 One Wonderful Sunday (Subarashiki nichiyobi), for
example, is about a poor young couple in Tokyo who one Sunday con-
struct an urban furusato for themselves. Gosho's 1953 From Where Chim-
neys Are Seen (Entotsu 0 mieru basho), is about a realfurusato right in the
heart of the city, as is, in a way, Kurosawa's Drunken Angel (Yoidore ten-
shi). This 1948 film even has its small-town figures: the doctor, the young
gangster, the tubercular schoolgirl, and so on.
One of the reasons that such a genre is possible is that Tokyo is actually
in its construction more a collection of small towns, or neighborhoods,
than it is big, hard-core city. It is not centralized, there is no good and bad
side of the tracks, no zoning, no real slums. Rather, it is a series of vil-
lages, each with its identical parts - supermarket, beauty parlor, sushi
shop, and so forth. Consequently Tokyo is, indeed, not a cold or heartless
city at all, at least by comparison with, let us say, Paris. Yet, big-cityitis
threatens.
Hence a theme often seen in japan's city films is the change from warm,
accepting city unit into cold, aloof big city proper. In Kurosawa's 1952
Ikiru it is the city government itself which is the villain. The dying Kanji
Watanabe wants to make a warm, living, small-townlike children's park, a
ATTITUDES TOWARD TOKYO ON FILM 73
erates, as land grows daily more expensive, as the suburbs press further
out, there are new numbers of films that continue to question urban life -
films such as Shinji Somai's Luminous Woman (Hikari onna, I987), which
has a noble savage from Hokkaido coming to rescue the Tokyo-stranded
heroine. At the end he carries her back to an idyllic furusato where the
rabbits and the foxes play happily in the grassy lawns of the couple's
house in the country. And, of course, Tora-san continues to be as popular
as he ever was.
The attitude toward Tokyo as seen in the film is one much more benign
than are the various attitudes shown by other countries toward other
world capitals, but at the same time, the evidence is that of disapproval.
Though there is no reason for a reading of city-as-hell, there also exists no
reading of Tokyo as city-as-heaven, which is odd when one considers that
it is thefurusato for millions.
Donald Richie, former curator of film at The Museum of Modern Art in New
York, is widely known for his works on the Japanese film. He also writes of many
other facets of the country, however. His most recent work is Different People:
Pictures of Some Japanese (Kodansha International).
Chinese Urban Cinema:
Hyper-realism Versus Absurdism
CHRIS BERRY
UNTIL recent years, the cinema of the People's Republic of China was
marked by an amazing uniformity of style equal to that of the classic Hol-
lywood cinema in history and ubiquity. With the emergence of two
younger, post "cultural revolution" generations of filmmakers, all that has
changed. Distinctive styles have become associated with individual direc-
tors, cameramen, and genres. In the case of urban subject matter, two
directors have marked themselves out. One is Zhang Liang, from Pearl
River Film Studio. His enormously successful films have tended to what,
in the Chinese context, might be termed a sort of hyper-realism. The other
is Huang Jianxin, from China's most innovative studio, Xi'an. Huang's
expressionistic films have been spoken of as "absurdist" in China.
Although somewhat less successful at the box office than Zhang Liang's
films, their influence in the film industry itself has been enormous and
many urban films now bear their mark.
The traditional cinematic style against which Zhang Liang, Huang
Jianxin, and the majority of young and middle-aged Chinese directors are
trying to distinguish their works is the Chinese variant of socialist realism.
It is a didactic fusion of classic Hollywood filmmaking and Soviet Stalinist
style. I have already analyzed some of the cinematic characteristics of this
style (Berry 1985). Editing codes are similar to Hollywood's, but their rela-
tion to the representational level is different. Two shots are dominant,
with harmony and consensus signified by maintaining groups of charac-
ters or couples within the same frame. Shot reverse-shot tends to signify
the collapse of harmony.
This cinematic system meshes well with narrative structures in which
harmony and disharmony are expressed as separation and reunion. This is
the dominant narrative pattern in classic mainland Chinese cmema,
CHINESE URBAN CINEMA 77
whether the order of the day has been class struggle or "unity and stabil-
ity" as now. 1
On the representational level, the "realism" of the classic Chinese cin-
ema aims for typicality rather than naturalism. As an interpretation of the
didactic demands of the Yan'an Forum cultural policy that insists art is in
the service of politics, characters tend to minimal internal contradiction. 2
It is clear whom the audience should learn from and who is the enemy.
Other characteristics follow Hollywood. Interiors and many exteriors are
studio sets. Lighting is full, with speaking characters centered in the frame
and positioned so that their faces are clearly visible to the audience. Cos-
tumes and sets themselves are usually a cleaned-up, in-style version of
what members of the audience might like to recognize as their own lives.
The realism of Zhang Liang's Yamaha Fish Stall, made for Pearl River
Studio in I984, and Juvenile Delinquents, made for Shenzhen Film Corpo-
ration in I985, are strikingly different from traditional socialist realism.
As the first of the two films, Yamaha Fish Stall had a particularly strong
impact. The plot traces the efforts of a young Cantonese man to establish
a privately run fish stall with the help of two friends. The name derives
from the Yamaha motorcycle he uses to transport live fish back from the
docks. Just to get the business going, the three young friends have to pay
off petty officials and people with connections. These bad experiences
encourage them to move beyond fair competition whenever they run into
difficulties. Eventually this gets them into trouble. For example, when
they are unable to sell their stock one day, they decide to turn the dead fish
into fish balls. However, to stretch them out further, they make the fish
balls with enormous quantities of flour. In no time at all, they are sur-
rounded by a mob of angry customers. However, through these experi-
ences they come to understand that cooperation with other private busi-
nessmen and honesty help best to cushion against the insecurity of an
independent life outside the state system.
The three main characters of Yamaha Fish Stall are very far indeed from
traditional Chinese socialist realism. Private peddlers are hardly typical
"cultural revolution" heroes, nor are they even the modern-day equivalent
of the politically upright brigade leaders and barefoot doctors who popu-
lated these films. (This role has fallen to efficiency- and profit-minded
state enterprise managers in the "reform" genre.) In fact, private business-
men have a rather unsavory reputation in China today, and the antics of
the characters in the movie further confirm an ambiguity of characteriza-
CHRIS BERRY
tion that marks this realism out as something different. The naturalistic
effect of these characters is enhanced further by the casting of people who
were unknowns or even amateurs at the time in the main roles.
At least as important as the characterization and casting are the set-
tings. Probably 70 or 80 percent of the film takes place in the open air: in
the markets, on the streets, at the docks, and even on a floating restau-
rant. Many of the interiors are commercial rather than domestic. These
include teahouses, coffee shops, dance halls, and even a barber shop. The
masses of people milling around in the background of all these scenes and
the dense traffic in the street scenes help to signify not only location shoot-
ing but also settings that are unorganized, unrehearsed, and thus some-
how more "real" than the studio sets of socialist realism. Even the clutter
and dilapidation of the domestic interiors add to this effect. Zhang Liang
is careful to avoid "impossible" camera positions in these scenes, and so it
becomes unclear whether these are carefully naturalized studio sets or
locations.
Additional techniques add to and even draw attention to the "realism"
of these settings. The techniques signify "realism" by virtue of their differ-
ence from traditional socialist realist techniques, as does the use of clut-
tered locations as opposed to organized studio sets itself. Artificial light-
ing, if used, is low-key and motivated. Main characters are often partly in
shadow. For example, when the rival woman stallholder speaks the first
dialogue in the film, she is centered and facing the camera, but she is in the
shade of the stall itself while the backs of the people between her and the
camera are brightly lit, at least apparently by sunlight.
The scenes in large public places also contain cutaway shots that are
totally unmotivated by the plot. For example, in the teahouse, when the
would-be young stallholders are treating a local big-wig to dim sum in an
attempt to get a trading license, there are shots of old men eating their
snacks and reading their newspapers, apparently unaware that they are
being observed by the camera. When the hero makes his first fish-buying
trip to the docks, again there are cutaways to trading and unloading
scenes on the docks. Apart from building "atmosphere;' these shots func-
tion to draw attention to the realism of the film. It is for these attention-
seeking qualities that I would like to refer to Zhang Liang's comparatively
naturalistic realism as a sort of hyper-realism.
Juvenile Delinquents continues many of the tendencies of Yamaha Fish
Stall. As the title suggests, it examines the world of young criminals. A
CHINESE URBAN CINEMA 79
middle-aged woman reporter decides to make an extended VISIt to a
reform school to research an article she intends to write. The longer she
stays at the school, the more involved she becomes with certain cases,
working with warders in their efforts to reform the young criminals. As
time goes by, she neglects her own son and comes home only to find the
police hauling him off.
I cannot claim that Juvenile Delinquents uses its settings to signify real-
ism in the same way as Yamaha Fish Stall does. Most of the action takes
place in a reformatory. This is an interior location not much different
from those used in traditional films. It lacks the power to signify a differ-
ent realism in the way the crowded streets of Guangzhou do. Further-
more, not many of us are familiar enough with such a place to judge the
mimetic qualities of the institution and studio sets used in the film.
Characterization is the mainstay of realism in this film. Underage law-
breakers are even further from the traditional socialist realist hero than
private peddlers. The journalist's character seems a cipher at first and then
an embodiment of maternal virtues in her growing concern for the
inmates. However, even she is made highly ambiguous by the final arrest
of her son, which throws into question her responsibility as a parent. This
is further underlined by the fact that the delinquency of various inmates
has been traced back to poor upbringing in the course of the film.
The attention-grabbing, hyper-real aspect of Juvenile Delinquents lies
not in the text itself, but in the casting. As advance publicity made sure
every filmgoer in China knew, all the inmates in the movie were played by
real juvenile delinquents. These lucky individuals were wheeled out for
every premiere of the film and given early parole or reduced sentences in
reward for good behavior during the shooting. When they were later suc-
cessively reported to have been arrested for committing crimes, this must
have only added further sensationalistic evidence of the new "realism" of
this film. These weren't "typical" juvenile delinquents; they were real juve-
nile delinquents.
Zhang Liang's hyper-realism is one of a number of new realist direc-
tions in Chinese cinema that have defined themselves by their difference
from traditional socialist realism. It is as part of this broad tendency that
his films must be understood. To give a precise account of the different
critical debates and films that have informed and composed this tendency
would probably take a book-length study. However, I would like to point
to one or two elements here.
80 CHRIS BERRY
First, why were new forms of realism necessary at all? The reasons for
this lie in the fall of the "Gang of Four" and the end of the "cultural revolu-
tion" period in 1976. With this event, all the films associated with the
period 1966 to 1976 immediately fell into disrepute. However, the Yanan
policy on culture continued to be applauded. Other policies and slogans
that had been espoused during the "cultural revolution" continued to be
cited with approval until at least 1979. For example, a volume detailing
the crimes of the "Gang of Four" in the film industry still speaks approv-
ingly of "the direction of art serving the workers, peasants and soldiers" in
1978 (Zheng and Ding 1978). (This triumvirate has since become a joke in
the recent film Ormosia Inn, where it is revealed that the old name of the
inn was "Worker-Peasant-Soldier Inn;' to the guffaws of all the Chinese
audiences I have seen it with.) Other slogans and policies current during
the "cultural revolution" still continue to this day. The date of Mao's
"Talks at the Yan'an Forum" is commemorated every year, and a popular
film award called The Hundred Flowers Award, after the cultural policy
of the same name, is awarded almost every year. "Realism" is still upheld
regularly in critical articles everywhere.
This situation has presented the Chinese film world with an interesting
problem. On the one hand, they are to repudiate "cultural revolution"
films totally. On the other hand, they must uphold the policies and slogans
such as the Yan'an Forum, the Hundred Flowers policy, and "realism;' in
the name of which these very films and indeed all other films produced
since 1949 were made. Perhaps not surprisingly, most of the pronounce-
ments about the "cultural revolution" period made immediately after 1976
detailed plenty of malpractices and crimes, but spent little time analyzing
what was actually wrong with the films themselves. However, what little
space was devoted to the films themselves attacked them for a lack of
authenticity (Zheng and Ding 1978). A cultural policy particularly asso-
ciated with the "Gang of Four" led this attack to be concentrated on char-
acterization. This was the "Theory of the Three Prominences;' which
required that greatest prominence in a work of art be given to the purest,
most typical, and most heroic characters. At the same time as this policy
was being singled out for attack, famous films from the early 1960s which
featured more ambiguous "middle characters;' such as Early Spring in
February, were being rereleased. Articles also appeared regularly in the
professional press discussing the problem of remaining "gangness" in
characterization and how to make characters more complex, credible, and
"realistic:'
CHINESE URBAN CINEMA 81
ness trip. When he cables back in an effort to retrieve it, the farcical or
"absurd" plot line begins. A telegram operator suspects a secret code.
Contacted by the police, the elderly woman Party vice-secretary at his
company begins to suspect him of engaging in industrial espionage with a
German engineer who had come to China to help install some imported
equipment. When the German returns, Zhao is given various excuses and
not allowed to work with him again. The German is furious because his
new translator lacks technical vocabulary. Various misunderstandings
ensue. By the time Zhao is cleared, the German has already left. Due to a
translation error made during Zhao's absence, an industrial breakdown
costing the company a large sum of money occurs.
The farcical or absurd character of this plot, where the logic of a small
misunderstanding is allowed to snowball to a devastating conclusion, is
clear enough. But what was even more remarkable than this already
revealing comedy was the expressionism of the film. Noticeably, however,
the expressionistic elements do not include characterization. Precisely
because of this, Black Cannon Incident can be said to be almost a reversal
of the Chinese socialist realist filmmaking tradition. The latter aimed at
some level of mimesis in settings, costumes, and so forth, but veered fur-
thest away from this in its use of "typical" characters which lacked the
contradictions perceived to exist in real-life people, especially during the
"cultural revolution" period. In Black Cannon Incident, on the other
hand, the settings, costumes, and use of color are very evidently not
mimetically motivated, but the characters are. They are all too full of con-
tradiction. No one appears as a pure expression of a certain moral line, or
as a perfect hero, or as a villain. Even lovable Zhao Shuxin, the engineer
who loses the chess piece, is clearly a fool not to stand up for himself or
even realize he is under investigation. As for the Party vice-secretary,
instinctively xenophobic as she is, her behavior is clearly the product of
her past training. It is made clear that she is acting out of a concern for
what she believes Zhao's best interests to be when she keeps him away
from the German; she doesn't want him to get into any more trouble than
he is in already.
The expressionistic elements in Black Cannon Incident combine to give
the film a decisively modern look. This look is modern in a way complete-
ly new to Chinese film. The urban setting does not simply help signify
~odernity. It is part and parcel of the qualities that compose the moder-
nity signified in the film. Black Cannon Incident is set in an unspecified
CHRIS BERRY
city that does not correspond to any specific city outside the movie itself.
For the first time ever in a Chinese film, we get a city with no views of old
alleyways or old buildings. The only exception to this is a scene when
Zhao Shuxin visits a Christian church. Since his parents were Christians,
we can interpret this as a return to his past, a moment of review, reflec-
tion, and escape from the modern world. Significantly, this is also the only
moment in the film in which any significant stretch of green appears: a
park outside the church. Apart from this scene, the city appears as a new
town composed of modern hotels, high-tech factories, model housing
estates, a new airport, and so forth. This is a city of the present, a city
without a history.
However, the modern urban world of Black Cannon Incident is not the
paradise of modernity predicted in traditional socialist realist films from
the boy meets tractor dramas of the 1950S to today's "getting rich is glori-
ous" celebrations of rural prosperity. Certainly there is gleaming machin-
ery everywhere. But these machines are usually massive, noisy pieces of
equipment that dwarf human beings and drown out their conversations.
For example, there is the earthmover that roars past the Party vice-secre-
tary and the plant manager when they are discussing Zhao Shuxin's case
and envelops then in a cloud of dust.
The use of colors, settings, and camera work add to the overwhelming
aspect of modernity. Outside neutral earth tones and so forth, the pre-
dominant colors are red, white, and black. Gleaming red Japanese taxis
transport people in white shirts and black business suits around town. On
the whole, I do not think that specific, symbolic meaning is consistently
attached to these colors. Red does sometimes figure with conflict and
anger. The coffee bar where Zhao Shuxin and his German counterpart
have a major fight is decorated totally in bright red plastic. Even the wall
behind the stands at the football match which degenerates into a punch-up
is being painted red when the scene opens. But for the most part, these col-
ors simply signify an aggressive starkness that like the machines over-
whelms the individuals set against them. This is most vividly illustrated in
the repeated Party committee meeting scenes. Men and women dressed in
black and white file in and sit around a long white table in a white room
with white curtains. Dominating the entire scene is an enormous wall
clock in a modern design. Placed above the head of the table, its hands
and numerals are made of large chunks of black plastic. As decision after
decision cannot be made, time ticks visibly by. The camera maintains a
CHINESE URBAN CINEMA
Dislocation is not the only film to show the influence of Black Cannon
Incident. Zhang Liang's films are the latest in a series of realist innova-
tions, and therefore it would be difficult to trace any similar moves
directly to his films. But Black Cannon Incident was unique at the time of
its release, and so the same is not true. Its connotations of sophistication
have proved remarkably appealing. Quite a number of films bearing its
stamp have appeared in the last year or two. Although they are very vari-
ous, it is important to note that they all feature contemporary, modern,
urban settings. This confirms my thinking that the urban is an integral
and necessary part of the new style Huang Jianxin's films have carved out.
Sometimes, the influence of Black Cannon Incident can appear in rather
superficial ways. For example, there is the Changchun Film Studio pro-
duction, Strange Circle. A disappointingly regressive film, it starts with
the interesting premise of five unmarried women who set up an alternative
household together, cutting themselves off from the world of men. How-
ever, it rapidly proceeds to demonstrate that each of these women really
needs a man. The women all wear black. One of them gets involved with
an artist. They appear repeatedly in a shot that could have been lifted
directly out of Black Cannon Incident. The camera is fixed perpendicular
to a corrugated, bright red wall. A modern Japanese car is parked in front
of the wall. Dressed all in black, the women appear, get into the car, and
drive out of frame.
A more thoroughgoing instance is Questions For the Living, Huang
Jianzhong's outrageous and still-to-be-released new film. The plot is cer-
tainly "absurd;' A man is killed on a public bus. He comes back to life
and, accompanied by his girlfriend, goes to visit all the people who were
on the bus and asks them why they did nothing to help him. The hero is a
nebbish little man not unlike Zhao Shuxin of Black Cannon Incident. The
film is adapted from a modern stage play, and modernity in the Chinese
arts in the broadest possible sense is referenced throughout the film. The
hero paints modern art. Massive abstract paintings hang all over his walls.
He and his girlfriend act in a modern drama troupe. The film cuts away to
sections of modern drama and the primitive rituals that the Chinese mod-
ern movement, like its Western forerunner, draws upon. These punctuate
the film like the montages in Black Cannon Incident and also provide the
viewer with space to reflect on the film. The film is even the first in the
People's Republic to feature what many Chinese feel is the most modern of
the modern in modern art, nudity.
CHINESE URBAN CINEMA
Berry, Chris
. 1985 "Sexual Difference and the Viewing Subject in Li Shuangshuang and
The In-Laws," in Perspectives on Chinese Cinema, 32-47, ed. Chris
Berry. Cornell University East Asian Papers no. 39. Ithaca, New York:
Cornell University.
1988 "Chinese Women's Cinema Today;' Camera Obscura, no. 17.
McDougall, Bonnie S.
1980 Mao Zedong's "Talks at the Yan'an Conference on Literature and Art":
A Translation of the 1943 Text with Commentary. Michigan Papers in
Chinese Studies no. 39. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, Univer-
sity of Michigan.
Zheng Junxiang and Ding Qiao
1978 "Clarifying the Political Plot of the 'Gang of Four' to Make Anti-Party
Films;' in The "Gang of Four" are the Deadly Enemies of the Film
Industry. Beijing: China Film Press.
The Rural Base of an Urban
Phenomenon
88
THE RURAL BASE OF AN URBAN PHENOMENON
the ending; but Apu's evolution from the traditional village to the modern
world is deeply etched. The city supplies leadership toward liberation. In
The Goddess (Devi), the rich rural landlord with his traditional education
is wedded to outdated beliefs. It is his son, who is studying in a Calcutta
college under the radical reformist Henry Derozio, who represents reason
and tries to prevent the tragedy that overcomes his wife because of his
father's religious superstitions. Thus the city is the source of light and of
liberation from servitude. The British had to leave because of the able
leadership of the Western-educated Indian, and the whole country knew
it. The massive mutiny of the previous century had failed because it did
not know the sources of its enemy's power.
In a highly successful film of 1937, Shantaram's The World Does Not
Understand (Duniya na Maane), a young girl is married off, against her
wishes, to a decrepit old man who has a daughter her age. The young girl,
however, is very spirited and refuses to consummate the marriage. In this
resistance who should help her but her stepdaughter, who is a leading
social reformer of the area. The two become such close friends that they
sing Longfellow's Psalm of Life together, in English, and hold out against
the old man until he gives up his designs and begs his wife's forgiveness.
On his deathbed, he asks her to remarry - an inconceivable idea for the
traditional Hindu widow.
In another film of the same year, a crazy comedy called The Celibate
(Brahmachari), an educated modern woman chases the man she loves,
weans him away from his religious vows, and makes him marry her.
Neither film could be made today - at least within the ambit of the
popular cinema. The city has become evil in the decades since indepen-
dence. But in order to explain something of this transformation, it is nec-
essary to cite certain historical and social factors.
Given the size of India's population, the 25 percent that lives in the
urban areas still forms a large audience for the cinema. Except for some
touring cinemas located in the south, the cinema theaters are overwhelm-
ingly urban. The rural element of the audience comes from the urban
periphery. Villagers who come to town to buy and sell will often see a
show before going back home by bus or train, or on foot. Fairs and festi-
vals and places of pilgrimage, to which both men and women come with
their children, provide another important point of contact with the cin-
ema. In some villages, sets owned by rich peasants and landlords plus
some community sets placed there by government provide a certain
CHIDANANDA DAS GUPTA
ence was subjected more and more to the urban lumpen standards that the
cinema had begun to adopt. At the same time, the Gandhian-Nehruvian
identity with the rural masses had declined, and the cultural divide
between the rural and the urban had widened.
By the 1960s, the middle-class oriented films and their effort to hold all
audiences together in the work of Raj Kapoor, Guru Dutt, and Bimal Roy
had died out. Bimal Roy himself made An Acre of Land (Do Bigha
Zamin), about a debt-ridden peasant who comes to the city to make
money as a rickshaw-puller. The film was hailed by the educated audience
and is considered by many as a precursor of Satyajit Ray's early neoreal-
ism. But like the Apu films, An Acre of Land was rarely seen by the lower
sections of the urban audience and its rural periphery.
A New Cinema now came into being with Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak,
and Mrinal Sen, and a firm divide sprang up between the cinema of the
elite and that of the common man. In a sense, the divide was also between
the urban and the rural because the new films acquired a markedly urban
outlook. It was the point of view of the urban educated that went into
these films. The so-called commercial cinema continued to design its
appeal to the sector of the urban population that had arrived from the vil-
lages not so long ago and suffered from a sense of alienation. Few among
the migrants to the city did not have strong links with the villages they had
left behind. Most of them were there as men without women, having left
their families in the village home. For them, as also the producers who
made films for them, the village came to represent tradition and goodness
and the city, the modern and the evil. The village girl was good, the city
girl bad; you had your fun with the city vamp but married the village
belle. This equation quickly expanded to take in the Indian as opposed to
the Western. In Evening in Paris, Sharmila Tagore played two sisters, one
modern and the other traditional, leaving you in no doubt about which
one was better. In Two Roads (Do Raaste), and East and West (Purab aur
Pachhim), similar judgments were made. Of course, the dichotomy often
represented an inner conflict between two selves resting within the same
soul, as Otto Rank says in The Double. It was also an indicator of the
social dilemmas of choice. But in no time, the bikini-clad woman, the
vamp, the nightclub singer, the photographer's model became the embodi-
ment of the evil city; the mother emerged as the icon of the family, the
symbol, although not an active agent, of an unchanged tradition en-
shrined in the archetypal village.
CHIDANANDA DAS GUPTA
tinuing, evolving synthesis of tradition and modernity, East and West, pre-
industrial and industrial values calculated to ensure the unity and the
material and spiritual development of the country. In this it has the unify-
ing instrument of a national language of the elite - which is English.
Without it, the North could not converse with the South, men and women
of different linguistic areas could not marry or form friendships or even
travel. Hindi is the official lingua franca of the country but is far from
being accepted as such by society. Gautam Ghosh from Calcutta and
Ketan Mehta from Gujerat can discuss social problems or world cinema,
but the common man from those two areas would have to use sign lan-
guage to communicate. Thus the elite and the masses form two separate
worlds. These new filmmakers form an inexorable part of the English-
speaking elite even though they make films about the masses in Indian lan-
guages and not in English.
Naturally the films of the New Cinema are not seen by the people about
whom they are made. This is especially true in the field of the all-India
Hindi film. Regional cinemas have a somewhat better time but are not free
from the problem. In Bengal, for instance, Satyajit Ray's films are widely
seen, often achieving commercial success. But that too is due to the pres-
ence of a large, expanding, politically aware middle class. The situation is
still better in Kerala in the southwest, where literacy is high and the urban-
rural divide is weaker, almost all of coastal Kerala being one semiurban
continuum. Taken all in all, however, the audience divide in the country is
so real that the explorations of the New Cinema are at best exercises in
self-discovery and search for identity with the people on the part of an
alienated elite. At worst, they constitute a pursuit of new aesthetic sensa-
tions within certain modish formulae of social awareness. Thus a film like
Gautam Ghosh's Paar projects a moving portrayal of a migrant peasant
couple in the city with the certain knowledge that the film would not be
seen by the people whose fate it depicts. Arousing the middle-class con-
science seems to be the sole social satisfaction such films can hope to
derive - at least within the present privately owned, profit-seeking setup
of distribution and exhibition, even for films financed mostly by the state
and sometimes by individuals for the social good and for the sake of artis-
tic achievement.
Ironically, the New Cinema, beginning with Satyajit Ray, has a slow
rhythm derived from the traditional pace of the country's life. Apu's jour-
ney through life is unhurried, attuned to a preindustrial society that
THE RURAL BASE OF AN URBAN PHENOMENON 95
ignores models set by the islands of modernity in which the films them-
selves are made. Nirad Mahapatra's Maya Miriga, an exquisite study of
the breakup of a joint family, is Ozu-like in its stillness and belongs to the
rhythm of life of its region. Even Ray's Big City, that is, Calcutta, is set to
the rhythm that would be natural to a genteel middle-class woman orient-
ing herself to a working life. The rhythm is a part of the realism of the
films and their effort to get to the essence of a way of life.
It is in the commercial cinema designed for the semiurban and the rural
that we come across a frenzied pace. If Kehtan Mehta's Spices (Mirch
Masala) were to be remade by the movie moghuls, it would be speeded up
a hundred percent. In the average blockbuster, the major part of the two-
and-a-half hours is taken up by the songs and the dances; experiments in
exporting them without these numbers have resulted in unsaleably short
features. Being spectacles, these films move incredibly fast in order to pre-
vent their audiences from having any chance to think. The songs and
dances, especially the dances, are cut with amazing speed and finesse,
using a very large number of minute cuts where the New Cinema would
use much longer, contemplative takes. This rapid-fire style of cutting in
the commercial film derives clearly from the West, in direct contradiction
to the pace of the life of both its subject and its audience. Sometimes the
rhythm is aptly used, as in the opening sequence of Shaan, in which
Mazhar Khan, playing a maimed beggar in the employ of a gang of ban-
dits, rolls his wooden platform along the streets of Bombay with skyscrap-
ers zooming above him in low-angle shots as he speeds his way to inform
the gang chief of his latest findings. The opening sequence of Sholay,
India's best-made and most famous curry western, is a smartly executed
race across the top of a speeding train that could have come from a
western.
In other words, the commercial cinema uses a city-slick pace regardless
of the pace of life of the people it portrays or the place in which its story
occurs. The New Cinema adopts the rhythm of its subject. In Satyajit
Ray's The Middleman (1975), the pace is much faster than in Big City
(1963). The camera moves restlessly as it follows the brisk pace at which
the novice is walking with the seasoned businessman along the streets of
Calcutta to learn the tricks of the trade. The pacing also has to do with the
attitude to the city. The Calcutta of the Big City was benign; in The Mid-
dleman, the city has become evil. The industrial city brutalizes the youth
in transition from a preindustrial state of mind. In Saeed Mirza's Why
CHIDANANDA DAS GUPTA
Does Albert Pinto Get Angry? a sizzling quarrel takes place between boy
and girlfriend on a motor bike slicing through peak traffic in Bombay,
fully reflecting the pace of the city and the state of mind of the characters.
Thus the attitude to the city affects the formal elements of filmmaking as
much as its content. Broadly speaking, this is true of the sick jazziness of
the commercial cinema as well. It now regards our times as Kaliyuga, the
evil aeon, the last in the Hindu concept of the cycle of creation, composed
of 4,320,000 years, divided into four parts, the last of which is now draw-
ing to a close. In other words, the end of the world is approaching, and in
this evil age, the city is the center of destruction.
Chidananda Das Gupta is a leading Indian writer on cinema who has published,
among other works, a book on the cinema of Satyajit Ray. He writes a syndicated
column on the cinema, and his articles have been published in Sight and Sound,
Film Quarterly, American Film, Film Comment, and other journals.
Seoul in Korean Cinema:
A Brief Survey
BAE CHANG-Ho
LONG AGO Adam Smith and Voltaire foresaw with hope that cities
could not only make urban life blossom with music and art, but could
enrich rural life as well. Cities, they believed, could encourage virtue and
beauty.
But the typhoon of the industrial revolution swept this romantic image
of the city away. Mass production and specialization turned human beings
into cogs of a great machine. Poets began to see the city as vice and to sing
nostalgically of country life.
Nowadays, cities remind us of a host of problems: poverty, slums,
crime, violence, prostitution, isolation, heavy traffic, pollution. But curi-
ously, even though the city has become a den of vice, people still flock to
it, leaving their friendly neighbors, their mountains and streams. Has the
city the face of an angel or a devil?
Seoul, Korea's capital and biggest city, has been a subject of Korean cin-
ema since its beginnings. Seoul was the city where the first Korean film
was produced and shown in 1909. The film was a thousand-foot-Iong fea-
ture inserted in a stage play, which showed scenes of Western civilization
in Seoul: the railroad, a street car, an automobile, and so on.
During the silent film era, about eighty films were produced, and many
used Seoul as a simple background. With the beginning of talkies in 1935,
more types of films were made, but the city was still not a subject that
attracted filmmakers, who were more interested in patriotic inspiration
against the Japanese occupation or in mere entertainment.
Tuition (1940) by Choi In-Kyu (Ch'oe In-kyu) may be the first Korean
film that treated city life in earnest. A poor family has difficulties paying
the son's tuition; the sick mother goes downtown to sell some small arti-
cles, and the boy worries about the problems he causes his parents. The
97
BAE CHANG-HO
hard life of urban Koreans at that time was portrayed with keen realism
and pathos. With the success of Tuition, Choi turned to a broader subject,
from the individual family to society as a whole. Homeless Angel (1941)
used the difficult life of orphans in Seoul as an image of Korean society:
Seoul is the orphanage in which the fatherless Korean people are impris-
oned during the long Japanese occupation.
As Korea regained its independence in 1945, Seoul came alive with joy
and hope. But modernization and industrialization were interrupted by
the civil war of 1950. After three years of fighting, people began the recon-
struction of a city that was nothing but a ruin. By the late 1950S, Seoul
began to look like a modern city. Today it is a major modern metropolis.
Through this period, Seoul became increasingly an important subject for
Korean films.
Madame Liberty (1956), directed by Han Hyung-Mo (Han Hyong-mo),
was one of the first films to treat the conflict between traditional Korean
culture and the process of Westernization. A common housewife hears of
the city's fun and excitement and is tempted to go downtown. In her tradi-
tional Korean dress, the hanbok, she happens to enter a cabaret where a
jazz band is in full swing. In the course of the film, she turns into the
Madame Liberty of the title, who seeks her satisfaction in the pleasure
haunts of Seoul. The film struck a strong responsive chord in Korean
housewives, who made it a great commercial success. The social questions
raised by the film were hotly debated throughout Korea.
In Kim So-Dong's Money (1958), Seoul began to play the role of the vil-
lain. A farmer sells his cattle to pay for his daughter'S wedding. He is soon
cheated out of the money by swindlers in Seoul, and his whole family col-
lapses. Since the late 1950S, there has been a saying: "If you close your eyes
in Seoul, you'll lose your nose."
In 1961, two important films appeared that used Seoul as a vital influ-
ence on character. In A Horse-Cart Driver, directed by Kang Dae-Jin
(Kang Tae-jin), a poor family depends on the very occasional work the
father can find for his horse-cart in modern Seoul. Now jostled by cars
and trucks, he misses the Seoul of the old days, crossed by streams and
shaded by trees. The protagonist represents the old generation adapting
itself with difficulty to the changing life-style of the city.
The sentimental realism of A Horse-Cart Driver is replaced by dry psy-
chology in Aimless Bullet, directed by Yoo Hyun-Mok (Yu Hyon-mok).
The petit bourgeois protagonist, depressed and enervated, frequently
SEOUL IN KOREAN CINEMA 99
mutters to himself, "I want to go. 1 want to go:' The film never says
where. He only wishes to escape the city with its deep wound of civil war
and its social and political confusion. He is like an unaimed, stray bullet -
a misfire - who has lost his identity in the modern city. The public show-
ing of the film was banned by the government on the grounds that its
theme was too antisocial.
The government economic policies since the 1960s have resulted in the
heavy concentration of industry in Seoul. This has led to a large-scale
migration of rural dwellers to the city in search of jobs and a better life,
the same process that transformed London during the nineteenth century.
But they found they had exchanged their traditional homes in their towns
and villages for illegal squatters' shacks and labor at the lowest end of the
economic spectrum.
Many films of the 1960s explored the lives of these laborers of the low-
est class: Mr. Park, Blood Line, A Burden Bearer, Ephemeral Life, among
others. A particularly interesting film of this period is Kim Su-Yong's
Dried Fish (Kulbi), which resembles Ozu's Tokyo Story. An old country
couple comes to Seoul to visit their married sons and daughters, bringing
with them some dried fish as gifts. But the children are much too busy
with their city living to spend much time with them and shuffle them off to
the next sibling as quickly as possible. The traditional extended family of
Korea is disintegrating under the pressures of city life.
Lee Man-Hee (Yi Man-hili), one of the most capable filmmakers of the
1960s, was deeply interested in the theme of the city, as seen in his two
films of 1965, Black Wheat and Market. The former explores the dark side
of Seoul, swarming with hookers, bums, and hoodlums. The hero, a slum
hoodlum nicknamed Eagle, falls in love with a pure girl, who gives him
some hope for a brighter life. Eagle tries but fails to escape the evil of the
city; the vice of Seoul is too deeply rooted in the hero to be uprooted by
the heroine's virtue.
Market shows how the original Seoul-born market people have been
displaced, first by refugees from the North and then by country people
drawn to the economic opportunities of the city. They meet in the market-
place to compete fiercely and if possible survive, a microcosm of the life of
Seoul itself.
One of the biggest social problems of the 1970S was the increasing rural
exodus, especially of the young, which created a crisis in farm labor, a
major industry in Korea. Unlike the previous generation, these young peo-
100 BAE CHANG-HO
pIe were seeking a better cultural rather than just economic life. They
wanted to enjoy city life, watch TV, go to the theater, dance in disco-
theques, and drink beer in bars. Many of these new migrants were young
women and even girls. They had to replace their vague dreams with low-
level labor in factories, housework in private homes, waitressing in clubs,
or being prostitutes in slums. Many of the films of the 1970S dealt with
these young women, notably Home of the Stars (1974) by Lee Jang-Ho (Yi
Chang-ho), The Heyday of YOng-ja (1975) by Kim Ho-Sun (Kim Ho-son),
and Kim Su-Yong's Girls Who Went to the City (1979).
The very popular Home of the Stars shows how a pure girl ruins her life
in the cold-hearted city. She meets four men - a clergyman, a business-
man, a painter, and a bum - who use her ill and discard her. In the end,
the abandoned heroine commits suicide on the snow-covered banks of the
Han River, a traditional symbol of Seoul. True love is lost in the egoism of
city life.
Despite its happy ending, The Heyday of YOng-ja is an even deeper and
more direct look at the life of the poor in Seoul. YOng-ja (a typical name of
a country girl) comes to Seoul with no definite purpose in mind. She
works first as a housemaid and then as a bus conductor, only to lose her
arm in a traffic accident. Soon she is a tough hooker in a downtown slum
area. But YOng-ja's humanity, which has been stolen from her by the city,
is restored to her by the pure love of a young man who works in a lowly
capacity in the city baths, scrubbing the city grime off the patrons' backs.
Kim Su-Yong's Girls Who Went to the City shows how the human rights
of poor workers are disregarded by a system based on materialism. The
heroines, three young women bus conductors, are searched after each
working day to see whether they have stolen a few coins. Finally, one of
them goes up to the rooftop of a high building and shouts out over the
city, "We are people!"
Curiously, the union of female bus conductors demonstrated success-
fully against the public showing of the film, claiming it showed only the
negative side of conductors' jobs. Except for this film, however, most of
the socially conscious films of this period were commercially successful
because they appealed to the many young women who had experienced
similar problems when they came to Seoul from the country.
Wangsimni (1979), directed by 1m Kwon Taek (1m Kwon-t'aek), devel-
oped a new theme. Now wholly absorbed into Seoul, Wangsimni was only
a short time ago a charming, even pastoral suburb, with a ferry, streams,
SEOUL IN KOREAN CINEMA 101
ences by gradually coming to her own way of life, which includes offering
love to someone whom all others find unlovable.
A special characteristic of this film is its exploration of the role of media
in Kasu's tragedy. The heroine remembers how as a child she would watch
every night the luxurious life of singing stars on television and dream of
becoming a singer herself, a dream that led her to ruin. Television has
spread throughout the Korean countryside, bringing to the rural poor its
traditionally tempting images of the city life of the rich.
I want now to describe my own works on life in Seoul. I was the
youngest director of the early 1980s when I made my first film, People in a
Slum (1982), based on real-life stories. In a squatter village on the outskirts
of Seoul, where people survive by working at whatever they can find, the
heroine nicknamed Black Glove lives with her lover and her son from an
earlier marriage. Throughout the story, the many problems the squatters
face are described: unemployment, crime, housing, lack of educational
opportunities, and so on. But the richness of the human heart - seen in
the warm relations between the troubled heroine and her neighbors and in
all their efforts to preserve friendship and hope - is a genuine triumph
over their sad conditions.
Since industrialization, Seoul has been treated as a center of vice, but
people continue to move there in the hope of a better material life. In my
own view, however, the real joy of our lives comes from our good relations
with people, not from material goods. Since I believe that film as an art
form should deal with people's souls, 1 decided to make a film about how
the human soul can be sickened by city life.
Tropical Flower (1983) depicts alienation and lack of communication in
the modern city. "I;' the unnamed protagonist, lives isolated in an expen-
sive apartment and feels like a drifter on an uninhabited island. One day
in early summer "I" sees out his window a woman moving into an apart-
ment in the building facing his. She is the type of beauty "I" has long been
craving. Under the name of Mr. M, "I" tries to approach her and win her
soul, but is outraged when he discovers that she is the pathetic mistress of
a pleasure-seeking middle-aged businessman. "I" immediately decides to
save her. He also learns by talking with her on the phone as Mr. M that
she is constantly searching for true love, but is always falling victim to
men's desires. "I" decides to wreak vengeance in her behalf on the men
who have abused her. On a rainy day, Mr. M meets the heroine for the
first time. At first friendly, he begins to berate her for her past life, gradu-
SEOUL IN KOREAN CINEMA 10 3
ally becoming so frenzied that she realizes he is insane. Trying to break out
of his isolation, "I" has destroyed the relation he wanted to establish.
Wanting to communicate with the woman he loves, he has conveyed to her
the magnitude of his mental and emotional problem. In the first scene of
the movie, the enormous concrete apartment complex symbolizes the iso-
lated living of individuals in Seoul. A voice is heard over the image, say-
ing, "I don't like this city. This city is full of evil desires. I am a stranger
trying to find a true love in this city:' The film ends by showing the same
complex with the voice of the protagonist, saying, "I am a prisoner who is
guilty of not loving people. I will be imprisoned in this apartment forever:'
In my two films, I showed two kinds of people. People in a Slum shows
the healthy soul in conditions of poverty; Tropical Flower, in the sick
world of luxury. What is more important in our own lives?
My Deep Blue Night (1985) is not set in Seoul, but it does show an
aspect of Korean urban living today. More than three hundred thousand
Koreans live in the major American city, Los Angeles. Many of them
immigrated for a better economic and cultural life, greater educational
opportunities for their children, and a more stable political and social
atmosphere than Seoul.
Under American immigration law, a foreigner who marries a u.s. citi-
zen is eligible for a "green card;' a residence and work permit. Deep Blue
Night is the story of Hobin Beck, an illegal Korean immigrant, who has
come to America to realize his dreams of wealth, and Jane, the former
wife of a GI stationed in Korea, who is now a legal resident, but leading a
lonely and frustrated life in her new country. Jane works in a bar, but her
main source of income comes from allowing herself to become a wife in
contract marriages that enable illegals to obtain the green card. These
short, mock marriages have earned her enough to live a luxurious life in a
fashionable home in the Hollywood hills. In fact, she is sick and tired of
her life and unconsciously misses a genuine relationship. When a "match-
maker" puts Mr. Beck in contact with her, she begins to feel a certain hope
that she might be able to settle down. But Beck, who has adopted the
catchy name Gregory Peck, already has a y6bo (sweetheart) in Korea, and
she is pregnant. So after obtaining his green card, Beck asks Jane for his
divorce. She will not consent. Beck's y6bo keeps sending him cassette
tapes pleading with him to send for her. Jane begs him to start their own
relationship again, this time with love rather than a contract. The tension
between these two appeals drives Beck to the film's tragic ending.
I04 BAE CHANG-HO
ROBERT STAM
FIRST THE very long shot. Two countries: Brazil and the United States.
Two vast New World lands similar in both historical formation and ethnic
composition. Both began as European colonies, one of Portugal, the other
of Great Britain. In both countries, colonization was followed by the con-
quest of vast territories that involved the near-genocidal subjugation of the
indigenous peoples. In the United States, the conquerors were called pio-
neers; in Brazil, they were called bandeirantes. Both countries massively
imported blacks from Africa to form the two largest slave societies of
modern times, up until slavery was abolished, with the Emancipation
Proclamation of I863 in the United States and the "Golden Law" of I888 in
Brazil. Both countries received successive waves of immigration, indeed
often the same waves of immigration, from all over the world, ultimately
forming pI uri-ethnic societies with substantial Indian, black, Italian, Ger-
man, Japanese, Slavic, Arab, and Jewish communities.
Now a somewhat closer view, of two cities of roughly equivalent popu-
lation: New York and Sao Paulo. From the air, a similar spread of tall
buildings and urban development, but the Brazilian city is not traversed
by so many mighty rivers or blessed with so many beautiful parks.
Although it might seem a sacrilege to compare what many regard as the
preeminent metropolis of the world to a Third World city that few First
Worlders have even the slightest notion about, the fact remains that signif-
icant parallels link the two cities. In both cities, indigenous populations
preceded the European arrival, and in both cases the indigenous presence
left traces in place-names: Manhattan, Ipiranga, Montauk, Pacaembu.
Sao Paulo was founded on the site of an Indian village in I554; its founder,
Padre Jose de Anchieta, was versed in the local Indian idioms and even
I05
106 ROBERT STAM
wrote a grammar and a dictionary for the Tupf language. New York was
purchased from its Indian inhabitants for $24 worth of trinkets in 1626,
some seventy-four years later. Although it is not well known, the historical
destinies of New York and Brazil were linked from the beginning. Histo-
rian Warren Dean (1987) points out that in the seventeenth century, Dutch
settlers brought Afro-Brazilian slaves with them from Brazil to what was
then called New Amsterdam, and even granted them a measure of free-
dom in order to make them allies in the fight against the British. The first
Jews to arrive in New York were Sephardim who came from Recife, Bra-
zil, in 1636 and founded the synagogue that still stands on West 70th Street
in Manhattan. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, New York and
Sao Paulo received some of the same waves of immigrants from the same
countries: Germans, Italians, Jews from Poland and Russia, Arabs from
Lebanon and Syria, Chinese, Japanese, and so forth. Both received as well
"internal immigrants" such as blacks from the South, in the case of New
York, and blacks from Bahia and Minas, in the case of Sao Paulo. Both
cities have their Italian neighborhoods - Little Italy in New York, Bras
and Bexiga in Sao Paulo, their turn-of-the-century Jewish communities -
the lower east side in New York, Born Retiro in Sao Paulo, and their
Asiatic communities - Chinatown in New York and the Japanese district
called "Liberdade" in Sao Paulo. Indeed, many Brazilians have North
American relatives who trace their origins back to the same villages in
Poland or Italy or Lebanon or Japan.
I do not intend to develop an elaborate comparison between New York
and Sao Paulo (and obviously the differences are as important as the simi-
larities). I simply wish to stress one aspect of both cities: their "poly-
phonic" ethnic and cultural nature as reflected in films generally and in
two specific films: Woody Allen's Zelig and Joaquim Pedro de Andrade's
Macunaima. At the historical origins of the cultural diversity of both
countries we find the same triad of white European, native indigenous
peoples, and blacks brought from Africa, although the degree of mixing
among the three groups was obviously much more intense and widespread
in Brazil. The basic triad was subsequently augmented, in both countries,
by a wide diversity of immigrant strains, all part of an ongoing history in
which diverse new arrivals impact complexly on a preexisting population,
flowing into a broader nonfinalized polyphony of cultures.
We see the end result of this ongoing process in present-day New York,
a city where public schools teach in at least eight languages, where the
A TALE OF TWO CITIES 10 7
mass is celebrated in more than a score, and where prospective drivers can
take the driving exam in Russian or Spanish. Present-day New York is a
black, Latin, Asian, and European cosmopolis, one that has Koreans run-
ning its twenty-four-hour markets, Indians running the newsstands, Arabs
running neighborhood groceries, and Senegalese and Nigerians working
as street vendors, not to mention two hundred thousand Russian Jews,
Israelis, Poles, Italians, Greeks, Cubans, Haitians, Jamaicans, and other
Caribbeans.
Ever since its earliest days as a Dutch-managed polyglot trading port,
New York has served as a kind of conduit for ethnic forces and popula-
tions. Jim Sleeper (1987) compares it to a "great human heart which draws
into itself immigrant bloodstreams, and after working its strange alchemy,
pumps them back out again across America:' New York has become a
"minority-majority" city, a city without any clear or overwhelming ethnic
majority, where each apparently unified community itself breaks down
into numerous subcultures traversed by class, generation, and the nuances
of ethnicity. The very language of New York streets is syncretic, hybrid,
consisting of Yiddishized English, anglicized Spanish, and so forth. When
Rupert Pupkin (Robert de Niro), in Scorcese's The King of Comedy, calls
Masha (Sandra Bernhard) "el schmucko supremo;' he is offering nothing
more than a typical example of the hybridized language of the city.
In the cases of both New York and Sao Paulo, the cinema has "translat-
ed;' reflected, refracted, or sublimated this ethnic diversity into filmic
images. Much of the potential force and audacity of both Brazilian and
North American cinema derives from the capacity to stage the cultural
conflicts and complementarities intrinsic to a heteroglot culture, and cities
such as New York and Sao Paulo obviously form privileged sites for this
kind of ethnic interplay. Many Sao Paulo films focus on specific ethnic
communities. Lauro Escorel's short film as Libertarios (The Libertarians,
1973) treats the largely Italian anarchist movement of the 1920S, a South
American version of the same political movement that animated such fig-
ures as Sacco and Vanzetti in the United States in the same period. Sergio
Person's Sao Paulo, Sociedade Anomina (Sao Paulo, Inc., 1966) deals with
the Italian community in Sao Paulo at a later point in its historical trajec-
tory, at a time when many were working in the burgeoning automobile
industry of the city. Compasso de Espera (Marking Time, 1973) focuses on
the travails of Jorge, a black Sao Paulo poet and advertising agent, as a
pretext for an inventory of the racist features of Brazilian society. (Many
108 ROBERT STAM
ence. The films set in New York in this period, meanwhile, tended to
downplay the ethnic diversity of the city. The Jewish presence was often
euphemistic at best, featuring what Lester Friedman calls "safe Jews" who
looked, spoke, and acted far more like their gentile neighbors than their
immigrant parents or grandparents, while the black presence was often
elided completely to become a kind of "structuring absence:' Despite the
emergence of black stars such as Sidney Poitier, as late as 1957 a film such
as Alfred Hitchcock's supposedly documentary-like The Wrong Man
could show the streets and subways and the prisons of New York City as
totally devoid of blacks.
The sixties, seventies, and eighties, as is well known, brought a kind of
resurgence of ethnicity in the cinema. I would now like to focus on two
films, one from the late sixties and the other from the early eighties, one
deeply rooted in Sao Paulo and the other in New York, as examples of this
resurgence. Both treat the theme of the city as privileged locus of ethnic
and cultural interaction, at times in strikingly similar ways. The first film
is Joaquim Pedro de Andrade's Macunaima (1969), based on the famous
1928 Brazilian modernist novel of the same title by Sao Paulo writer Mario
de Andrade. The story of both film and novel concerns the improbable
adventures of a Brazilian antihero who goes from the Amazon region to
Sao Paulo and undergoes diverse transformations on the way. The second
is Zelig (1983), the Woody Allen film about a bizarre chameleon man who
has an uncanny talent for taking on the accent and ethnicity of his
interlocutors. Zelig is obviously deeply rooted in the cultural life of New
York City, for the film constantly foregrounds the city's standard iconog-
raphy and urban landmarks - Fifth Avenue, Times Square, Washington
Square, Union Square; its ethnic neighborhoods - the lower east side,
Chinatown; its institutions - Manhattan Hospital, The New York Daily
Mirror; and its intellectuals - Susan Sontag, Irving Howe, Morton Blum.
The most striking feature of the two films, for our purposes, is that they
both revolve around multiethnic protagonists who "condense;' as it were,
the ambient ethnic polyphony. Both characters, furthermore, undergo
racial metamorphoses. Zelig is born white and Jewish but subsequently
becomes Indian, black, Irish, Italian, Mexican, and Chinese. Macunaima
is born Indian and black but subsequently transforms himself into a white
Portuguese prince and even into a French divorcee. (These metamor-
phoses are diversely handled in cinematic terms, of course: Macunaima
basically relies on the use of two actors and "magical" editing substitu-
IIO ROBERT STAM
gins and between the margins and a constantly changing mainstream. (It
was this kind of creative intermingling of cultures that led commentators
such as Randolph Bourne, in the twenties, to speak of the possibility of
New York City, with its infusions of diverse cultures, generating a "novel
international nation, the first the world has ever seen:')
While critics have emphasized the bizarre and improbable nature of
Zelig's ethnic transformations, they have generally ignored the deeper
social, cultural, and historical logic that structures them and the ways in
which these transformations are rooted in the cultural diversity of New
York City. Under hypnosis, for example, Zelig admits to dialogically cha-
meleonizing with another group of "hyphenated Americans:' Entering a
bar on Saint Patrick's Day, he relates: "I told them I was Irish. My hair
turned red. My nose turned up. I spoke about the great potato famine:' In
The Ordeal of Civility, John Murray Cuddihy (1974) explores the analo-
gies between the Irish and the Jewish immigrant communities as "latecom-
ers to modernity:' While the Irish were the product of the famines of the
1840S, which killed a million Irish and drove them into the world of
Anglo-American Protestantism, the Jews were the product of the Russian
pogroms, which killed thousands of East European Jews and drove them
too into the cultural universe of the New World goyim. Both groups had a
precarious grasp on political power, and both had a nostalgia for the Old
World convivium. Irving Howe (1976, 387) describes the relation between
the two groups within New York's political establishment as "generally
amiable, seldom close, and far more complicated than either side real-
ized:' All of Zelig's transformations, then, have their particular rationale
and specific resonances. It makes perfect sense, for example, that Zelig
would chameleonize, more or less "horizontally;' not only to his Irish fel-
low-swimmers in the melting pot, but also to other, more obviously
oppressed minorities - Indian, black, Chinese, Mexican. Zelig's repeated
transformation into the native American "Indian" - to take just one of
these examples - forges a symbolic link between what Todorov has called
Europe's "external other" - the Indian, the African, the Asian - and its
perennial internal "other" - the Jews.
Zelig's father, we are told by the voice-over, worked as an actor in a
Brooklyn theater, playing the role of Puck in the orthodox Yiddish version
of Midsummer Night's Dream. The Yiddish theater that "fathered" Zelig
was a theater full of wild transformations and boisterous polyglossia,
fond of oxymoronic protagonists such as the schlemiel-saint and the luft-
A TALE OF TWO CITIES
Robert Starn is on the faculty of the Department of Cinema Studies in the Tisch
School of the Arts at New York University.
II6 ROBERT STAM
Bakhtin, Mikhail
1984 Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics. Minneapolis: University of Minne-
sota Press.
Cuddihy, John Murray
1974 The Ordeal of Civility: Freud, Marx, Levi-Strauss, and the Jewish
Struggle with Modernity. Boston: Beacon.
De Andrade, Mario
1944 "A Escrava que Nao eIsaura;' in Obra Imatura. Sao Paulo: Martins.
Dean, Warren
1987 "0 Village ja Foi Brasileiro" [Greenwich Village Was Once Brazilian],
Folha de Sao Paulo, May 13.
Howe, Irving
1976 The World of Our Fathers. New York: Bantam Books.
Sleeper, Jim
1987 "Boodling, Bigotry and Cosmopolitanism: The Transformation of a
Civic Culture;' Dissent, 34,4:413-419.
Starn, Robert, and Ella Shohat
1987 "Zelig and Contemporary Theory;' Enclitic, 9, 1-2.
Cities and Cinema:
A Selective Filmography
Albert Pinto ko Gussa Kyon Aata Hai Chip6mnun ch'6nsa (Homeless Angel),
(Why Does Albert Pinto Get Angry?), 1941, Ch'oe In-gyu
1980, Saeed Mirza Ch6kto ui kkot (Tropical Flower),
Alphaville, 1965, Jean-Luc Godard 1983, Pae Ch'ang-ho
A propos de Nice, 1927-29, Jean Vigo Chronique d'un Ete (Chronicle of a
Asakusa no hi (The Lights of Asakusa), Summer), 1961, Jean Rouch
1937, Yasujiro Shimazu The City, 1939, Willard Van Dyke and
Banshun (Late Spring), 1949, Yasujiro Ralph Steiner
Ozu City of Contrasts, 1930, Irving Brown-
The Beastfrom 20,000 Fathoms, 1953, ing
Eugene Laurie City Streets, 1931, Rouben Mamoulian
Berlin, die Sinfonie der Grossstadt A Clockwork Orange, 1971, Stanley
(Berlin, the Symphony of a Great City), Kubrick
1927, Walter Ruttman
The Crowd, 1928, King Vidor
The Big City, 1963, Satyajit Ray
Daitokai rodohen (The Great Metrop-
Blade Runner, 1982, Ridley Scott olis: Chapter on Labor), 1930, Kiyo-
Brazil, 1985, Terry Gilliam hiko U shihara
A Bronx Morning, 1931, Jay Leyda Dawn of the Dead, 1979, George A.
Romero
Calcutta, 1971, Louis Malle
Chayu puin (Madame Liberty), 1956, Dead End, 1937, William Wyler
Han Hyong-mo Devi (The Goddess), 1960, Satyajit Ray
Chelovek s Kinoapparatom (The Man Do Bigha Zamin (Two Acres of Land),
with the Movie Camera), 1928, Dziga 1953, Bimal Roy
Vertov Dokkoi ikiteiru (And Yet We Live),
Children of the City, 1944, Paul Rotha 1951, Tadashi Imai
II8 A SELECTIVE FILMOGRAPHY
Manhatta, 1931, Charles Sheeler and Parampura choitn nal (A Fine Windy
Paul Strand Day), 1980, Yi Chang-ho
Sous les Toits de Paris (Under the Tosiro kan ch'onyo (Girls Who Went to
Roofs of Paris), 1930, Rene Clair the City), 1979, Kim Sa-yong
Soylent Green, 1973, Richard Fleischer Touch of Evil, 1958, Orson Welles
Subarashiki nichiyobi (One Wonderful Umareta wa mita keredo (1 Was Born,
Sunday), 1947, Akira Kurosawa But . .. ),1932, Yasujiro Ozu
Sunday in Peking, 1955, Chris Marker Wangsimni, 1979, 1m Kwon-t'aek
Sunrise, 1927, F. W. Murnau Warui yatsu hodo yoku nemuru (The
Suopryo (Tuition), 1:940, Ch'oe In-gyu Bad Sleep Well), 1960, Akira Kurosawa
George Stephen Semsel, editor, Chi- Bringing together his thorough knowl-
nese Film: The State of the Art in the edge of the methods and theories of
People's Republic. New York: Western film analysis with a careful
Praeger Publishers, 1987. xvii, 191 and pertinent awareness of his own
culture, Ma constructs his argument
pages, illustrations. $34.95.
for the relevance of humanism and its
resurgence in China to an understand-
As the rising tide of Chinese cinema on ing of the new cinema through a series
the international film scene becomes of careful and close readings of impor-
ever more impossible to ignore, so does tant texts. His analyses of the films of
the woeful lack of English-language Yang Yanjin in the light of the episte-
studies on this important national cin- mological crisis of the late seventies is
ema. In these circumstances, one can- particularly masterful.
not but understand and applaud the Also useful is Patricia Wilson's oral
motivation behind this compilation of history account of the early days of
essays and interviews. In the best of Communist China's cinema in the
circumstances, such a collection of Northeast. It provides detailed memo-
materials would intersect productively. ries of a period about which little con-
However, in this case the end result is crete information has hitherto been
somewhat less than the sum of its available. However, the period was
parts, and although one essay is excel- also very disordered, and the addition
lent, a minefield of factual and typo- of maps and biographies of the numer-
graphical errors seriously undermines ous people mentioned would help the
the rest of the book. less informed reader to make sense of
To start with the good news, the the narrative. Indeed, without bio-
Chinese scholar Ma Ning, now study- graphical notes, the reader cannot be
ing in Australia, has contributed an expected to know that the woman
analysis of new trends over the last ten mentioned as Tian Fang's wife on page
years, modestly titled "Notes on the 29, "Yu Lin;' is the same person as the
New Filmmakers:' This is quite simply "Yu Lan" mentioned on page 33, and
one of the best pieces of writing on that the name should in fact be "Yu
contemporary Chinese cinema availa- Lan" throughout.
ble anywhere in the world and should This is only one of the many typo-
be required reading for all wishing to graphical errors that vitiate whatever
acquaint themselves with the subject. reference value the book might have
121
122 BOOK REVIEW
completely. Neither Semsel nor Praeger originated, looking at the article al-
Publishers seems to be aware that the leged to be on film theory by Xia
apostrophe is an integral part of the Hong, it becomes evident that Semsel
Pinyin romanization system. Yan'an is also decided to be an editor with a light
printed "Yanan" throughout, and Xi'an touch, despite the fact that parts of this
appears throughout as "Xian:' Even article are translated so appallingly
Chen Bo'er's name is printed as "Chen that they make no sense at all. Words
Boer" - whatever else she was, Chen not found in any English dictionary,
Bo'er was not a South African. Mis- even the sort of Chinese-English dictio-
spellings are also common. "Hanzhou" nary produced in Taiwan, such as
should be Hangzhou (p. 3), "Ye Jian- "conceptualism" and "labelism" are
yin" should be Ye Jianying (p. 15), thrown about, and the reader is even
"Long Zifeng" should be Ling Zifeng presented with the sentence "Filmmak-
(p. 26), "Su Yu" should be Su Yun (p. ing challenges theory filmmaking" (p.
27), and so on. Things reach their 36). This article certainly challenged
worst when Madame Mao's name me!
(Jiang Qing) is rendered as "Qing Finally, the interviews that make up
Jiang" (p. 7). about half the book are enormously
Factual errors abound, too. In the disappointing. Apart from the highly
biographical notes, editor Semsel is variable standard of translation, and
described as having worked for "China the factual errors about personal histo-
Film Corporation, the state enterprise ries that one doubts the subjects could
responsible for all matters of film busi- have really made, the results are vague,
ness within the country:' Presumably uninformed and dull, largely confined
he supplied this information himself. to confused reminiscence, hesitant
However, China Film Corporation is opinion, and lists of favorite Holly-
only responsible for distribution and wood movies. Is it that all the subjects
exhibition, and all other aspects of film were vague, uninformed, and dull, or
business, in particular production and was there a problem with the questions
coproduction, are in the hands of other that were asked? Since the questions
organizations. When the editor of the are not printed, we will never know.
book does not know the basics about All this compels me to address a
his employer for a whole year, one has more serious issue. I cannot under-
to wonder about his grasp of the rest of stand how so compromised a book was
his information. And indeed, when he ever published. How did Semsel, who
can blandly state in his introduction all too apparently speaks no Chinese
that "In the 1950S and 1960s the film and knows little about China, Praeger
industry ran quite smoothly;' apparent- sociology editor Alison Podel (is this a
ly in complete ignorance of the upheav- sociology book?), and foreword writer
als of the anti-Rightist campaign, the Professor Robert Wagner, maybe a
"cultural revolution;' and other move- communications expert but hardly fa-
ments, one knows one is not necessar- mous for his intimate knowledge of the
ily in good hands. Chinese cinema, get the nerve to think
Apart from the materials he himself they were qualified to produce this
BOOK REVIEW 12 3
book? What sort of racism and cultural stay in China. I am sure he produced
presumption makes it possible for a this book with the best of intentions,
book like this on Chinese cinema to be but I am dismayed that he could not
published, when I sincerely hope I am even secure the help and expertise to
right in thinking a similar manuscript ensure that names were spelled right.
on the French or German cinema In his foreword, Professor Wagner re-
would never have seen the light of day? marks that the book "is a volume
All in all, apart from Ma's article, which, in addition to the light it sheds
one would need to be an expert in the on the new Chinese cinema, is a re-
Chinese cinema already to be able to minder that we are all still the primi-
pick through this book and extract tives in this medium:' How sadly and
whatever there might be of value in it. I ironically accurate he has proved to be!
had high hopes of this volume, and I CHRIS BERRY
know George Semsel developed a deep Griffith University
love of the Chinese cinema during his