1.

Pyroclastic Density Currents

Pyroclastic density currents are are gravity-driven, rapidly moving, ground-

hugging mixtures of rock fragments and hot gases. This mixture forms a dense
fluid that moves along the ground with an upper part that is less dense as
particles fall toward the ground. The behavior of the fluid depends upon the
solids concentration relative to the amount of hot gases (i.e., solids-gas ratio).
High concentration density flows are called "pyroclastic flows" and are essentially
nonturbulent and confined to valleys. Low concentration density flows are called
"pyroclastic surges" which can expand over hill and valley like hurricanes.
Temperatures may be as hot as 900 degrees Celsius, or as cold as steam ( see
"base surges" in section on Hydroclastic Processes).

Lahars

Lahars are part of the family of debris flows that are fluids composed of mixtures
of water and particles of all sizes from clay-size to gigantic boulders. The
abundance of solid matter carries the water, unlike watery floods where water
carries the fragments. Debris flows have the viscous consistency of wet concrete,
and there is a complete transition to watery floods. Lahars are composed of
volcanic particles and originate directly or indirectly from volcanic action. Lahars
can form by hot pyroclastic surges or flows entering watershed systems or
flowing over snow and ice, by eruptions through crater lakes, by heavy rains on
loose volcanic debris -- that is, any process by which volcanic particles can
become saturated by water and move downslopes.

Debris-flow Avalanches

The eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980 started with a relatively small
volcanic earthquake that caused collapse of the north side of the volcano
because it was oversteepened and therefore unstable. When the landslide
occurred, it decreased the pressure on the pressurized interior of the volcano
which expanded explosively to form a lateral blast that devastated the
countryside north of the volcano. Most of the debris flow avalanche was diverted
down the North Fork Toutle River, but some moved directly northward over a 300
meter ridge and down into the next valley.

Lava flows

Lava flows rarely threaten human life because lava usually moves slowly -- a few
centimeters per hour for silicic flows to several km/hour for basaltic flows. An
exceptionally fast flow (extremely rare) at Mt. Nyiragongo, Zaire (30-100
km/hour), overwhelmed about 300 people. Major hazards of lava flows -- burying,
crushing, covering, burning everything in their path. Sometimes lava melts ice
and snow to cause floods and lahars. Lava flows can dam rivers to form lakes
that might overflow and break their dams causing floods. Methods for controlling
paths of lava flows: (1) construct barriers and diversion channels, (2) cool
advancing front with water, (3) disruption of source or advancing front of lava flow
by explosives.

Tephra falls and Ballistic Projectiles formed on Land

Tephra consists of pyroclastic fragments of any size and origin. It is a synonym
for "pyroclastic material." Tephra ranges in size from ash (<2 mm) to lapilli (2-64
mm) to blocks and bombs (>64 mm). Densities vary greatly, from that of pumice
(<0.5)) to solid pieces of lava with density about 3.0. Blocks from basement
material may exceed 3.0. Material may be juvenile (formed of magma involved in
the eruption ) or accidental (derived from pre-existing rock).

Volcanic Gas

Magma is molten rock containing dissolved gases that are released to the
atmosphere during an eruption and while the magma lies close to the surface
from hydrothermal systems. The most abundant volcanic gas is water vapor;
other important gases are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides,
hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, and fluorine. The gases are transported away from
vents as acid aerosols, as compounds adsorbed on tephra and as microscopic
salt particles. Sulfur compounds, chlorine and fluorine react with water to form
poisonous acids damaging to the eyes, skin and repiratory systems of animals
even in very small concentrations.

Tsunamis

A tsunami is a long-period sea wave or wave train generated by a sudden

displacement of water. Tsunamis travel at very high speeds through deep water
as low broad waves and build to great heights as they approach the shallow
bottom of shores. Most are caused by fault displacements on the sea floor, but
many have been caused by volcanic action. The eruption of Krakatau in 1883
produced tsunamis that killed 36,000 people. The pyroclastic flow generated by
this eruption displaced the water that initiated the tsunamis.

2.
During a Volcanic Eruption

Staying Safe During a Volcanic Eruption

 Listen to a local station on a portable, battery-operated radio or television

for updated emergency information and instructions. Local officials will
give the most appropriate advice for your particular situation.

 Follow any evacuation orders issued by authorities, and put your

emergency plan into action. Although it may seem safe to stay at home
and wait out an eruption, if you are in a hazard zone, doing so could be
very dangerous.

 If indoors, close all window, doors, and dampers to keep volcanic ash from
entering.

 Put all machinery inside a garage or barn to protect it from volcanic ash. If
buildings are not available, cover machinery with large tarps.
  Bring animals and livestock into closed shelters to protect them from
breathing volcanic ash.

If You Are Outdoors

 Seek shelter indoors if possible.

 Stay out of designated restricted zones. Effects of a volcanic eruption can

be experienced many miles from a volcano.

 Avoid low-lying areas, areas downwind of the volcano, and river valleys
downstream of the volcano. Debris and ash will be carried by wind and
gravity. Stay in areas where you will not be further exposed to volcanic
eruption hazards. Trying to watch an erupting volcano up close is a deadly
idea.

 If you are caught in an ashfall

1.Wear a dust mask designed to protect against lung irritation from small
particles.

2.Protect your eyes by wearing goggles. Wear eyeglasses, not contact

lenses.

3.Keep as much of your skin covered as possible.

After a Volcanic Eruption

Staying Safe After a Volcanic Eruption

If you do nothing else:

1. Let friends and family know you’re safe.

- Register yourself as safe on the Safe and Well website

2. If evacuated, return only when authorities say it is safe to do so.

3. Continue listening to local news or a NOAA Weather Radio for updated

information and instructions.

4. If people around you are injured, practice CHECK, CALL, CARE. Check the
scene to be sure it’s safe for you to approach, call for help, and if you are trained,
provide first aid to those in need until emergency responders can arrive.
3.