Journal of Sedimentary Research, 2007, v.

77, 757–771
Research Article
DOI: 10.2110/jsr.2007.073

UP-ESTUARY VARIATION OF SEDIMENTARY FACIES AND ICHNOCOENOSES

IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MACROTIDAL, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY, GOMSO BAY, KOREA

BYONGCHEON YANG,1 ROBERT W. DALRYMPLE,2 MURRAY K. GINGRAS,1 SEUNGSOO CHUN,3 AND HEEJUN LEE4
1
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, 1-26 Earth Sciences Building, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E3, Canada
2
Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6, Canada
3
Faculty of Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, Chonnam National University, Kwangju 500-757, Korea
4
Marine Geology Laboratory, Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute, Ansan, P.O. Box 29, Seoul 425-600, Korea
e-mail: tidalite@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT: Integrated sedimentologic and ichnologic studies from the open-mouthed, Gomso Bay estuary on the western
Korean coast have revealed that both tides and waves play an important role in estuarine sedimentation. Because of up-estuary
decrease in wave energy, physical structures pass up-estuary from wave-dominated planar lamination and hummocky cross-
stratification to tide-dominated heterolithic stratification. The infaunal distribution is sensitive to physiological stresses, and
traces increase in size from the inner bay to the outer bay. The mappable trends in sedimentary facies and ichnofacies appear to
be oblique to the estuarine margin in the outer and middle bays because of wave refraction, whereas facies belts in the inner bay
are parallel to the estuary margin, reflecting tide-dominated conditions.
Although useful estuarine facies models have been constructed from a growing number of modern and ancient studies, the
estuarine classification schemes based on tidal range and geomorphic elements are apparently in conflict. Modern examples
from Willapa Bay and this study confirm that the facies-belt model should be considered to be the most useful in applying the
estuarine classification, and estuary morphology is related directly to the tidal prism rather than tidal range. In this context, the
study results can be used to make interpretations of the geometry of coastlines and clastic reservoirs in ancient examples.

INTRODUCTION
Coastal zones are inherently complex because of the interplay of many
processes, resulting in substantial variability in coastal-zone morphology
and deposits (e.g., Davis 1985; Reading and Collinson 1996; Harris et al.
2002). To simplify their complexity, coastal environments have generally
been classified on the basis of the single major process into distinct river-,
tide-, and wave-dominated categories (e.g., Boyd et al. 1992; Harris et al.
2002). However, the greater part of the world coast is mixed-energy, in
that both wave and tidal processes operate with sub-equal intensity (e.g.,
Short 1991; Yang et al. 2005). The morphology and facies, therefore,
differ to some degree from the simplified end-member models (e.g., Fan et
al. 2004; Yang et al. 2005). The existence of coastal settings that are
intergradational between shorefaces and tidal flats has been highlighted
recently by Yang et al. (2005). Here, we show that a similar concept can
be usefully applied to estuaries.
The current facies models for estuaries (Dalrymple et al. 1992) focus
exclusively on end-member (wave- or tide-dominated) cases (Fig. 1) and
do not represent mixed-energy estuaries effectively. Although many
geologists acknowledge the existence of mixed-energy estuaries, the actual
characteristics of such estuaries are largely unknown because there have
been very few detailed studies of such systems (e.g., Clifton 1983; Allen
and Posamentier 1994).
The Gomso Bay estuary, located on the western coast of Korea
(Fig. 2A, B), is characterized by the absence of a coastal barrier and,
consequently, has an open-mouthed morphology (Fig. 2C). Thus, open-
sea waves can enter the estuary relatively freely and are superimposed on
the strong tidal currents. As a result, sedimentation within the estuary
appears to be influenced by the combination of tides and waves. The
sedimentological and biological aspects of this embayment have been
investigated extensively over the past 20 years (e.g., Korea Ocean
Research and Development Institute 1994; Kim et al. 1999). Despite this
work, there is no system-scale study that considers the interrelationship of
the various parts of the entire estuary. The main purpose of this study is
to describe the up-estuary variation in sedimentary facies and ichnocoe-
noses using an extensive set of cancores and sedimentation-rate data.
Because organisms have limited tolerance for physiologically stressful
environments (Gingras et al. 2002b; Buatois et al. 2005), we believe that
integrated sedimentologic and ichnologic studies provide a valuable tool
for reconstructing estuarine deposits.
GEOLOGIC AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SETTINGS
The Gomso Bay estuary is a funnel-shaped, coastal embayment that
can be considered to be a piedmont-type estuary because of its
mountainous catchment area (ca. 300 km2). The bedrock around the
Gomso Bay estuary is composed mainly of Cretaceous volcanics, Jurassic
granite, and Precambrian crystalline schist (National Geography Institute
1981). The estuary, which opens westward to the Yellow Sea with no
protection except for a low-relief ‘‘incipient barrier’’ (Fig. 3), is about
25 km long and 8 km wide at its mouth. The incipient barrier differs from
a classic coastal barrier in that it is completely submerged at high tides
and exposed during low tides, when its seaward face becomes an
extension of the beach-swash zone. It is ca. 1 km wide and 1 m high

Copyright E 2007, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1527-1404/07/077-757/$03.00

758 B.C. YANG ET AL.
relative to the adjacent areas, and has a smoothly curved planform
reflecting the refraction of the incident waves (Fig. 3).
Over 80% (70 km2 out of 85 km2) of the estuary is occupied by
extensive intertidal flats, which are best developed on the southern flank.
A pronounced tidal channel with water depths up to 20 m runs parallel to
the northern coast (Fig. 2C). It connects directly with the Kangsun
stream at the estuary head, while a southern branch links to the Chujin
stream (Fig. 3). Both streams supply meager amounts of terrigenous
sediment, due to upstream dams. In the subtidal zone at the bay entrance,
a seaward-extending, arcuate morphology that we interpret to be an ebb-
tidal delta is developed (Fig. 2C).
The region surrounding Gomso Bay receives 1100–1300 mm of
precipitation annually; rainfall is pronouncedly monsoonal, with most
(ca. 750 mm) falling in the June–August summer season (Korea
Meteorological Administration 1998). During this season, short-term
dramatic lowering of salinity is associated with local flooding when daily
precipitation reaches up to 150 mm. At other times of the year, the
salinity variability is negligible due to low river discharge, ranging from
32–35% at the baymouth to 28–30% at the bayhead.
The tides are semidiurnal with diurnal and fortnight inequalities of ca.
70 cm, a mean range of 4.33 m, and an average spring-tide range of 6 m
(Fig. 4). Peak strengths of the ebb and flood currents in the main channel
are 1.5 m/s and 1.2 m/s, respectively, while maximum velocities of 0.6 m/s
(ebb) and 0.5 m/s (flood) have been observed on the tidal flat near the
baymouth (National Geography Institute 1981). The wind regime in this
area is controlled by the monsoonal climate. Weak, southerly winds are
dominant during the summer, generally maintaining calm seas and low
wave energy (significant wave height , 1 m) except during the infrequent
JSR
FIG. 1.—Estuarine facies models proposed by
Dalrymple et al. (1992), which have been widely
used to describe modern and ancient estuarine
systems. Note that morphologic elements of the
two end-member settings are distinct because
different processes dominate sedimentation.
typhoons that enter the Yellow Sea once a year on average, leaving severe
impacts on the western coast of Korea (e.g., Yang et al. 2005). In
contrast, strong, northerly winds dominate during the winter, generating
significant wave heights of up to 4 m in the vicinity of Gomso Bay (Kim
et al. 2003).
DATA COLLECTION
To describe estuarine sedimentology and ichnology, three sampling
transects were established across the intertidal flat on the southern flank,
along which metal stakes were installed at 100 m intervals to allow
persistent sampling over the study period (Fig. 2C). Along the survey
lines, the surface sediment at each station was sampled seasonally from
the topmost 1 cm using a spatula. Additionally, samples were also
collected at 123 locations (‘‘x’’ marks in Fig. 2C) throughout the
intertidal and shallow subtidal zones. Grain-size analyses were conducted
after organic matter and calcium carbonate were removed. The dried sand
fraction was analyzed using a sieve interval of 0.5 w, and the mud fraction
was analyzed using a Sedigraph 5100. Topography along the survey lines
was measured using a level (Sokkia B21) during a succession of field
surveys conducted in 2000 and 2001, in order to characterize the seasonal
variation in tidal-flat elevation and the patterns of erosion and
deposition. Cancores (30 cm deep 3 18 cm wide 3 6 cm thick), also
known as boxcores, were collected at a 300 m interval along the survey
lines (Fig. 2C) on a seasonal basis, and epoxy relief peels were prepared to
document the physical and biological structures. In addition, muddy
sediments were X-radiographed because of the difficulty of making peels
due to the limited penetration of the epoxy.
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY
The degree of bioturbation within facies is characterized using
a bioturbation index (BI) that ranges from 0 to 6; in this scheme,
BI 5 0 is non-bioturbated and BI 5 6 indicates complete bioturbation
(Taylor and Goldring 1993). We assign the following values: BI 0 5 0%
bioturbation, BI 1 5 1–4%, BI 2 5 5–30%, BI 3 5 31–60%, BI
4 5 61–90%, BI 5 5 91–99%, and BI 6 5 100%, where the percentages
are percentages of the area of each peel or radiograph.
ESTUARINE CONFIGURATION
The Gomso Bay estuary comprises three major depositional environ-
ments, the outer, middle, and inner bays (Fig. 3), based on the surface
sediments, sedimentation dynamics, sedimentary facies, and ichnocoe-
noses. Each of these areas is, in turn, characterized by a typical zonation
of the intertidal region, from the upper flats near the high-tide line to the
lower flats adjacent to the main channel.
The Outer Bay
Morphology and Sediments.—The outer bay is primarily characterized
by a broad, open-coast tidal flat (sensu lato; Yang et al. 2005) with a slope
gradient of 0.0015. Its topographic profile is concave-up and generally
featureless (Fig. 5), with only minor topographic undulations interpreted
here as wave-formed swash bars that lie parallel to the local coastline and
are breached by shallow, shore-normal runoff channels (Fig. 3). These
intertidal swash bars generally have a wavelength of 100–300 m and
a height of 0.3–0.5 m (Fig. 5). They migrate only during storms and
eventually either weld onto the beach that occurs at the high-tide level or,
in more sheltered areas, stall on the upper mud flat to form a chenier (Lee
et al. 1994). The incipient barrier (Fig. 3) is substantially larger and more
continuous than these swash bars, but, like them, is composed of well to
moderately sorted fine to medium sands with moderate amounts of shell
fragments.
Topographic profiling over the course of a two-year period shows
seasonal changes in surface elevation (Fig. 5). The lower flat generally
experiences erosion during the winter and deposition during the summer,
whereas the upper flat near the high-tide shoreline experiences de-
position during the winter. Summer deposition on the lower flat
generally consists of muddy sediments that are removed during the
winter. Mud accumulates at an average rate of ca. 4 mm/month in
response to low wave energy, and benthic-organic processes (e.g.,
microbial mats) and intense solar insolation that stabilize the fine-grained
sediment due to dewatering (cf. Anderson and Howell 1984; Yang et al.
2005). Winter deposition on the upper flat occurs as a result of the
landward migration of the swash bars and their attachment to the high-
tide beach.
Because the surficial mud layer that accumulates during the summer is
ephemeral (cf. Yang et al. 2005), the winter sediment distribution is
representative of the preserved deposits. At this time, the tidal-flat
sediments typically coarsen toward the high-tide shoreline, from fine to
very fine sands across much of the flat, to medium-grained, shelly sand in
the high-tide beach or the chenier. Overall, grain-size contours are,
however, oblique (i.e., diagonal) to the coastline (Fig. 6A), with coarser
sediments occurring on the crest of the incipient barrier. Sand content
parallels the trend of mean grain size, increasing inward and upward from
, 50% on the outermost flats to . 90% at the high-tide shoreline and on
parts of the incipient barrier (Fig. 6B). Sorting appears to be in good
agreement with grain size, ranging from well sorted in sand to moderately
sorted in muddy sand.
Physical and Biological Characteristics.—The cancore peels show
a remarkable seasonal variation between muddy, heterolithic stratifica-
tion in the summer and sand in the winter (Fig. 7).
759
In the summer, the surface mud layer, which progressively thins
landward from 15 cm to 5 cm thick, grades landward into the high-tide
beach sands (Fig. 7A). The interlaminated sand and mud within this layer
locally shows an upward-fining trend, caused by an upward decrease in
the thickness and number of sand layers (e.g., Fig. 7B). This overall trend
may be punctuated by one to three, smaller-scale fining-upward
successions that are bounded by sharp-based sandier intervals.
In the winter deposits, planar lamination and gently inclined to curved
lamination (Fig. 7C, E, F), which we interpret to be hummocky cross-
stratification (HCS) (Yang et al. 2006), predominates in the lower and
middle flats but decreases in abundance landward with an increase in the
abundance of ripple cross-lamination. Individual sets of HCS vary from 5
to 25 cm thick (Fig. 7C, E, F). The ripple cross-lamination commonly
shows offshoot geometry and/or chevron upbuilding of ripple crests with
some landward dipping cross-lamination (e.g., Fig. 7E, F). In many peels,
two types of structural successions, which are described by Yang et al. (in
press), can be discerned. Type 1 successions, which predominate, begin
with an erosional surface that is locally overlain by mud pebbles, shell
fragments, and/or planar lamination, followed by HCS, and topped by
ripple cross-lamination (Fig. 7C, E). The HCS is characterized by
a curved-erosional base and grades upward into flat lamination (cf. Dott
and Bourgeois 1982) (Fig. 7E, F). In contrast, Type 2 successions begin
with ripple cross-lamination that is underlain locally by a thin mud layer.
The ripples are overlain erosionally by planar lamination or HCS (e.g.,
Fig. 7E), which is, in turn, topped by ripple cross-lamination. For a more
detailed description, the reader is referred to Yang et al. (in press).
The outer-bay deposits are dominated by a mixed-ethology suite of
traces (Table 1; Fig. 7). The modal burrow diameter generally decreases
both landwards and headwards: in shore-normal transects, the modal
diameter of burrows on the upper flat is 4 mm, but 8 mm on the lower
flat. Planolites and fugichnia are the dominant traces in the upper flats
(70–80%, BI 4). Biogenic mottling due to sediment grazers is also
common (Fig. 7A, D). Small Skolithos and Planolites attributed to
threadworms are present but typically are not preserved. The middle flat
is more sparsely burrowed (20–30%, BI 2; Fig. 7B, E) and is dominated
by larger Planolites, the modal diameter of which is 6 mm. Skolithos and
fugichnia are also present. Razor-clam traces (Siphonichnus) are
sporadically observed. These traces are superimposed on decimeter-scale
wave-ripple-laminated sand. The lower flat ranges from almost unbur-
rowed (BI 0 and 1) to highly bioturbated (BI 5; e.g., Fig. 7F). These
deposits are dominated by larger Planolites, the modal diameter of which
is 8 mm. Skolithos and fugichnia are locally common. Traces are
superimposed on wave-ripple-laminated sand and hummocky cross-
stratified sand.
The Middle Bay
Morphology and Sediments.—The middle bay is mainly characterized
by a broad intertidal flat with a slope of ca. 0.0013, where a sparse
network of broad tidal creeks has been developed. The morphology of
these creeks is more or less straight to gently sinuous (Fig. 3). Swash bars
are not present. Sediments are composed of muddy sand and sandy mud
with a small amount of shell fragments. Mean grain size varies from 5.5 to
4 w, showing an obliquely seaward-coarsening trend (Fig. 6A). Sand
content ranges from 25% on the upper flat to 60% on the lower flat
(Fig. 6B). Sediment sorting ranges from poorly sorted in mud and sandy
mud to moderately sorted in muddy sand.
Physical and Biological Characteristics.—A seasonal variation in
sedimentary facies occurs but is not as conspicuous as that in the outer
bay (Fig. 8A–F); the winter deposits consist of somewhat coarser
sediments and are less bioturbated (Fig. 8D–F). In the lower flat, the
760 B.C. YANG ET AL. JSR
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY 761

FIG. 3.— Satellite image of the Gomso Bay estuary (http://earth.google.com) showing the three-fold zonation of the extensive tidal flats along its southern flank.
Extensive reclamation has occurred here because of the progradational nature of these flats. An arcuate incipient barrier runs diagonally across the outer part of the bay
at the boundary between the outer and middle tidal flats. It is slightly raised (ca. 1 m) and coarser grained than the surrounding flats.

FIG. 4.— Representative tide-elevation data

for the Gomso Bay estuary, measured at the
Wido tide station (see Fig. 2 for location). Note
that it shows well-defined (ca. 70 cm) diurnal
and fortnightly inequalities. The system is
macrotidal during spring tides and mesotidal
during neap tides.

FIG. 2.—A) Regional map of the China and Korean coasts around the Yellow Sea (inset). B) Map showing the western coast of Korea where extensive tidal flats (gray)
are developed because of the large tidal range and abundant sediment. The dotted box indicates study area (the Gomso Bay estuary). Arrow indicates the Wido tide
station (cf. Fig. 4). C) Detailed map of the Gomso Bay estuary showing bathymetry (datum based on mean sea level), sampling stations, and survey lines. A broad tidal
flat has developed along the southern flank. Limited amounts of terrestrial sediment are supplied to the estuary through the two small streams (Chujin and Kangsun). The
arcuate bathymetric feature at the bay entrance (gray-filled area) may represent an ebb-tidal delta. Ticks on survey lines have a spacing of 100 m. MD, HJ, and SU denote
the Mandole, Hajeon, and Sunwoon survey lines, respectively.
762 B.C. YANG ET AL. JSR

FIG. 5.— Topographic profiles in the outer

bay (MD survey line in Fig. 2C), showing the
typical concave-up profile of a wave-dominated
coast. The steeper landward portion is attributed
to swash-bar attachment forming an incipient
beach face (see text for more detailed descrip-
tion). Subtle surface undulations with a spacing
of 50–300 m and a height of 30–70 cm represent
intertidal swash bars. The changes in elevation
between profiles are generated mainly by sea-
sonal differences in wave energy, with a general
lowering of the outer flat in winter because of the
intense wave action.

cancore peels are dominated by ripple cross-lamination with small and have a sharp erosional base. It is either erosionally overlain by HCS
amounts of planar lamination (Fig. 8C, F). HCS is present locally but is or gradationally overlain by ripple cross-lamination.
uncommon. Ripple cross-lamination commonly shows bipolar dips The sandier deposits in the lower flat grade landward into the mixed
(Fig. 8F). Individual sets of planar lamination exceed 2 cm in thickness deposits of the middle flat, which consist of alternating fine-grained units,

FIG. 6.—Map showing A) mean grain size and

B) sand content, based on samples collected
during the spring season. Note that the grain-size
distribution is characterized by a seaward-fining
trend in the outer bay and by a seaward- and
channelward-coarsening trend in the inner bay.
This variation is attributed to the complex
interplay between waves and tides within the
estuarine system (wave-dominated in the outer
part but tide-dominated in the inner part; see
text for discussion).
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY 763

FIG. 7.— Selected cancore peels from the outer bay (the high-tide shoreline is to the right in all peels). In the summer cores, a surficial mud layer is widespread,
overlying less bioturbated sand that was deposited during winter. In the winter cores, planar lamination and hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) decrease toward the
high-tide shoreline with an increase of ripple cross-lamination, implying progressive decrease in the depositional energy regime. Note that in Figure 7E, a falling-tide
succession (Type 1) bounded on top by thin mud layer (dotted line) is gradationally overlain by a rising-tide succession (Type 2). The top of the Type 2 succession ends
with pervasive bioturbation (arrows), indicating the end of the storm and a return to fair-weather conditions. The ichnology of the upper flat (A and D) is characterized
by general burrow mottling due to abundant small fugichnia (fu), Planolites (Pl), and Skolithos (Sk). The middle flat (B and E) shows larger traces including fugichnia
(fu), bivalve equilibrichnia (beq), Planolites (Pl), Psilonichnus (Ps), and Skolithos (Sk). Funnel-shaped traces are attributed to Lingulichnus (Li). The lower flat (C and F) is
dominated by larger fugichnia (fu) and general Planolites mottling.
764
TABLE 1.—The main ichnogenera identified in the cancores. The estuary is characterized by a mixed-ethology suite of traces (i.e., mixed horizontal-burrow
and vertical-burrow elements).
Outer Bay
Upper Flat cryptic bioturbation, fugichnia, Planolites,
Skolithos, Thalassinoides
Middle Flat equilibrichnia, Planolites, Skolithos, Lingulichnus,
rare Psilonichnus
Lower Flat equilibrichnia, Planolites, Skolithos
dominated by heterolithic stratification, and coarse-grained units,
dominated by planar lamination and ripple cross-lamination (Fig. 8B,
E). The coarse-grained units have an erosional surface that is overlain by
a set of shell-rich, planar lamination. It grades upward into ripple cross-
lamination, topped by homogeneous mud (Fig. 8E). Ripple cross-
lamination commonly shows an offshoot geometry and/or chevron
upbuilding of ripple crests (e.g., Fig. 8E); however, the ripples have
a round crest and slight asymmetry, which we interpret to be combined-
flow ripple cross-lamination (Yang et al. 2006). In contrast, fine-grained
units are made up of interlaminated sand and mud, the laminar sets of
which locally show a rhythmite stacking pattern (e.g., Fig. 8B, E). The
mixed deposits pass, in turn, landward into the muddier deposits of the
upper flat, which are homogeneous with indistinct laminae during all
seasons (Fig. 8A, D). Scattered shells and gravel are present.
The middle-bay deposits show an increase in trace size toward the main
channel and are dominated by a mixed-ethology suite of traces (Table 1;
Fig. 8). The upper flat shows only Planolites- and Skolithos-like traces
(Fig. 8A, D) that have a modal diameter of 2 mm, but biogenic
reworking has obliterated most of the physical lamination (BI 5). The
middle flat is generally characterized by a high degree of bioturbation
(about 85%, BI 4) and is dominated by bivalve equilibrichnia (Fig. 8B, E).
Worm burrows (Planolites and Skolithos) that have a modal diameter of
3 mm are also common. The lower flat is more sparsely burrowed (10–
20%, BI 2; Fig. 8C, F) and is dominated by larger Planolites, the modal
diameter of which is 6 mm. Skolithos and fugichnia are also common.
The Inner Bay
Morphology and Sediments.—The inner bay appears morphologically
to be similar to the middle bay with the exception of the relatively dense
network of tidal creeks (Fig. 3). The topographic profile is convex
upward, with an extremely gentle gradient of ca. 0.001 on the mudflat
surface and a steeper slope along the margin of the main channel (Fig. 9).
Sediments are composed mainly of muddy sand and sandy mud with no
coarser material except for mud pebbles, shell fragments, and slump
blocks in the bottoms of tidal creeks (e.g., Fig. 10). Mean grain size varies
from 6.5 to 4.5 w, showing a seaward (i.e., channelward) coarsening trend;
sand content decreases landward from 60% to 20% (Fig. 6B). Overall, the
grain-size contours are oriented parallel to the high-tide coastline
(Fig. 6A). Sediment sorting varies from poorly sorted in mud and sandy
mud to moderately sorted in muddy sand.
Seasonal profiling (Fig. 9) shows that there is little elevation change
during the summer, except for channel-related erosion (Fig. 10). This
erosion is likely caused by the intense rainfall, which enhances softening
of the surficial mud (cf. Green and Houk 1980). As a result, substantial
amounts of mud are flushed from the bay, as evidenced by the turbid
plumes that have been observed along the China and Korean coasts
during flooding season (Ren et al. 1985). During the winter, deposition of
mud predominates, with an average aggradation rate of ca. 3 mm/month
(Fig. 9). This sediment is probably derived from contemporaneous
erosion in the outer bay and shallow subtidal zone by waves and then
carried landward by waves and flood tides. Over the measurement period,
B.C. YANG ET AL. JSR
Middle Bay Inner Bay
Planolites, Skolithos Planolites, fugichnia
Siphonichnus, equilibrichnia, Planolites, Planolites, Skolithos,
Skolithos, fugichnia Siphonichnus, fugichnia
Planolites, Skolithos, Siphonichnus, fugichnia Planolites, Skolithos, fugichnia
net accumulation is not significant (Fig. 9), perhaps because of
compaction due to self-weight and desiccation caused by insolation
(Anderson and Howell 1984).
Physical and Biological Characteristics.—The most common sedimen-
tary structure is heterolithic stratification with minor ripple cross-
lamination (Fig. 11 A–F); most structures, however, are obliterated by
intense bioturbation (Fig. 12). Seasonal changes in the degree of
bioturbation are conspicuous: intensely bioturbated in the summer and
more laminated in the winter (Fig. 11E, F). The interlaminated sand and
mud contains two types of structural succession: (1) an upward-thinning
succession and (2) a rhythmic tidal-bundle succession (e.g., Dalrymple
1992). The former begins with an erosional surface, and individual lamina
sets show a pronounced upward decrease in sand content (see the
uppermost part of Fig. 11C, F). Conversely, the second structural pattern
has no obvious scour surface at its base and individual lamina sets show
a systematic thickness variation (see the bottom of Fig. 11C). The two
types of a succession are interpreted later in the paper.
The modal diameter of visible traces—1 mm in the upper flat vs. 3 mm
in the lower flat—is smaller than in the seaward parts of the estuary.
Traces within the inner bay are dominantly produced by thread worms
(Capitellid polychaetes) and small bivalves (Cyclina sinensis). The upper
flat is highly burrowed by thread worms (80–95%, BI 4–5; Fig. 11 A, D),
which have produced small Skolithos and rare Planolites. Fugichnia are
also present. Conspicuous but rare Thalassinoides that were constructed
by arthropods are also present. A vertical burrow with a funnel-shaped
aperture denoted as Monocraterion is shown in Figure 11A. The middle
flat is about 40% bioturbated (BI 3) and contains common bivalve traces
(Fig. 11B, E). Cylindrichnus-like traces are probably the basal portion of
a larger structure (Lingulichnus) (Figs. 11B, 12). Worm burrows (i.e.,
Planolites and Skolithos) are 1–3 mm in diameter. The lower flat is
approximately 50% bioturbated (BI 3) and is dominated by bivalve-
produced equilibrichnia and various worm-generated structures (Sko-
lithos and Planolites) (Fig. 11C, F). Here, worm burrows have a modal
diameter of 3 mm, but bivalve burrows are about the same size as those
observed in the upper flats.
UP-ESTUARY VARIATION OF DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES
Wave-Dominated Outer Bay
Swash bars, a concave-up incipient beach face, a seaward-fining grain-
size trend and widespread presence of HCS imply that depositional
conditions are wave-dominated, as are commonly observed in other open-
coast tidal-flat settings (Short 1991; Yang et al. 2005). Unlike typical tidal
flats (Klein 1985; Dalrymple 1992), the diagonal distribution of grain size
to the estuarine margin (Fig. 6A) can be attributed to the influence of
winter waves that approach from the northwest (e.g., Fig. 13A). Such
a wave-dominated interpretation is also supported by the scarcity of
bioturbation.
The mud deposit during the summer superficially resembles a tidal
rhythmite but is interpreted here to be a storm deposit for the reasons
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY 765

FIG. 8.—Selected cancore peels from the middle bay (the high-tide shoreline is to the right in all peels). The progressive passage from sandier deposits in the lower flat
through mixed sand and mud in the middle flat to muddier sediments in the upper flat is well developed due to the landward decrease in hydraulic energy. The surficial
layer is pervasively bioturbated in the summer cores but well laminated in the winter cores. The ichnology of the upper flat (A and D) is characterized by general burrow
mottling due to abundant small Planolites (Pl), and Skolithos (Sk). The middle flat (B and E) is dominated by larger traces including Siphonichnus (Si or beq), Lockeia
(Lo), Planolites (Pl), and Skolithos (Sk). The lower flat (C and F) is dominated by larger Skolithos and bivalve equilibrichnia or fugichnia (fu).

given by Yang et al. (2005) and Yang et al. (in press). The winter deposits,
including planar lamination and HCS passing up into ripple cross
lamination, are also interpreted as storm deposits (Fig. 13B) (cf. Dott and
Bourgeois 1982). The decrease in the proportion of planar lamination and
HCS toward the high-tide level reflects a progressive decrease in wave
energy due to frictional dissipation across the shallowly submerged tidal
flats (e.g., Yang et al. 2006). Despite the fact that the sedimentary and
morphologic features of the outer bay indicate that this area is strongly
wave-dominated, evidence of tidal influence is provided by the presence
of the Type 1 and Type 2 storm-bed successions, which have been
766 B.C. YANG ET AL.
interpreted as ‘‘tidally modulated storm deposits’’ by Yang et al. (in press).
They form because storms last more than a single tidal cycle with wave
energy changing over each tidal cycle because of changes in water depth
(e.g., Fig. 13B) (see Yang et al. in press for more detail).
The increase in burrow diameter from 4 mm in the upper flat to 8 mm
in the lower flat is passively related to the duration of tidal inundation
(Gingras et al. 1999; Gingras et al. 2002a). The upper flats are dominated
by sediment-grazing traces, suggesting that the food resources are
abundant. The bioturbated texture in the middle flats is similar to that
observed in the lower flats of the middle bay in response to similar
substrate character and energy level in these two areas. In other words,
ichnological trends are generally not shoreline parallel (e.g., Fig. 13A, C).
The lower degrees of bioturbation relative to more headward areas are
a result of the more intense and frequent wave-generated reworking of the
sandy substrate (e.g., Fig. 13A).
Mixed-Energy Middle Bay
The tributary network of tidal creeks and a seaward-coarsening trend
are common features observed in tide-dominated tidal flats (Dalrymple
1992). A gentle slope gradient (ca. 0.0013) is also comparable with other
tide-dominated Korean coasts (e.g., Wells et al. 1990). However, the
JSR
FIG. 9.— Topographic profiles from survey
line SU in the inner bay (Fig. 2C), showing the
convex-up profile that characterizes the inner,
tide-dominated flats. Note that tidal creeks (V-
shaped depressions) are a common feature of
these muddy tidal flats. Unlike the outer bay,
pervasive sediment accumulation occurs during
the winter, when there is rapid accumulation of
fine sediment (see text for more detail).
observed oblique trend in grain size (Fig. 6A) is believed to reflect
a significant wave influence in the middle bay (Fig. 13A). Textural
variations between coarser sediments in the winter and finer sediments in
the summer are likely due to a seasonal variation in wave energy (Yang et
al. 2005). This phenomenon is also reflected in the seasonal change in the
degree of bioturbation, from lesser in the winter deposits to intense in the
summer deposits.
The presence of the sandy and muddy storm deposits suggests that
wave action remains a significant depositional process. However, the
presence of rhythmic lamination implies a tidal dominance during a non-
storm period (cf. Klein 1985; Dalrymple 1992), something that is also
evidenced by the presence of bipolar (herringbone) dips of ripple cross-
lamination. Structureless units in the upper-flat deposits are likely due to
intense bioturbation under low-energy conditions, but scattered shells
and gravel are indicative of sporadic action of storm waves.
The increase in worm-burrow diameter from 3 mm in the upper flat to
6 mm in the lower flat is related to the duration of tidal inundation. Apart
from trace size, the upper tidal flats of both the inner and middle estuary
are ichnologically similar. The middle tidal flat of the middle bay is
ichnologically similar to the lower tidal flat of the inner bay in that: (1)
traces of bivalves and deposit-feeding worms are abundant; and (2)
bivalve upward-adjustment traces indicate that the animals were
FIG. 10.— Tidal-flat erosion in the inner bay
two days after a summer typhoon (Fengshen,
2002). Channel erosion results from local runoff
due to heavy rainfall. Many crab burrows can be
seen on the exposed surface. Geologist (circled)
for scale.
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY 767

FIG. 11.—Selected cancore peels from the inner bay (landward is to the right in all peels). Preservation potential of laminae decreases landward with an increase in the
degree of bioturbation, with winter deposits being less bioturbated. Dotted line (C) indicates scour surface that is overlain by a thinning-upward succession, at the base of
which very thin rippled sand (arrows) grades upward into interlaminated sand and mud (see text for more detailed description). Unlike the outer and middle bays,
significant accumulation occurs during the winter rather than the summer, implying that much of the laminated sand and mud might have been deposited under storm
conditions. The ichnology of the upper flat (A and D) is characterized by general burrow mottling due to abundant small to moderately sized Siphonichnus, Planolites (Pl),
and Skolithos (Sk). The middle flat (B and E) is dominated by larger traces, including bivalve equilibrichnia (beq), moderately sized Planolites (Pl), Siphonichnus,
Psilonichnu (Ps), and Skolithos (Sk). Traces produced by lingulid brachiopods are also noted (Li). The lower flat (C and F) is characterized by bivalve-produced
equilibrichnia (beq) and larger Skolithos, Planolites, and sediment admixing due to the activities of sand-swimming organisms (i.e., cryptic bioturbation).
768 B.C. YANG ET AL.
FIG. 12.— X-ray image of a lingulid brachiopod in life position. The reworked
zone (dashed lines) around the brachiopod shows the extent of reworking present
in the trace (Lingulichnus: ‘‘Li’’). General burrow mottling is also noted. This is
mostly due to the activities of a worm that produced Planolites.
responding to sporadically high sedimentation rates. The similarity of the
middle tidal flat here to the lower flat of the inner estuary suggests that
the ichnocoenoses continue to cut diagonally across the tidal flats in
response to the distribution of energy levels (e.g., Fig. 13A, C).
Tide-Dominated Inner Bay
The dendritic network of tidal creeks and a channelward-coarsening
trend indicate that the inner bay is a tide-dominated setting, which is
strengthened by the presence of rhythmic lamina successions and the
coast-parallel grain-size contours (e.g., Figs. 6, 13A). The finer sediments
indicate low-energy depositional conditions, which are also evidenced by
intense bioturbation (Figs. 11, 12). However, the sharp-based thinning-
upward lamina successions may represent storm sedimentation (Fig. 13B)
(cf. Fan et al. 2004; Yang et al. 2005). During winter-storm conditions,
open-sea waves give rise to the development of highly turbid conditions in
the coastal zone due to strong bottom agitation. These suspended
sediments are likely to be transported into the inner bay by flood tides
where rapid settling occurs due to the sheltered location; such rapid
accumulation is supported by the topographic measurements (Fig. 9).
Thus, the lamination–bioturbation pattern preserved in the cancore peels
probably reflects the seasonal variation in wave energy, even in this
sheltered headward location.
The increase in worm-burrow diameter from 1 mm in the upper flat to
3 mm in the lower flat is probably related to the duration of tidal
inundation. However, the thread-worm burrows in the upper flat are also
consistent with lower degrees of sediment oxygenation (Mangum et al.
JSR
1968), which can be related to the fine sediment grain size and the
inefficiency of tidal pumping. The observed trend may also be in part
attributed to salinity stress, inasmuch as nearshore tidal flats character-
istically suffer fresh-water influx from local groundwater discharge and
precipitation (Gingras et al. 1999). The presence of lingulid (Figs. 11B,
12) and bivalve burrows channelwards (into the middle intertidal flats)
reflects animal response to increased food in suspension and an
abundance of food accumulating at the sediment–water interface,
probably during slack tide (see other examples in Gingras et al. 1999
and Pearson and Gingras 2006). The secondary importance of worm
traces (particularly Planolites) in this zone shows that much of the food
resource is harvested at the sediment–water interface, reducing the
tendency for infaunal grazing.
DISCUSSION
Ichnology
The ichnological data indicate that: (1) infaunal traces increase in size
from the upper to the lower flats; (2) traces increase in size from the inner
estuary to the outer estuary; (3) interface deposit feeding is dominant in
the sheltered parts of the estuary, whereas sediment grazing is dominant
in wave-agitated parts of the estuary; and (4) mappable ichnological
trends and sedimentary-facies zonation cut diagonally across the tidal
flats and are thereby not shoreline parallel.
Regarding trace size, our observations are consistent with those
published in several studies (summarized in Gingras et al. 1999) and were
to a degree expected. Although such trends have not been tested in the
rock record, we believe that these trends may be preserved in marginal-
marine strata. In fact this relationship was alluded to in Gingras et al.
(2002b), but no systematic dataset was available to support that
hypothesis. However, this dataset presents one of the first actualistic
studies that effectively demonstrate that ichnological trends are not
necessarily shoreline parallel. Herein, the primary control on ichnocoe-
nosis development is the local hydrodynamic conditions and—perhaps
more fundamentally—sediment grain size (e.g., Fig. 6A).
Mixed-Energy Estuaries in an Environmental Continuum
Considering the end-member estuarine facies models (e.g., Dalrymple
et al. 1992), both tide-dominated and wave-dominated estuaries are
characterized by tide-dominated sedimentation within them. Even in
wave-dominated estuaries, the presence of a coastal barrier (Fig. 1)
implies that storm sedimentation is not significant within the estuary
because the barrier provides protection from wave action; only internally
generated waves are present behind the barrier (Dalrymple et al. 1992). As
with the published concepts (e.g., tidal range and morphologic elements)
for the classification of estuaries, the open-mouthed nature of the Gomso
Bay estuary confirms the idea that the absence of a prominent coastal
barrier indicates a strong influence of tidal energy due to the large tidal
range and morphologic constriction (e.g., Fig. 13A) (e.g., Dalrymple et al.
1992), whereas the presence of abundant (sandy and muddy) storm
deposits within the estuary suggests a strong influence of waves on
estuarine sedimentation (e.g., Fig. 13B). Thus, the presence of the large
tidal range is indirectly responsible for significant wave influence within
the estuary, a result that is not intuitive. In addition, such conditions are
inconsistent with the ideas embodied in the end-member estuarine model
(i.e., tide-dominated within estuaries), and are considered to be one of the
unique features of mixed-energy estuaries.
The wide-open baymouth allows open-sea waves to enter the estuary,
where wave refraction occurs, because wave speed is depth-related. In
addition, the increasing attenuation of the waves as they travel across the
shallowly submerged tidal flat results in the progressive decrease in wave
energy both headward and toward the estuary margins. As a result, an
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY
up-estuary variation in the nature of storm deposits is to be expected
(Fig. 13B); mixed-energy estuaries are characterized by abundant storm
deposits, unlike estuaries at either end of the spectrum. Such storm-
deposit variation is superficially similar to that observed in the shoreface–
shelf environment, where the similarity is heightened by the fact that
thickly amalgamated, proximal (sand) tempestites are followed by distal
(mud) tempestites, in the deeper waters of the shelf mud facies (e.g.,
Aigner and Reineck 1982). Thus, this similarity might lead to erroneous
paleo-environmental interpretation, but many other features in the
deposits of Gomso Bay, including the many tidal structures (i.e., tidal-
channel deposits, herringbone cross-lamination, tidal rhythmites, etc.),
would aid in the distinction between an estuary such as this and the shelf–
shoreface.
769
FIG. 13.— Up-estuary variations of A) de-
positional dynamics, B) sedimentary structures,
and C) facies distribution in a schematic mixed-
energy estuary. Gray filled and white parts the
middle panel (B) represent storm and fair-
weather deposits, respectively.
Significant differences exist with respect to the orientation of the main
facies belts within the environmental continuum of estuarine systems
(e.g., Fig. 14). In wave-dominated estuaries, much of the tidal energy is
dissipated rapidly by friction in the narrow tidal inlet, resulting in flood-
tidal-delta deposits that grade bayward into muddier, central-basin
sediments, succeeded, in turn, by bayhead-delta deposits (Fig. 14A)
(Dalrymple et al. 1992). As a result, overall the facies belts tend to be
transverse to the estuary axis (Fig. 14A), as is supported by the
ichnocoenoses reported from Kouchibouguac Bay, Canada (Gingras et
al. 2002b). In contrast, tidal energy in tide-dominated estuaries is derived
primarily from a deep, central channel, and decreases toward the
estuarine margin due to frictional retardation on the shallow tidal flats.
Thus, sedimentary facies have a longitudinal orientation (i.e., parallel to
770 B.C. YANG ET AL.
the estuarine margin) (Fig. 14B), which is approximately consistent with
the ichnocoenoses as seen, for example, in the Bay of Fundy (Gingras et
al. 2002b). On the other hand, the facies distribution in Gomso Bay is
significantly different from either of these situations, showing a diagonal
trend in the outer and middle bays and a longitudinal trend in the inner
bay (Fig. 14C). Because the several criteria (e.g., tidal range and
geomorphic elements) that underpin estuary classification schemes are
apparently in conflict, the estuary-scale pattern of facies variation
attributed to the change in physical-energy distribution should be
considered in the estuarine classification, and is believed to be a reliable
means of classifying estuaries (Fig. 14).
For example, the macrotidal Gironde estuary (Allen and Posamentier
1994), which is widely considered in the geologic literature to be a mixed-
energy estuary, is in reality a wave-dominated estuary because the facies
variation shows the transverse trend due to the presence of a well-
developed coastal barrier and narrow tidal inlet (e.g., Fig. 14A). In the
same way, many other previously proposed mixed-energy estuaries,
including Delaware Bay and Chesapeake Bay, should be considered as
wave-dominated estuaries, because their facies variation also shows the
transverse trend. By contrast, the mesotidal Willapa Bay is characterized
by the presence of a coastal barrier, but the middle part of the estuarine
system appears to be influenced by significant amounts of open-sea waves
that enter through the relatively wide inlet (ca. 9 km), with the degree of
wave influence depending strongly on the distance from the inlet. The
northern estuary close to the inlet is mixed-energy, and the facies
distribution shows an inward transition from a diagonal trend to
a longitudinal trend, as is observed in Gomso Bay, whereas the southern
estuary (sheltered distal areas from the inlet) is wave-dominated with
a transverse facies trend (Gingras et al. 2002a). Therefore, the inlet width,
controlled by the tidal prism (e.g., O’Brien and Dean 1972), seems to be
an important factor to determine the facies inside the estuary. In other
words, estuarine morphology is not related directly to tidal range, as is
commonly done in previous studies.
The new facies-belt models shown in Figure 14 will contribute to the
more exact interpretation of ancient estuarine deposits that commonly
form hydrocarbon reservoirs (Dalrymple et al. 1992). The correct
identification of where a specific ancient example falls in the spectrum
of estuarine environments is important because of the architectural and
facies differences that exist between the various settings. Thus,
establishment of the facies trends in ancient estuarine examples can be
JSR
FIG. 14.— Conceptual diagram showing the
facies distribution in the transition from A)
wave-dominated estuaries with limited tidal
energy through C) mixed-energy estuaries to B)
tide-dominated estuaries with insignificant wave
energy. The significant penetration of open-sea
waves into mixed-energy estuaries, where wave
refraction and attenuation occur contempora-
neously, allows the facies zonation to be
differentiated from the two end-member
estuarine settings.
used to make more precise interpretations of the geometry of coastlines
and reservoirs.
CONCLUSIONS
The macrotidal Gomso Bay estuary, on the western Korean coast,
suffers pronounced seasonal variations due to the monsoonal wind
regime. Depositional conditions are therefore strongly seasonally
influenced. Sedimentation during the summer is characterized by long
intervals of comparatively quiescent conditions that permit mud to be
deposited within the estuary. Mud accumulation is punctuated in-
frequently by summer typhoons, when higher wave conditions and heavy
rainfall can remove significant amounts of muddy sediment from the
estuary. In contrast, estuarine sedimentation during the winter is
frequently influenced by storm waves, such that some of the mud eroded
by these waves is transported into the head of the estuary, where net
accumulation is most pronounced in winter.
The presence of only an incipient baymouth coastal barrier that is
submerged at high tide allows open-sea waves to enter the bay, where the
shallowly submerged tidal flat causes a progressive decrease in wave
energy both laterally toward the bay margin and towards the bayhead.
Thus, there is an up-estuary passage from the wave-dominated outer bay,
characterized by sandy storm deposits containing hummocky cross-
stratification and planar lamination, to the tide-dominated inner bay,
dominated by heterolithic stratification. Due to refraction of the
incoming waves, the facies belts attributed to the distribution of physical
energy show an up-estuary transition from shoreline (bay-margin)
oblique in the outer and middle bays to axis and bay-margin parallel in
the inner bay. Ichnological trends representing the behavioral response of
organisms to the environmental stresses are also consistent with the up-
estuary variation of sedimentary facies, showing that traces increase in
size from the inner estuary to the outer estuary. Traces also increase in
size from the uppermost tidal flats to the lowermost tidal flats as a result
of the increasing duration of submergence. Interface deposit feeding is
dominant in the sheltered parts of the bay, whereas sediment grazing is
dominant in the wave-dominated outer bay.
Based on the integrated sedimentologic and ichnologic study in the
mixed-energy Gomso Bay estuary, supplemented by an examination of
other estuaries that experience significant wave and tidal action, we
suggest that estuarine morphology is related directly to the tidal prism—
JSR UP-ESTUARY FACIES VARIATION IN AN OPEN-MOUTHED, MIXED-ENERGY ESTUARY
from which the inlet width is determined—rather than tidal range as is
commonly done in current models. In addition, our findings suggest that
the facies-belt trends within an estuary are an important tool by which
estuaries can be classified, and can be used to differentiate wave-
dominated and tide-dominated end-member estuarine systems from true
mixed-energy systems. Such distinctions have important implications for
the interpretation of coastal and petroleum-reservoir geometry.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was funded by grants from the Natural Science and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (#7553-01; RWD) and the Korea Research
Foundation (KRF-2006-C00452). This study was also partially supported
through the project ‘‘Projection and Management of Coastal Topographic
Changes’’ (PM37907) by the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries of
Korea. Boxcore collection was collaborated with Son, C.S. (Senckenberg
Institute). We thank Y.S. Baek, J.K. Kim (Chonnam National University),
and K.S. Jang (Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources) for
their assistance in the field and laboratory. We appreciate the constructive
comments by M. Gibling, A. Archer, G. Hampson, and C.P. North. We also
thank Dr. J.B. Southard and M. Lester for technical review and editorial
assistance.
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