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NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERI
ENGINEERING
NG TECHNOLOGY
10
10 Ohms
Ohms R
100 volts
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
SCIENCE (I)
COURSE CODE:
CODE EEC 115
YEAR I-
I SEMESTER I
THEORY
THEORY
LIST OF CONTENTS
WEEK 1:
1.1 Atom
1.2 Structure and composition of an atom
1.3 Conductors, insulators and semiconductor
WEEK 2:
1.4 Concepts of current and electron flow
1.5 Electric current, potential difference, electromotive force and resistance
1.6 Multiples and sub multiples of electric quantities
WEEK 3:
2.1 Direct current
2.2 Analogy between current flow and water flow
2.3 Basic d.c. circuit
WEEK 4
2.4 Ohm’s law
WEEK 5:
2.4 Ohm’s law
WEEK 6 :
2.5 Resistivity and conductivity
WEEK 7:
WEEK8:
2.9 Kirchhoff’s laws
WEEK 9:
2.10 Superposition principle
WEEK 10:
2.11 Temperature coefficient of resistance
WEEK 11:
3.1 Energy and its various types
WEEK 12:
3.4 Joule’s law
WEEK 13:
4.1 Electric charge
WEEK 14:
4.3 Definition of terms used in electrostatics
4.4 Capacitance
WEEK 15:
4.5 Capacitor connections
1.1 ATOM
Defination: An atom is the smallest indivisible particle which all matter is made of up.
5
moves one of them will cause a repulsion of other electrons which propagates, "domino
fashion" through the conductor.
Take these materials listed here and put them in order from lightest to heaviest
with respect to their densities, that is, weight per unit volume:
aluminum copper
Insulator
An Insulator is a material or object which resists the flow of heat (thermal insulators) or
electric charge (electrical insulators).
The term insulator has the same meaning as the term dielectric, but the two terms are
used in different contexts. The opposite of insulators are conductors and semiconductors,
which permit the flow of charge. Semiconductors are strictly speaking also insulators, since
they prevent the flow of electric charge at low temperatures, unless doped with atoms that
release extra charges to carry the current). However, some materials (such as silicon dioxide)
are very nearly perfect electrical insulators, which allow flash memory technology. A much
larger class of materials, (for example rubber and many plastics) are "good enough"
insulators to be used for home and office wiring (into the hundreds of volts) without
noticeable loss of safety or efficiency.
6
wood
Rubber
Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material with an conductance that is intermediate between that of an
insulator and a conductor.
The ease with which electrons in a semiconductor can be excited from the valence
band to the conduction band depends on the band gap between the bands, and it is the size of
this energy bandgap that serves as an arbitrary dividing line between semiconductors and
insulators. Materials with a bandgap energy of less than about 3 electron volts are generally
considered semiconductors, while those with a greater bandgap energy are considered
insulators..
The current-carrying electrons in the conduction band are known as "free electrons,"
although they are often simply called "electrons" if context allows this usage to be clear. The
holes in the valence band behave very much like positively-charged counterparts of electrons,
and they are usually treated as if they are real charged particles.
8
Concept Of Electric Current Flow Week 2
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• Explain the concepts of current and electron flow
• Define electric current, potential difference, electromotive force (e.m.f) and resistance
• State multiples and submultiples of electric quantities
At any instant in time, the electrons in a conductor are in random motion. However, if a
directional force e.g. electromotive force EMF from a battery is applied to the conductor as
shown in Fig 2.1 below, then end A of the conductor is positive while end B is negative. This
results in directed flow of electrons.
The directional movement of free electrons is referred to as current flow and the conventional
current flow is in the opposite direction of electron flow as can be seen in the diagram.
Normally, conventional current flow is generally used.
B -ve terminal
Power
Electron flow
source Current flow
A +ve terminal
Fig 2.1
9
Electromotive Force (e.m.f)
Electromotive force is the force that gives rise to electric current in a circuit; also it’s the
force that makes flow of electric current in a circuit. This force arises from many effects
including chemical (e.g. battery cells) and magnetic, as (e.g. generator). The unit of
electromotive force is the volt, symbol E.
Resistance
The resistance can be defined as an opposing force experience by the flow of charge through
a material. The opposition is due to the collision between electrons and other atoms in the
material, and it converts electrical energy into heat energy. The unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω),
and has a symbol R.
10
Simple d.c. Circuits Week 3
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• Define d.c current
• State the analogy between current flow and water flow
• Describe basic d.c. circuits
+ -
Fig. 3.1: symbol of a battery
11
Figure (3.2) water analogy
2.3 BASIC D. C. CIRCUIT
A basic d.c. (direct current) circuit consist of an electrical connection of a d.c power source
(e.m.f source), connecting wires and a load as shown in Fig 3.3. In this case, the load can be
any electrical component (e.g. a resistor) or a network of resistors. The d.c. power sources
such as dry cells (such as used in flash lights), car batteries and laboratory d.c power supply
unit. The symbol of a d.c source is as shown in Fig. 3.3. It is represented by two vertical
lines, with the longer line marked (+) and the shorter line marked (-).
+
E.m.f, E R (load)
source _
Connecting wire
Fig 3.3
12
Concept Of Electric Current Flow Week 4
13
Low High Low High
_ _
+ +
I V
10 Ohms R
200 volts
Ohm‘s law also stated that if the voltage is kept constant, less resistance results
in more current, and, also, more resistance results in less current. For example, if
resistance is halved, the current will doubled. If the resistance is doubled, the current
is halved.
This relationship is illustrated by the meter indications in the figure (4.2).
Where the resistance is increase and the voltage is constant.
14
Formula for current
V Equation (4.1)
I=
R
This form of Ohm‘s low is used to determine current if voltage and resistance values
are known
This form of Ohm‘s low is used to determine voltage if current and resistance values
are known
V
R == Equation (4.3)
I
This form of Ohm‘s low is used to determine resistance if voltage and current values
are known
15
To use the triangle, cover the value you want to calculate, the remaining letters make
up the formula as shown in figure (4.4).
V V
I= V=IR R ==
R I
Ω
10
6
=
20 2
R
30 3 5
40 4 4
50 5
3
60 6
2
70 7
1
V
I=
10 Ω 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Table (4.1) Figure (4.5) : Graph of current versus voltage for
R= 10 Ω
The graph of the current values versus the voltage values is shown in the Fig.
(4.5). This graph tells us that a change in voltage results in a linearly proportional
change in current. From graph the change in voltage from 20 to 30 is increased by
50% by calculation the current must be increase by the same percentages 50% I = 2 +
2 X 50/100 = 3A.
17
I (A)
R (Ω) I (A)
10 1
0.6
20 0.500
0.5
30 0.333
40 0.250 0.4
50 0.200 0.3
60 0.167 0.2
70 0.143
0.1
0 R (Ω)
10 v 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
I=
R 0Figure (4.6) : Graph of current versus resistance for
Table ( 4.2)
V= 10 v
18
Simple d.c. Circuits Week 5
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• Calculate current using ohm’s law
• Calculate voltage using ohm’s law
• Calculate the resistance using ohm’s law
Example 5.1
The voltage supplied by the battery is 10 volts, and the resistance is 5 Ω
in the circuit of figure (3-7). Calculate the current in amperes?
I
V R
10v 10Ω
Figure (6.1)
Solution: use the formula
V = 100 volts
V
I= R = 10 Ω
R
10 I= ?
I= = 1A
10
19
Example5-2
If the resistance in figure 5.7 is changed to 0.1 KΩ and the voltage to
50V, what is the new value of current?
V
I=
Solution: R V = 500 volts
R = 0.1 KΩ
= 0.1 X 1000 Ω
50
I= = 0.25 A = 100 Ω
100
I=?
Example 5.1
The voltage supplied by the battery is 10 volts, and the resistance is 5 Ω
in the circuit of figure (3-7). Calculate the current in amperes?
Figure (5.2)
Solution: use the formula
V = 100 volts
V
I= R = 10 Ω
R
10 I= ?
I= = 1A
10
20
Example 5.2
If the resistance in figure 3-7 is changed to 0.1 KΩ and the voltage to
50V, what is the new value of current?
I
I= VV R
Solution: R
10v V =10
500
Ω volts
R = 0.1 KΩ
= 0.1 X 1000 Ω
50
I= = 0.25 A = 100 Ω
100
V I=?
I=
R
2.4.6 Calculating Resistance
In this section, you will learn to determine the resistance values when you
known the values of voltage and current. As examples, by using the following formula
R = V/I
In order to get resistance by ohms, you must express the value of voltage in
volts and the value of current in amperes.
Example 5.5
In the circuit in figure (3-9), how much resistance is needed to draw 4mA of
current ?
I = 6A
V R
24 v
Figure (5.3)
V = 24 v
Solution:
R=?
use the formula R= V / I
I = 6A
V
R=
I
24
R= = 4Ω
6
21
Example 5.6
The circuit in figure (5.3), the voltage is changed to 1.2 KΩ, and the current
is changed to 4 mA, what is the resistance
Solution: V = 1.2 kV
use the formula R= V / I = 1.2 X 1000
= 1200V
V 1200
R= = = 3,000,000 Ω R=?
I 4×1000
I = 4 mA
If required Resistance by M Ω
R = 3,000,000 /1,000,000 = 3 MΩ
22
Simple d.c. Circuits Week 6
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• Define resistivity and conductivity of a conductor
• State the relationship between series and parallel circuits
• Differentiate between series and parallel circuits
Conductivity
The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity and is denoted by the symbol σ. (σ is a Greek
letter pronounced sigma) its unit of measurement is (Ω - m)-1, or 1 .
Ω-m
Mathematically, the two terms can be related as
σ = 1 , (Ω - m)-1
(5.2)
ρ
This relationship can be expressed as follows:
the higher the resistivity of a material, the lower its conductivity, and vice versa.
23
2.6 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Series circuits
A series circuit is formed when any numbers of resistors are connected end-to-
start so that there is only one path for current to flow. The resistors can be actual
resistors or other devices that have resistance like lamps.
Figure (6.1) shows two resistors connected in series (end -to –start) between
points A and B. There is only way for current to get from point A to point B. a series
circuit provides only one path for current between two points in a circuit so that the
current in the same through R1and R2.
Figure (6.2) : Some examples of series circuits. Notice that the current is the
same at all points
Parallel Circuits
A parallel circuit is formed when any number of resistors are connected starts-to-starts
and ends-to-ends so that there is different paths for current to flow. The resistors can be
actual resistors or other devices that have resistance like lamps.
24
Figure (6.3) shows two resistors connected in parallel (start-to-start and end-to-end)
between points A and B. There is two ways for current to get from point A to point B. a
parallel circuit provides more than one path for current between two points in a circuit so that
the current flow in two paths current flow in R1 is called I1 and current flow in R2 is called I2.
Figure (6.4) : Some examples of parallel circuits. Notice that the current is
the same at all points
25
Simple d.c. Circuits Week 7
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• Solve problems involving resistivity and conductivity
• Deduce the equivalent resistance of series and parallel circuits
• Solve problems on series and parallel resistors
2.7 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING RESISTIVITY AND
CONDUCTIVITY
Example 7.1
A cylinder wire of 0.5m in length, 0.5mm in diameter, has a resistance of 2.5Ohms. calculate
the
resistivity of the wire.
Solution
length, l = 0.5m
radius r = 0.5mm = 0.25 mm = 2.5 X 10-4m
2
Cross sectional area, A = πr2 = 22 X (2.5 X 10-4)2 m2
7
ρ = RA = 2.5 X (22/7) X (2.5 X 10-4)2
l 0.5
∴ ρ = 98.19 X 10-8 Ohm – meter.
Example 7.2
A wire of diameter 0.6mm, resistivity 1.1 X 10-6Ω - m has resistance of 44Ω. Calculate the
length of
the wire.
Solution
Here, we are given:
radius, r = 0.6 mm = 3 X 10-4m
2
To find l we deduce it from ρ = RA (i.e. l = RA )
l ρ
∴ l = 44 X (22/7) X (3 X 10-4)2
1.1 X 10-6
= 11.3m
26
Example 7.3
A 30m conductor of cross sectional area 2mm2 has a resistance of 10Ω. Calculate the
conductivity
of the conductor.
Solution
ρ= l .
RA
= 30 = 1.5 X 106 (Ω - m)-1
10 X 2(10-3)2
2.8 EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Equivalent Resistance Of A series Circuit
I1 R1 I2 R2 I3 R3
Vs
Figure 7.1 Series circuit
When resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3 are joint together (fig 7.1), they are said to
be connected in series. It should be noted that:
(i) The current through a series circuit is the same all over.
(ii) The voltage drop across each resistor is different depending on its resistances.
(iii) The applied voltage (Vs) is equal to the sum of the P.d’s across each resistor.
i.e. I=I1=I2=I3
Vs= V(R1) + V(R2) +V(R3)
(7.1)
27
Req. is given by Req. = R1 + R2 +R3 + …. + Rn
(7.3)
Vs R1 R2 R3
When resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel, the following
statements hold good:
28
Example 7.4
In the circuit in figure (7.3), Determine the two voltages drops across R1 and
R2?
+
Figure (7.3)
Solution:
R1= 2.2 Ω
1) First solve for total resistance.
R2= 1.8 Ω
RT = R1 + R2
V = 12 v
= 2.2 + 1.8 = 4 Ω
I=?
2) Second, solve for current:
VR1= ?
V 12
I= = = 3 Amp VR2= ?
RT 4
3) Finally, solve for voltage drop across any resistor:
Voltage drop across R1
VR1= I X R1 = 3 X 2.2 = 6.6 v
Voltage drop across R2
VR2= I X R2 = 3 X 1.8 = 5.4 v
The sum of all voltage drops ( 6.6v + 5.4v ) equals the source voltage (12v).
29
Example 7.5
In the circuit in figure (7.4), Determine the current in each branch
+
Figure (7.4)
Solution:
1) First solve for total resistance.
Used the formula when there are two unequal value resistors
R1 X R2 4X6 24
RT = = = = 2.4 Ω
R1 + R2 4+ 6 10
2) Second, solve for voltage across any resistor:
R1 = 4 Ω
VR1 = VR1 = VT = 12 v
R2 = 6 Ω
3) Finally, solve for current in each branch :
VR1 12 V = 12 v
I1 = = = 3 Amp
R1 4 I1 = ?
VR1 12
I2 = = = 2 Amp I2 = ?
R1 6
VT 12
IT = = = 5 Amp
RT 2.4
The sum of current in each branch (3 + 2) equal the total current 5A
30
Simple d.c. Circuits Week 8
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• State Kirchhoff’’s laws
• Explain Kirchhoff’s laws
• Solve simple problems on Kirchhoff’s laws
i1
i5
i2
i4
i3
Fig 8.1
31
Example 8.1
Find the value of I in Fig 8.2
I
6A
5A
P
4A
8A
Fig 8.2
Solution
In order to find the value of I, the following equation can be formed.
Currents towards P = currents flowing from P.
∴ 6 + 4 + 5 = I + 8, ⇒ I = 7A
Example 8.2
Determine the value of Vab in the circuit shown in Fig 8.3 (a) and (b) using KVL.
6V
+ _ 6V+ +
a a
3V Vab 3V Vab
_b _b
2V 2V
(b)
(a)
Fig 8.3
32
Solution
For Fig 8.3(a), applying KVL, we get
-2V + 3V – 6V – Vab = 0
∴ Vab = -5V
For Fig 8.3 (b) applying KVL, we get
-2V + 3V + 6V – Vab = 0
∴ Vab = 7V
Example 8.3
Applying KCL and KVL to the circuit of Fig. 8.4, write down the equation pertaining to loop
I and II respectively,
I1 I3
I2
R1 R3
I R2 II
E1 E2
Fig 8.4
Solution
N.B. we are working under the assumption of fixed direction of I1, I2 and I3 as shown
in Fig 8.4
Applying KVL to loop I, we get
-E1 = R1I1 + R2I2
Applying KVL to loop II, we get
E2 = -R2I2 + R3I3
From KCL we known that at node A
I1 = I2 + I3
or I3 = I1 – I2
Putting this value of I3 into the equation involving E2, we get
E2 = -R2I2 + R3 (I1 – I2)
E2 = R2I2 – (R2 + R3) I2
33
Simple d.c. Circuits Week 9
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• State superposition principle
• Explain superposition principle
• Solve simple problems on superposition principle
Example 8.1
Solve the same problem in example 3.5 to determine all the branch currents using the
superposition principles.
Solution
To solve this problems we shall follow the steps.
Step I, Re-draw the given circuit diagram with E1 = 15V and E2 = OV, as shown in
Fig 9.1 below
34
I1 A I3
I1” A I3”
I2
4Ω 2Ω I2’
4Ω
3Ω
E2 3Ω 2Ω
E1 = 15V 10V E1 = 15V
B
B
(a) Original circuit diagram (b) circuit diagram with E2 =OV
Fig 9.1
Step II: Next, determine all the branch currents I1’, I2’ and I3’ indicated in Fig 9.1 (b),
With E1 = 15V and E2 = OV.
Step III: we find the equivalent resistance of 3Ω resistor and 2Ω resistor connected in
parallel.
i.e. R3Ω//R2Ω = 3 X 2 = 6 = 1.2Ω
3+2 5
Step IV: The circuit diagram of Fig 9.1(b) reduces to the form shown in Fig 9.1
4Ω R3Ω//R2Ω = 1.2Ω
E1 = 15V
Fig 9.2
Step V: we can apply the Kirchhoff’s Voltage law to the circuit diagram of Fig 9.2 to obtain,
I’1 = E1 .
(4 + R3Ω//R2Ω)
I’1 = 15 = 2.885A
( 4 + 1.2)
Step VI: Turn back to fig 9.1(b) and bear in mind that I1 is the total current that flows into
the 3Ω resistor branch and 2Ω resistor branch which are in parallel. Applying the principle of
current division rule, we get
I’2 = R2Ω X I’1 = 2 X 2.885 = 1.154A
(R2Ω) + R3Ω) (2 + 3)
35
Similarly, I’3 = R3Ω X I’1 = 3 X 2.885 = 1.731A
(R2Ω + R3Ω) (2 + 3)
Step VII: Draw the corresponding circuit diagram if the original circuit diagram of Fig 9.1
(a) has E1 = OV and E2 = 10V, to produce the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 9.3(b)
I1 A I3
I1” A I3”
I2
4Ω 2Ω I2’
E2 = 10V
3Ω 4Ω
E2 3Ω
E1 = 15V 10V
2Ω
B
B
(a) Original circuit diagram (b) circuit diagram with E1 = OV
Fig 9.3
Following all the stages in step II above, we obtain the following results:
(i) R4Ω//R3Ω = 4 X 3 = 12 Ω = 1.714Ω
4+3 7
(ii) The resulting equivalent circuit diagram after combing R4Ω and R3Ω in parallel gives
Fig 9.4.
2Ω
R4Ω//R3Ω
E2 = 10V
Fig 9.4
(iii) Applying Ohm’s law to the circuit diagram of Fig 9.4, we get
I”3 = E2 = 10 ≅ 2.693A
2 + R4sΩ // R3Ω (2 + 1.714)
(iv) with reference to Fig 9.3, we see that if I”3 is to serve as the total current then
according to KCL then I”1 and I”2 must be seen to flow into node A. For
(v) this to happen the direction I”2 must be opposite to what is indicated in the diagram of
Fig 9.3. This means that I”2 must bear a negative value. Only I”1 flows into node A.
Therefore, I”1 = 3 X 2.693 = 1.154A
(4 + 3)
36
Similarly, I”2 = _ 4 X 2.693 = - 1.539A
(4 + 3)
Step VIII: The total branch currents can be obtained by adding up algebraic as follows:
I1 = I”1 + I’1 = 2.885 + 1.154 = 4.039A
I2 = I’2 + I”2 = 1.154A – 1.538A = - 0.384A
I3 = I’3 + I”3 = 1.731A + 2.693A = 4.424A
37
Simple d.c. Circuits Week
10
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• Define temperature coefficient of resistance
• Draw the graph of resistance against temperature
• Solve simple problems on temperature coefficient of resistance
Resistance (Ω)
1.426
The resistance at 00C been taking as 1Ω. The resistance increases until it reaches 1 426Ω for
an increase of 1000 C in the temperature.
We may define temperature coefficient of resistance as “the increase in resistance per
original resistance at 00C per temperature change”
Mathematically α = R1 –Ro
(10.1)
Ro (θ 1- θ 0)
The unit of temperature coefficient of resistance is oC-1
38
Resistance (Ω)
R2
R1
R0
θ1 θ2 Temperature (0C)
Fig 10.2
i.e. α1 = R2 – R1
(10.2)
R1 (θ 2 .. θ 1)
α0 = R1 – R2
(10.3)
Ro (θ 1 – θo)
From (10.3), θo =0
=> α0 = R1 –R2
R0 θ1
= >α0 = Ro (1 + α θ 1), where α0 =α
(10.4)
Also, R2 = R0(1+α θ 2)
(10.5)
Generally Rθ =R0 (1+α θ)
(10.6)
From (10.4) and (10.5)
R1= R0 (1+α θ 1), => R1= 1 +a θ1
(10.7)
R2 R0 (1+α θ 2) R2 1+a θ2
where R1=Resistance at temperature θ 1
R2= “ “ “ θ2
α = Temperature coefficient of resistance
39
Example 10.1
A coil has a resistance of 50Ω at 00C, if the temperature coefficient of resistance for the coil
is 0.0043Ω/Ω0C, determine the resistance of the coil at 250C.
Solution
Rθ = Ro (1+αθ) = 50(1+0.0043X25) =55.38Ω
Example 10.2
The resistance of a coil of a copper wire at the beginning of a heat test is 173Ω, the
temperature being 160C. At end of the test, the resistance is 212Ω. Calculate the temperature
raise of the coil. Assuming the temperature coefficient of resistance of copper to be
0.00426/0C at 00C.
Solution
R1=173Ω,R2=212Ω,θ1=160C, θ2=?,α=0.00426/0C
R1=1+αθ1
R2 1+αθ2
θ2 = 0.30896= 72.520C
0.00426
Raise in temperature = θ2 - θ1=72.5-16 = 56.50C
Example 10.3
A copper wire has a resistance of 85Ω at 150C. Calculate its resistance at 900C. Assuming the
temperature coefficient resistance of copper to be 0.0043/0C,
Solution
θ1 = 150C, θ2 = 900, R1 = 85Ω and α0 = 0.00-43/0C,
R15 = 1 + α0 θ1 = 1 + 0.0043 X 15
R90 1 + α0 θ2 1 + 0.0043 X 90
i.e. R90 = R1 1 + 0.0043 X 90
1 + 0.0043 X 15
∴ R90 = 110.75Ω
40
Electric Energy and Power Week 11
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. The SI unit of energy is the Joules. The Joules can be
defined as the work done when a force F of 1N (Newton) acts through a distance d of 1m in
the direction of the force.
Work done = F (Newton) x d (meters)
There are many forms of energy, namely;
Electrical Energy
Mechanical Energy
Thermal Energy
Light Energy
Chemical Energy
Wind Energy
Solar Energy
Atomic Energy, e.t.c.
41
Consider an electric fan. For an electric fan to rotate it takes voltage supplies from the
main supply and causes the electric motor to rotate. This action in turn causes the blades of
the fan to rotate and produce wind energy (a form of mechanical energy) and sound energy.
In this case, electric energy was converted to mechanical energy and sound energy.
42
Electric Energy and Power Week 12
Solution
Since work done = F X d
Work done = 20 x 25 = 500J
Example 12.2
A force of 40N IS applied to a body to move it at a uniform velocity through a distance of 15m in 10s
in the direction of the force. Calculate the power produced.
Solution
Work done = force x distance
= 40 x 15 =600J
Power = work done
time taken
= 600 = 60W
10
43
Example 12.3
An electric motor develops 5KW at the speed of 100rev/min. calculate (a) the work done in 30mins
(i) in kilowatt hour (ii) in megajoules (b) the torque in N-m.
Solution
(a) (i), Work done in KWh = power(in kw) x time(in hrs)
= 5 x 30/60 = 2.5KWh
(b) power = 2π x T x n
5000 = 2πT X 1000/60
T = 47.74N-m
Example 12.4
An electric kettle takes 2KW at 240V. Calculate (a) the current and (b) the resistance of the
heating element.
Solution
(a) I = P/V = 2000/240
∴ I = 8.33A
(b) From P = V2/R
R = V2/P = 2402/2000 = 28.8Ω
Example 12.5
2
The power expended in a certain resistor is given by I R. If the power expended in the
resistor is 175W when the current is 5A, Calculate the power in the resistor when,
(i) Both current & resistance are double.
(ii) Current is half and resistance double.
(iii) When current is double and resistance half.
Solution
Given that: P = 175W, I = 5A
P = I2R, => R = P
I2
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= 175 = 7Ω.
(5)2
(i) When both current and resistance are double, I=2I; R=2R
Therefore P= (2I) 2 X R=4 X 25X2X7 =1400W
(ii) Half current = I/2; double resistance = 2R
Therefore P= (I/2)2 X 2R = (5/2)2 X 2 X 7 = 87.5W
(iii) Double current = 2I, half resistance = R/2
Therefore P = 4 X 25 X 7/2 = 350W
45
Concepts of Electrostatics and Capacitance WEEK 13
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• Explain electric charge
• State Coulomb’s laws
• Solve problems involving coulomb’s law
or F = K Q1Q2
d2
Q1Q2 = Q1Q2
4πεd 2
4πε0εrd2
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where F = magnitude of the force of attraction or repulsion between two charges Q1 and Q2,
(in Newtons, N)
d = the distance between the charges Q1 and Q2, meters (m)
Q1,Q2 = charges, Coulombs (C)
K = 1/4πε, (ε = ε0εr), ε = permittivity (farad/meter).
Now we should know that:
Now 1 = 1 .
4πεo 4π x 8.85 x 1012
which is approximately = 9 x 109
Hence coulombs law can be written as;
F = 9 x 109 X Q1 Q2 (in a medium)
εrd2
F = 9 x 109 X Q1 Q2 (in a air or vacuum)
d2
Example 13.1
Calculate the electrostatic force of repulsion between two alpha particles when at a distance
of
10-13meters from each other. The charge of an alpha particle is 3.2 X 10-19C.
Solution:
Hence Q1 = Q2 = 3.2 X 10–19C
d = 10– 13m
But F = 9 X 10 9 X Q1 Q2
d2
F = 9 X 109 X 3.2 X 10-19 x 3.2 X 10-19
(10–13)2
= 9.2 X 10–2N
Example 13.2
Calculate the distance of separation between two elections for which the electric force
between them is O.1N. Charge of election is 16 X 10 -19 C.
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Solution
Given that: d =?, F =0.1N, Q1 = Q2 =Q 1.6 X 10-19C
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Concepts of Electrostatics and Capacitance Week 14
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• Define electric field, electric field strength, electric flux density, permittivity,
permittivity of free space and relative permittivity
• Define capacitance and state the expression for the capacitance of parallel plate
capacitors in terms of area, the distance between plate and permittivity of the dielectric
• Solve problems on electric field strength, electric flux density, permittivity and
capacitance
V
Fig 14.1
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Electric flux = Q, it is equal to the stored charge. If the flux passes through a dielectric of
area A (the area being measured perpendicular to the direction of the flux), then the electric
flux density is the amount of electric flux passing through a small area A at right angle to the
flux per unit area, it has symbol D. Mathematically
D= Q/A = Ψ/A (c/m2)
(14.2)
3.7.4 Permittivity
The permittivity, symbol ε, of a dielectric material is a measure of the ability of the material
to allow an electric flux to be established in it. It has the dimensions of farad per meters’
(f/m). For a given value, a material with a high value of permittivity produces a greater
electrostatic flux than does a material with a lower value of permittivity for a simple parallel-
plate capacitor.
Permittivity, ε = Electric flux density = D/E
Electric field strength
∴ ε = D/E
(14.3)
Permittivity is also given by
ε = ε0εr
(14.4)
3.7.5 Permittivity of free space
In electrostatics, the ratio of the electric flux density in a vacuum to the electric field strength
is termed the permittivity of free space and is represented by the symbol ε0 Hence,
ε0 = Electric flux density in vacuum
Electric field strength
From equation (14.4), ε0 = ε/εr
(14.5)
From a carefully conducted tests it has been found that the value of ε0 = 8.85 x 10-12F/m
3.7.6 Relative permittivity
Relative permittivity (εr) is the ratio of the absolute permittivity to the permittivity of free
space.
Note that εr has no dimension because ε and ε0 have the same units
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3.8 CAPACITANCE
A capacitor is an arrangement which has the ability to store electricity as excess of positive
charges
on one plate and deficiency of it on the other. Therefore the property of a capacitor to store
electric charge when its plates are at different potentials is reflected to as its capacitance.
The unit of capacitance is termed the farad (symbol f) and farad can be defined as the
capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a difference of potential
of 1 volt when it is charged by 1 coulomb of electricity.
Capacitance (farads) = Charge (coulombs)
Applied voltage (volts)
Q = CV
(14.6)
3.8.1 Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitors interms of Area, the distance between
Plates and permittivity of the dielectric
Recall, C = Q/V. using equations (14.1), (14.2) and (14.6),
C = Q/V = Ψ/V = DA/Ed = D/E(A/d) = εA/d
For parallel capacitors with n numbers of plates
C = ε(n – 1)A
d
(14.7)
where n is the number of plates.
Example 14.1
Two conducting plates are arranged parallel to each other and spaced 1.5mm apart. If the
plates are charged until the potential difference between them is 150V, what is the electric
field strength between the plates?
Solution
E = V = 150 .
d 1.5 X 10-3
∴ E = 10KV/m
Example 14.2
Two plates, each of area 5cm2, are placed parallel to each other and very close together, and a
charge of 15 X 10-8C is stored on the plates. Calculate the electric flux density in the space
between the plates.
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Solution
D = Ψ = (15 X 10-8) = 3 X 10-4C/m2
A 5 X 10-4
Example 14.3
Calculate the charge expected on a 400µF capacitor which is connected to a 100V source.
Solution
Q = CV = 400 X 10-6 X 100 = 4 X 10-2C
i.e. Q = 40 X 10-3C = 40mC
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Concepts of Electrostatics and Capacitance Week 15
At the end of this week, the students should be able to:
• State the expression for the equivalent capacitors in series and in parallel
• Derive an expression for the energy stored in a capacitor
• Solve problems involving capacitors in series and parallel, and energy stored in a
capacitor
Parallel connection
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). The
reason for putting capacitors in parallel is to increase the total amount of charge stored. In
other words, increasing the capacitance we also increase the amount of energy that can be
stored.
The total capacitance (Ceq) is given by:
(15.1)
Fig 15.1
Series connection
The current through capacitors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each
capacitor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to
the total voltage. The reason for putting capacitors in series we get less capacitance
and less charge storage than with either
either alone (the total voltage is divided between the
number of capacitors).
Fig 15.2
In parallel, the total charge stored is the sum of the charge in each capacitor.
While in series, the charge on each capacitor is the same.
(15.2)
I
v V
(15.3)
Example 15.1
Two capacitors, A and B, of capacitance 2µF and 4µF respectively, are connected in series to
a dc supply; the charge store by each capacitor is 0.16mc. Determine:
(a) the p.d across each capacitor
(b) the energy stored in each capacitor
(c) the effective capacitance of the series combination.
Solution
Data: CA = 2µF; CB = 4µF; Q = 0.10m; C = 0.16 x 10-3C
(a) The p.d across each capacitor:
VA = Q = 0.16 x 10-3 =80V
CA 2 x 10-6
VB = Q = 0.16 x 10-3 = 40V
CB 4 x 10-6
(b) The energy stored in each capacitor:
W = 1/2 CV2
WA = 1/2 x 2 x 10-6 x 802
= 0.0064J
WB = 1/2 x 4 x 10-6 x 402
= 0.0032J
(c) The effective capacitance of the series combination:
C = CA CB
(CA CB)
=2x4 µF
2+4
= 1.333µF
Example 15.2
Three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are connected in parallel to give an equivalent capacitance of
2µF. If the d.c. supply to the parallel combination of the capacitors is 20V, the capacitance of
C1 is 0.5µF and the charge stored by C2 is 4µC, determine the capacitance of C2 and C3.
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Solution
CP = C1 + C2 + C3
but CP = 2µF (given)
C1 = 0.5µF (given)
However, C2 = Q2 = 4 = 0.2µF
Vp 20
Finally, C3 = Cp - C1 – C2 = 2 – 0.5 – 0.2 = 1.3µF
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