Heat Engines Lab Manual

SNM INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY
MALIANKARA
HEAT ENGINES
LABORATORY MANUAL
[Street Address] Verified by:

[City, ST ZIP Code]
PREPARED BY: VERIFIED BY:

CONTENTS
I. WRITING A TECHNICAL REPORT ……………………………………… 1
II. GENERAL STUDY ON ENGINES

1. Introduction …………………………………….... 2
2. Classification of IC engines ……………………………………… 2
3. Basic components and nomenclature ……………………………………… 4
4. Four stroke cycle engines ……………………………………… 5
A. Working of four stroke petrol engine……………………………………… 6
B. Working of four stroke diesel engines……………………………………… 7
5. Two stroke cycle engines ……………………………………… 8
A. Working of two stroke petrol engine……………………………………… 8
B. Working of two stroke diesel engine……………………………………… 9
III. STUDY ON VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS
1. Viscosity ……………………………………… 10
2. Viscometers
A. Redwood viscometer ……………………………………… 11
B. Saybolt Viscometer ……………………………………… 12

IV. EXPERIMENTS
1. Constant speed characteristics of single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine
(Brake drum loading) ……………………………………… 15
2. Constant speed characteristics of single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine
(Alternator drum loading) ……………………………………… 23
3. Viscosity using Saybolt viscometer ……………………………………… 30
4. Flash and fire point test

A. Using Cleveland apparatus ……………………………………… 33
B. Using Pensky Martins apparatus ……………………………………… 35
5. Valve timing diagram of 4s diesel engine……………………………………… 37

CONTINUES EVALUATION SHEET
Exp. Atten- Perfor- Rough Fair

Experiment Total Remarks
No dance mance record record
Constant speed characteristics of single
1 cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine
(Brake drum loading)
Constant speed characteristics of single
2 cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine
(Alternator loading)
3 Viscosity using Saybolt viscometer
Flash and fire point test using

4 (a)
Cleveland apparatus
Flash and fire point test using

4(b)
Pensky Martins apparatus
Valve timing diagram of

5
4s diesel engine
Heat Engines Lab Study
WRITING A TECHNICAL REPORT
It is essential to present the results in a clear and logical manner, otherwise the purpose of
the experiment will not be served. In general, a report may contain the following.
1. OBJECTIVE (AIM)
A report must be specific and the objective of the test must be stated as clearly as possible.
Eg. a) To conduct a load test on the given engine at the rated rpm and to plot the following
characteristic curves.
i. Total fuel consumption Vs Brake power
ii. Specific Fuel Consumption ys Brake power
iii. To conduct retardation test on the engine and hence to determine the frictional
power the engine
2. APPARATUS REQUIRED
Give the list of the various apparatus requited for conducting the experiment. Eg. Engine
with dynamo meter coupled to it, stop watch, Anemometer etc.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS / SPECIFICATION OF THE ENGINE
A General description of the equipment is necessary. It should include Information as
rated HP, rated rpm, stroke etc. of the engine tested. Sketches should also be added. Only a line
diagram may be necessary which will show the relative position of various parts and other
necessary information.
4. THEORY
The purpose of the theory is to explain background of the experiment, particularly the
methods of operation.
5. PROCEDURE AND METHOD OF MEASUREMENT
Make a detailed procedure of the experiment from the starting upto stopping. It should
contain the information as what quantities are kept constant, what quantities are varied and how
the measurements were made.
6. DATA AND RESULTS
It is customary to present results in a tabular form. The results should then be plotted in
the form of graphs as they convey the results more effectively. The scale of the graph should be
such that they can easily be interpreted.
Sample calculations should also be given for items shown in the results sheet (Tabular
Column). If any formula has been used for calculations, they should be given and specify the
notations.
7. CONCLUSION/INFERENCE
The conclusion depends on the nature of the test made. However, the conclusion must be
concrete and to the point.
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering SNMIMT, Maliankara
Heat Engines Lab study
GENERAL STUDY ON ENGINES
1. INTRODUCTION
Any machine, which derives heat energy from the combustion of fuel and converts part of this
energy into mechanical work, is known as a heat engine. Heat engines are broadly classified into
two groups viz. External Combustion Engines and Internal Combustion Engines.
In an external combustion engine, a working fluid is used to transfer the heat of combustion
to the engine, where heat energy is converted into mechanical energy. Some examples of this type
are steam engines, steam turbines, closed cycle gas turbine etc. As these engines require big
boilers and bulky heat exchangers, this type of engine is not desirable for a mobile power plant.
In internal combustion engines, the combustion of fuel in the presence air takes place inside
the cylinder and the products of combustion directly act on piston to develop the power. The
internal combustion engines are extensively used for road vehicles, locomotives, ships, aircrafts
etc.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES.
Internal Combustion engines are classified according to
a. Number Strokes per Cycle.
i. Two-Stroke Engines.
ii. Four Stroke Engines.
b. Cycle of Operation.
i. Otto Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant volume)
ii. Diesel Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant pressure)
iii. Duel Cycle Engines (Combustion partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure)
c. The Fuel Used
i. Petrol Engines
ii. Diesel Engines
iii. Gas Engines
d. The Method of Ignition
i. Spark ignition Engines (SI Engines)
ii. Compression ignition engines (CI Engines)
e. The Method of Cooling
i. Air Cooled Engines
ii. Water Cooled Engines
f. The Method of Governing
i. Quantity Governed Engines
ii. Quality Governed
iii. (c) Hit and miss Governed Engines
g. The Use of Engine
i. Stationary Engines
ii. Automobile Engines
iii. Marine Engines
iv. Aero engines
2
1. Rocker Arms
2. Fuel Line
3. Inlet Valve
4. Inlet Manifold
5. Push Rods
6. Fuel Pump
7. Camshaft
8. Camshaft Drive
9. Connecting rod
10. Crank Pin Bolt
11. Crank Pin
12. Main Bearing
13. Crank Shaft
14. Crank Case
15. Bed Plate
16. Bearing Cap
17. Frame
18. Cylinder Liner
19. Wrist Pin
20. Piston
21. Cylinder Head
22. Exhaust Manifold
23. Exhaust valve
24. Valve spring
OUTLINE OF DIESEL ENGINE 25. Fuel nozzle
1. Crank
2. Roller
3. Intercam
4. Crank shaft
5. Crank case
6. Oil Sump
7. Gear Exhaust cam
8. Magneto
9. High Tension Cable
10. Cooling Fins
11. Connecting Road
12. Air Inlet
13. Carburetor
14. Petrol Supply Line
15. Engine Throttle
16. Inlet Valve
17. Inlet Manifold
18. Push Rod
19. Rocker Arm
20. Exhaust Valve
21. Silencer
22. Exhaust.
23. Fuel tank
24. Spark plug.
25. Cylinder.
OUTLINE OF PETROL ENGINE
3
h. According to Number of Cylinders

i. Single Cylinder Engine
ii. Multi Cylinder Engine
i. Arrangement of Cylinders
i. Vertical Engine - axis of the cylinder vertical
ii. Horizontal Engine - axis of the cylinder horizontal
iii. Inline Engine - All Cylinders are arranged linearly transmitting
power to a single crank shaft.
iv. V-type - Two cylinders are kept at an angle forming the
shape of letter 'V' and utilize the same crankshaft
v. Radial engine - All cylinders are set along the radius of a circle.
vi. Opposed piston engine - piston reciprocate in a common cylinder having
common combustion chamber at the center.
3. BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS AND NOMENCLATURE
(a) Cylinder
The cylinder of an IC Engine is considered as the main body of the engine in which piston
reciprocates to develop power. Since it has to withstand very high pressure and temperature,
material for an engine cylinder should be such that it can retain strength at high temperatures,
good conductor of heat and should resist the rapid wear and tear due to reciprocating parts.
Generally Cast Iron is used for ordinary engines, but in heavy-duty engines alloy steels are used.
(b) Cylinder head
The Cylinder head closes one end of the cylinder. It houses the inlet and exhaust valves through
which charge is taken inside the cylinder and burnt gases are exhausted to atmosphere from the
cylinder.
5 Piston and Piston rings.
The function of the piston is to compress the charge during compression stroke and to
transmit the gas force to the connecting rod and then to the crank during power stroke. The pistons
are usually made from cast iron, cast steel and Aluminum alloys. The aluminum alloy has the
advantages of higher thermal conductivity and lightweight.
The piston rings are housed in the circumferential grooves provided on the outer surface
of the piston. It gives gas tight fitting between piston and cylinder and prevents the leakage of
high pressure gas.
(d) Connecting rod.
It is the element, which interconnects the piston and the crank. Connecting rod transmits
the gas force from the piston to the crankshaft and thus transforms the reciprocating motion of the
piston in the cylinder into rotary motion of the crank. The crank end of the connecting rod called
'big end* and the piston end is called 'small end'.
4
(e) Crank shaft

The crank shaft runs under the action of piston through the connecting rod and crank pin,
located between the crank webs, and transmits the work from the piston to the driven shaft.
Medium carbon steel is the material extensively used for crank shaft
(f) Piston Pin
The Piston pin provides the bearing for the small end of the connecting rod
(g) Inlet Valve
The valve controls the admission of the charge into the petrol engine or air into diesel engine
during suction stroke.
(h) Exhaust Valve
This valve controls the removal of exhaust gases after doing work on the piston.
( i ) Inlet Manifold
The metal tube which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through
which air or air fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
(j) Exhaust Manifold
It is the passage, which carries the exhaust gases from the exhaust valve to the atmosphere.
(k) Cam Shaft
The function of the camshaft is to operate the intake and exhaust valves through cam, cam
follower, push rod and rocker arm. The camshaft is driven positively from the crankshaft.
(l) Flywheel
It is a wheel mounted on the crankshaft, which stores excess energy during power stroke and
returns that energy during the other strokes and thus maintains a fairly constant output torque on
the crankshaft.
(m) Carburetor
The function of the carburetor is to supply the correct air fuel mixture to the cylinder of a
petrol Engine.
(n) Spark Plug
The function of the Spark Plug is to initiate the combustion after completing the
compression in petrol engine. It is generally mounted on cylinder head.
(o) Governor
It is run by a drive from the crankshaft. The function of the governor is to regulate the
charge in case of petrol Engine and amount of fuel in case of Diesel Engine to maintain the speed
of the engine constant, when the load requirement varies.
(p) Fuel Pump
It forces the fuel under high pressure through the fuel nozzle into the cylinder at the end of
compression stroke in diesel Engine.
4. FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
A 'cycle' is a sequence of operations constantly repeated and' four stroke' refers to the
number of strokes of the piston required to complete one cycle. In a four stroke engine all the
events of the cycle namely suction, compression, combustion and exhaust are completed in four
strokes or two revolution of the crank shaft
5
A) Working of four Stroke Petrol Engine
F OUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE
1. Suction Stroke
The piston is at the top most position (TDC) and is ready to move down drawing the air
fuel mixture. The inlet valve is open and exhaust valve is closed. As the piston moves downwards,
a fresh charge of fuel air mixture enters the cylinder through the inlet valve due to the suction
created. This continues until piston reaches BDC. At this position, the inlet valve closes. This
downward movement of the piston is known as suction stroke and the crank rotates by 180° during
this period.
2. Compression Stroke
During this stroke both valves (inlet and exhaust) are closed and the piston moves upward
and compresses the charge enclosed in the cylinder. The pressure and temperature of the mixture
increases continuously during this process. As the piston reaches the Top Dead Centre (TDC)
position, the mixture is ignited by an electric spark. The burning of the mixture is more or less
instantaneous and the pressure and temperature of the gas increases, while the volume remains
constant.
3. Power Stroke or Expansion Stroke
The increased pressure of the mixture exerts a large force and push the piston down.
During the expansion stroke, both valves remain closed and the movement of the piston is from
TDC to BDC. This stroke is known as power stroke, as work is done during this stroke. The
exhaust valve opens as the piston reaches BDC position and pressure falls suddenly to
atmospheric pressure at constant volume.
6
4. Exhaust stroke
During this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed and exhausts valve remain open. The
piston moves up in the cylinder and pushes out the burned gases. The piston reaches the TDC
completing the exhaust and is ready for the next cycle.
(B)Working of Four Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine
FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
1. Suction Stroke
The Suction is similar to that in petrol engine except that only air is taken into the cylinder.
2. Compression Stroke
Compression is also similar, but the pressure and temperature near the end of compression
are very high (60 bar and 600°C)
7
3. Expansion Stroke
During this stroke, the inlet and exhaust valves are closed and fuel is injected into the hot
compressed air in fine sprays by the fuel injector, just before the beginning of this stroke. The
temperature of the air at the end of compression is sufficient to ignite the fuel. The high pressure
and high temperature gases produced by the combustion of fuel push the piston downwards, thus
getting work output.
4. Exhaust Stroke
During this stroke, the inlet valve remains closed and exhausts valve remain open. The
piston moves up in the cylinder and pushes out the burned gases. The piston reaches the TDC
completing the exhaust and is ready for the next cycle.
5. TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINES
A. Working of Two-Stroke Petrol Engine.
In two stroke petrol engine, one cycle of operation is completed in two strokes of the piston
(one revolution of the crankshaft), by eliminating separate suction and exhaust strokes. Here ports
are provided in place of valves.
Figure shows the working of a two stroke petrol engine (used in scooters, motor cycles).
The cylinder is connected to a closed crankcase. During the upward stroke of the piston, the air
fuel mixture in the cylinder is compressed. At the same time fresh fuel air mixture enters the
crankcase through the inlet port (Figure I), towards the end of this stroke, the air fuel mixture is
ignited using an electric spark from the spark plug.
8
The piston, then travels downward due to the expansion of the gases (Figure H) and near
the end of this stroke the piston uncovers the exhaust port and the burnt gases escape through this
port. The transfer port is then uncovered (Figure ID) and the compressed air fuel mixture from
the crankcase flows into the cylinder. The incoming fresh air fuel mixture helps to move the burnt
gases from the engine cylinder.
B. Working of a two stroke diesel engine.
In a two stroke diesel engine, all the operations are exactly the same as those in two stroke
petrol (spark ignition) engine except that in this case, only air is taken in instead of fuel air mixture
and the fuel is injected at the end of compression stroke, fuel injector is fitted instead of a spark
plug.
9
Heat Engines Study
STUDY ON VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS
1. VISCOSITY
Viscosity is the property of a liquid or fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to its own
flow. It may also be thought as measure of fluid friction. There are two related measures of fluid
viscosity – known as Kinematic Viscosity and Dynamic Viscosity (or Absolute Viscosity)
(i) Kinematic Viscosity: - This is the ratio of viscous force to inertial force.
Kinematic viscosity,  = [0.0026 t – 0.5/t], where‘t’ is Redwood Seconds
SI Unit of Kinematic viscosity is m2/s
Its cgs physical unit is stokes
(ii) Dynamic Viscosity (or Absolute Viscosity) :- It is the ratio between the pressure exerted
on the surface of a fluid, in lateral or horizontal direction to change in the velocity of
the fluid.
SI Unit of dynamic viscosity is Pascal-second (Pa-s) or kg/ms

Its cgs physical unit is poise
Dynamic Viscosity =   
Where  = Kinematic Viscosity and
 = Density of Oil
Viscosity is the most important single property of any lubricating oil, because it is the main
determinant of the operating characteristics of the lubricant. If the viscosity of the oil is too low, a
liquid oil film cannot be maintained between two moving or sliding surfaces and consequently,
excessive wear will takes place. On the other hand, if viscosity is too high excessive friction will
result.
The Viscosity of a liquid is affected by changes in temperature and pressure. That is a

liquid flows more easily when it is hot than when it is cold. The viscosity of a liquid increases as
the pressure on the liquid increases.
Another important term related to viscosity is Viscosity index. It is the measure of how
much the oil’s viscosity changes as temperature changes. A higher viscosity index indicates the
viscosity changes less with temperature.
The Study of Viscosity is known as Rheology
10
Heat Engines Study
2. VISCOMETERS
Viscosity is normally determined by measuring the time required for a fixed volume of a
fluid at a given temperature to flow through a calibrated orifice or capillary tube. The instruments
used to measure the viscosity of a liquid are known as Viscometers.
A. REDWOOD VISCOMETER
INTRODUCTION
The Redwood Viscometer is commonly used for determining viscosities of lubricating oils.
In this apparatus a fixed volume of liquid is allowed to flow from a given height, through a standard
capillary tube under its own weight and the time of flow in seconds is noted. The results are
expressed in terms of time taken by oil to flow through particular instrument. The time of flow of
oil through Redwood Viscometer is known as Redwood seconds.
PARTS
Following are the essential parts of a Redwood Viscometer
(i) Oil Cup: - This is silver plated brass cylinder with upper end open and bottom is fitted
with an agate jet. The jet is opened or closed by a valve rod. The lid of the cup is fitted
with a thermometer, which indicates the oil temperature.
(ii) Heating Bath: - The oil cup is surrounded by a cylindrical copper bath, containing
water. It is provided with a tap and a long side-tube projecting outwards. A
thermometer is also attached to indicate the temperature of water.
11
Heat Engines Study
(iii) Stirrer: - Outside the oil cylinder is stirrer, carrying four blades for stirring water in the
bath for maintaining uniform desired temperature. The stirrer is provided with a
circular shield at the top, to prevent any water splashing into the oil cylinder.
(iv) Kohlrausch Flask: - It is a specially shaped flask for receiving the oil from the jet outlet.
Its capacity is 50 ml up to the mark in its neck.
(v) Ball Valve Rod: - Inside the oil cup a rod with ball at its bottom end is placed in order
to close the agate jet of the oil cup.
OPERATING METHOD
The leveled oil cup is cleaned and ball of valve rod is placed on the agate jet to close it. Oil
under test, free from any suspension, etc., is filled in the cup up to the pointer level. An empty
Kohlrausch flask is kept just below the jet. Water is filled in the bath and side-tube is heated slowly
with constant stirring of the bath. When the oil is at desired temperature, heating is stopped and
ball valve is lifted and suspended from thermometer bracket. The time taken for 50 ml of the oil
to collect in the flask is noted and then, the valve is immediately closed to prevent any overflow
of the oil. This result is expressed in Redwood seconds.
B. SAYBOLT VISCOMETER
INTRODUCTION
The Saybolt Viscometer is used for determining viscosities of lubricating oils. The Saybolt
Viscometer measures the time required in seconds for the tested fluid to pass through a standard
orifice. The time measured is used to express the fluid’s viscosity. The time is expressed in Saybolt
Universal Seconds (SUS) or Saybolt furol seconds. With the time measured by the Saybolt
viscometer, kinematic viscosity will be calculated and Dynamic Viscosity will be calculated with
Kinematic viscosity.
SAYBOLT VISCOMETER
12
Heat Engines Study
PARTS
Following are the essential parts of a Redwood Viscometer
(a) Oil Container: - It is the metallic cylinder which is used for storing the oil. It had an opening
at the bottom and is blocked with a cork. The top portion of the Oil container is closed with
a plate and a thermometer is inserted in it to find the oil temperature.
(b) Water Reservoir:-The water reservoir surrounds the oil cup and heat is supplied to the oil
by heating the water in the reservoir. A thermometer is also provided in the closing plate
of the water reservoir for finding the temperature of water.
(c) Heating Unit: - Generally an electric heater is used for heating the water in the reservoir.
The oil gets hot from the hot water in the reservoir.
(d) Flask: - The oil drained from the oil container will be collected in a flask with 60 ml
capacity.
The following formulae may be used to find the Kinematic Viscosity:
(i) For SUS values between 32 and 100
 = (0.0026  SUS) – 1.95 /SUS
(ii) For SUS values greater than 100
 = (0.0022  SUS) – 1.35/SUS
13
EXPERIMENTS
Heat Engines Lab Exp No.1
CONSTANT SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLE CYLINDER
4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE (BRAKE DRUM LOADING)
AIM:-
To conduct a constant speed load test on the single cylinder diesel engine and plot the
following performance curves.
1. Fuel consumption Vs. Brake Power

2. Brake thermal efficiency Vs. Brake Power
3. Indicated thermal efficiency Vs. Brake Power
4. Mechanical efficiency Vs. Brake Power
5. Specific fuel consumption Vs. Brake Power
6. Volumetric efficiency Vs. Brake Power
7. Brake mean effective pressure Vs. Brake Power
8. Indicated mean effective pressure Vs. Brake Power
APPARATUS:-
Single cylinder 4stroke diesel engine test rig, tachometer, stopwatch etc
EQUIPMENT DETAILS:-
BP- 5 HP -3.75 kw
Speed - 1500 rpm
No. of Cylinder - One
Bore (D) - 89 mm
Stroke (L) - 110 mm
Compression ratio - 18.6:1
Loading arrangement - Brake-drum-rope dynamometer
Brake-drum diameter - 310 mm
Rope diameter - 10 mm
Diameter of the orifice - 18.5 mm
Coefficient of discharge - 0.61
PROCEDURE:-
Calculate the maximum load that can be applied on the engine from the specifications
given. After the necessary precautions, start the engine at no load conditions. Once steady
conditions are attained, note down the time taken for the consumption of 10cc of fuel and the
manometric deflection in cm of water. Gradually increase the load on the dynamometer and for
each load conditions, note down the time taken for consuming 10cc of fuel and the manometric
15
deflection. Take at least 6 sets of readings. Gradually release the load on the engine and stop the
engine at no load conditions. Cooling water should be circulated for some more time. Tabulate
the results.
SAMPLE CALCULATION / WORKING FORMULAE:-
Determination of maximum load which can be applied:
Power =5bhp= 5 x 0.75kW =3.75 kW,
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Brake Power of the engine, B.P =
60
N = speed of the engine in rpm

T = Torque of the engine in Nm
2𝜋𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
(BP)max =3.75 = , where 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1000rpm
60
3.75 ×60
∴ 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝜋𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
= Nm
And we know,
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Wmax x 9.81 x R Wmax -net load on the engine in ‘kg’,
R-effective brake drum radius ‘m’
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥
so Wmax =
9.81×𝑅
= kg
16
Determination of Brake power
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Brake Power of the engine, B.P =
60
T = W x 9.81 x R where R= brake drum radius +rope diameter
BP =
= kw
Determination of fuel consumption

Fuel consumption of the engine in kg/hr,
10 cc  3600  S
FC = kg / hr
t  1000
where,‘t’ =time in sec for consumption of 10cc of fuel
S=sp.gravity of diesel = 0.85
= kg/hr
Determination of specific fuel consumption,
𝐹𝐶
𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
𝐵𝑃
=
= kg/kWhr
Determination of brake thermal efficiency,

𝐵𝑃×3600
𝜂𝐵𝑇𝐻 = × 100 CV calorific value of diesel = 44800 kJ/kg
𝐹𝐶×𝐶𝑉
= %
17
Determination of Indicated power
Frictional power can be obtained from FC Vs BP graph (Willians’ straight line method)
Indicated power, IP = (BP + FP)
= kW
Determination of indicated thermal efficiency
𝐼𝑃×3600
𝜂𝐼𝑇𝐻 = × 100
𝐹𝐶×𝐶𝑉
= %
Determination of brake mean effective pressure
𝐵𝑃×60
BMEP = Where A=area of the cylinder
𝐴×𝐿×𝑛
A=
L= stroke length
n= no of working stroke/min
= N/2 for 4-stroke engine
= N= speed in rpm
Determination of indicated mean effective pressure

𝐼𝑃×60
IMEP =
𝐴×𝐿×𝑛
= kN/m2
18
Determination of mechanical efficiency,
𝐵𝑃
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = × 100
𝐼𝑃
= %
Determination of volumetric efficiency
Actual mass flow rate

𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
Ideal mass flow rate
𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
=
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = Qpiston× ρair, ρair = density of airospheric air(1.16kg/m )

3
𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = Qactual× ρair,

Where,
𝜋𝐷2 𝐿𝑛
Qpiston =
4×60
= m3/s
Qactual = 𝑑 𝑐 × 𝑎0 × √2𝑔ℎ𝑎 where a0 =area of orifice
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ×𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Where ha =
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
= meters of air
19
Qactual =
Now,
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = Qpiston× ρair,
=
= kg/s
= kg/s
And,
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
= %
20
21
Result:
Inference:
22
Heat engines lab Exp No 2
CONSTANT SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLE CYLINDER
4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE (ALTERNATOR LOADING)
AIM:-
To conduct a constant speed load test on the single cylinder diesel engine and plot the
following performance curves.
1. Fuel consumption Vs. Brake Power

2. Brake thermal efficiency Vs. Brake Power
3. Indicated thermal efficiency Vs. Brake Power
4. Mechanical efficiency Vs. Brake Power
5. Specific fuel consumption Vs. Brake Power
6. Volumetric efficiency Vs. Brake Power
7. Brake mean effective pressure Vs. Brake Power
8. Indicated mean effective pressure Vs. Brake Power
APPARATUS:-
Single cylinder 4stroke diesel engine test rig, tachometer, stopwatch etc
EQUIPMENT DETAILS:-
BP - 5HP = 3.75 kw
Speed - 1500 rpm
No. of Cylinder - One
Bore - 80 mm
Stroke - 110 mm
Compression ratio -18.6:1
Loading arrangement - Alternator with resistances in parallel
Diameter of the orifice - 17 mm
Coefficient of discharge - 0.60
Generator efficiency - 96%
PROCEDURE:-
Calculate the maximum load that can be applied on the engine from the specifications
given. After the necessary precautions, start the engine at no load conditions. Once steady
conditions are attained, note down the time taken for the consumption of 10cc of fuel and
the manometric deflection in cm of water. Gradually increase the load on the dynamometer
and for each load conditions, note down the time taken for consuming 10cc of fuel and the
manometric deflection. Take at least 6 sets of readings. Gradually release the load on the
engine and stop the engine at no load conditions. Cooling water should be circulated for
some more time. Tabulate the results.
23
SAMPLE CALCULATION / WORKING FORMULAE:-
Determination of maximum load which can be applied:
Power =5bhp= 5 x 0.75kW =3.75 kW,
𝑉×𝐼
Brake Power of the engine, B.P = 𝑘𝑊
0.96×1000
(𝑉×𝐼)𝑚𝑎𝑥
So (B.P)max = =3.75kW
0.96×1000
i.e. (𝑉 × 𝐼)𝑚𝑎𝑥 =3.75× 0.96 × 1000
=
Determination of Brake power
𝑉×𝐼
Brake Power of the engine, B.P = 𝑘𝑊
0.96×1000
= kW
Determination of fuel consumption
Fuel consumption of the engine in kg/hr,

10 cc  3600  S
FC = kg / hr
t  1000
where,‘t’ =time in sec for consumption of 10cc of
fuel
S=sp.gravity of diesel = 0.85
= kg/hr
Determination of specific fuel consumption,
𝐹𝐶
𝑆𝐹𝐶 =
𝐵𝑃
=
= kg/kWhr
24
Determination of brake thermal efficiency,
𝐵𝑃×3600
𝜂𝐵𝑇𝐻 = × 100, CV = calorific value of diesel=44000 kJ/kg
𝐹𝐶×𝐶𝑉
= %
Determination of Indicated power
Frictional power can be obtained from FC Vs BP graph (Willians’ straight line method)
Indicated power, IP = (BP + FP)
= kW
Determination of indicated thermal efficiency
𝐼𝑃×3600
𝜂𝐼𝑇𝐻 = × 100
𝐹𝐶×𝐶𝑉
= %
Determination of brake mean effective pressure
𝐵𝑃×60
BMEP = Where A=area of the cylinder
𝐴×𝐿×𝑛
A=
L= stroke length
n=no of working stroke/min
=N/2 for 4-stroke engine
= N= speed in rpm
25
Determination of indicated mean effective pressure

𝐼𝑃×60
IMEP =
𝐴×𝐿×𝑛
= kN/m2
Determination of mechanical efficiency,
𝐵𝑃
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = × 100
𝐼𝑃
= %
Determination of volumetric efficiency
Actual mass flow rate

𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
Ideal mass flow rate
=
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = Qpiston× ρair, ρair = density of atmospheric

air (1.16kg/m3)
Where,
𝜋𝐷2 𝐿𝑛
Qpiston =
4×60
= m3/s
Qactual = 𝑑 𝑐 × 𝑎0 × √2𝑔ℎ𝑎 where a0 =area of orifice
26
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ×𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Where ha =
𝜌𝑎𝑖𝑟
= meters of air
Qactual =
=
Now,
𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = Qpiston× ρair,
=
= kg/s
= kg/s
And,
𝜂𝑣𝑜𝑙 =
= %
27
Result:
Inference:
28
29
Heat engines Lab Exp No 3
DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY USING SAYBOLT VISCOMETER
AIM:
To determine the variation of viscosity with temperature of the given sample of oil using
a Saybolt Viscometer
APPARATUS
(i)Saybolt Viscometer, (ii) Thermometers, (iii) Stop Watch
THEORY
Viscosity is the property of a liquid or fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to its
own flow. It may also be thought as measure of fluid friction. Viscosity is of two kinds:
(i) Kinematic Viscosity: - This is the ratio of viscous force to inertial force.
Kinematic viscosity, For SUS values between 32 and 100
 = (0.0026  SUS) – 1.95/SUS
For SUS values greater than 100
 = (0.0022  SUS) – 1.35/SUS
Unit is stokes
(ii) Dynamic Viscosity (Absolute Viscosity):- It is the ratio between the pressures exerted on
the surface of a fluid, in lateral or horizontal direction to change in the velocity of the
fluid.
Dynamic Viscosity =   
Unit is poise
Where  = Kinematic Viscosity and
 = Density of Oil in g/cc
PROCEDURE:
(a) The oil tube is cleaned with effective solvent

(b) The cork stopper is inserted the bottom of oil tube
(c) Heat the liquid bath slowly using electric heater
(d) Stir the bath frequently to make the oil temperature equal to water temperature
(e) When the oil is at desired temperature, stop heating
30
(f) Place the collecting flask at the bottom to collect the oil
(g) Remove the cork and start the stop watch simultaneously
(h) Note the time taken for 50 ml oil to collect in the flask
(i) Close the valve immediately to prevent overflow of the oil
(j) Again heat the oil to above temperature than previous reading and proceed the same
TABULAR COLUMN
Sl. Weight of Weight of Temp. Time Density of Kinematic Dynamic

No Oil+Jar, 50 ml Oil of Oil taken for Oil Viscosity Viscosity
W2 in gm (W2-W1) in 0C 50 ml Oil in kg/m3
in gm to flow in
Sec
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
Time taken for 50 ml Oil to flow in Sec (SUS) = s
Weight of the jar = gm

0
Temperature of oil = C
Density of Oil = kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity () =
31
= stokes
Dynamic Viscosity (μ) =
RESULT:
The Redwood Seconds, Kinematic Viscosity and Absolute Viscosity of the given Oil
sample are calculated and plotted on a graph.
INFERENCE:
32
Heat engines lab Exp No. 4(a)
FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST
A. Using Cleveland Flash and Fire Point apparatus

Aim:
To find out flash and fire point of sample of fuel by using Cleveland Flash and
Fire point apparatus.
Apparatus:
Cleveland Flash and Fire Point apparatus
Principle:
The flash point is the temperature at which a flash appears in the oil surface when
a flame is applied. It is rough indication of temperature by vaporization and tendency to
evaporate. Fire point temperature is the temperature at which ignition of oil starts and
produces a continuous flame in an open cut. Heat is supplied by electric heater. This
chamber facilitates uniform distribution of heat to the vessel. The vessel is provided with
a tight fitting casing and test flame temperature of thermometer is measured by
thermometer provided in apparatus.
Procedure:
1. The given sample of oil is poured in to the cup up to the mark.
2. The thermometer is suspended in the fluid
3. The oil is heated by regulating dimmer stat provided in apparatus, starting from
the room temperature.
4. The vapor is tested periodically introducing a light above surface of fluid.
5. At a particular temperature, a flash of fire appears at the top of the fluid surface
due to burning of vapor of oil.
6. The temperature at which this occurs is noted, which is the flash point.
7. The oil is further heated and at a certain temperature, by the introduction of light
the fluid gives a continuous fire. This is due to the fact that the fluid gets enough
vapor so as to sustain the burning. This temperature is noted as fire point.
33
Heat engines lab Exp No. 4(a)
Observations:
Temperature Flash Point Fire Point
status status
Result:
The flash and fire point of a given sample of fuel is obtained by using Cleave land
apparatus.
Flash point =
Fire point =
Inference:
34
Heat engines lab Exp No. 4(b)
B. Using Pensky Martins Flash and Fire point apparatus.

Aim:
To find out flash and fire point of sample of fuel by using Pensky Martins Flash
and Fire point apparatus.
Apparatus:
Pensky Martins Flash and Fire point apparatus.
Principle:
The flash point is the temperature at which a flash appears in the oil surface when
a flame is applied. It is rough indication of temperature by vaporization and tendency to
evaporate. Fire point temperature is the temperature at which ignition of oil starts and
produces a continuous flame in an open cut. Heat is supplied by electric heater. This
chamber facilitates uniform distribution of heat to the vessel. The vessel is provided with
a tight fitting casing and test flame temperature of thermometer is measured by
thermometer provided in apparatus.
Procedure:
It is a closed bowl test for determining flash point & fire point of given oil sample
1. The given sample of oil is placed inside the bowl of test apparatus.
2. The thermometer is placed at suitable position
3. The oil is heated by regulating dimmer stat provided in apparatus, starting from
the room temperature.
4. The vapor is tested periodically introducing a flame near the bowl.
5. At a particular temperature, a flash of fire appears .The temperature at which this
occurs is noted, which is the flash point.
6. The oil is further heated and at a certain temperature, by the introduction of flame
the fluid gives a continuous fire. This is due to the fact that the fluid gets enough
vapor so as to sustain the burning. This temperature is noted as fire point.
35
Heat engines lab Exp No. 4(b)
Observations:
Temperature Flash Point Fire Point

status status
Result:
The flash and fire point of a given sample of fuel is obtained by using Pensky
Martins Flash and Fire point apparatus
Flash point =
Fire point =
Inference:
36
Heat engines lab Exp No. 5
VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF 4STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
Aim
To plot the valve timing diagram using the given cut model of 4S single cylinder diesel engine and to
find
1. Period of operation of inlet valve
2. Period of operation of exhaust valve
3. Fuel injection period
4. Scavenging period
Apparatus
The given cut model of the 4 Stroke Diesel Engine, measuring tape, chalk.
Theory
Angle corresponds to scavenging period = Angle corresponds to the operation of Inlet Valve
Before TDC + Angle Corresponds to the operation of
Exhaust valve after TDC
2 N
Angular velocity  rad / s
60

But 
t
t = time peroid in second
θ = angle in rad
60
Therefore, t  s
2 N
PROCEDURE
Rotate the flywheel in proper direction and mark the position of top dead center (TDC), Bottom
Dead Centre (BDC). Then mark the position of the opening and closing of the valves ie: IVO-inlet valve
opening, IVC-inlet valve closing, EVO-Exhaust valve opening, EVC- Exhaust valve closing, Fuel
Injection Beginning (FIB), Fuel Injection End (FIE) and Measure the corresponding angles and draw the
valve timing diagram.
37

Valve timing diagram
Sample calculation
Speed of the flywheel (N) = rpm
a. PERIOD OF OPERATION OF INLET VALVE
θ corresponding to IVO = degree
= rad
θ corresponding to IVC = degree
= rad
Period of operation of inlet valve t1 = (IVC+IVO) x 60/(2πN)
38

b. PERIOD OF OPERATION OF EXHAUST VALVE
θ corresponding to EVO = degree
= rad
θ corresponding to EVC = degree
= rad
Period of operation of exhaust valve,t2 = (EVC+EVO) x 60/ (2πN)
c. FUEL INJECTION PERIOD
θ corresponding to FIB = degree
= rad
θ corresponding to FIE = degree
= rad
Period of operation of exhaust valve = (FIB+FIE) x 60/ (2πN)
d. SCAVENGING PERIOD
Angle corresponds to scavenging period (θ) = Angle corresponds to the operation of Inlet Valve
Before TDC + Angle Corresponds to the operation of
Exhaust valve after TDC
=
Scavenging period,t4 = θ x 60/(2πN)
39

RESULT:
INFERENCE:
40

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SNM INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY

[Street Address] Verified by:

PREPARED BY: VERIFIED BY:

I. WRITING A TECHNICAL REPORT ……………………………………… 1

II. GENERAL STUDY ON ENGINES

2. Classification of IC engines ……………………………………… 2

3. Basic components and nomenclature ……………………………………… 4

4. Four stroke cycle engines ……………………………………… 5

A. Working of four stroke petrol engine……………………………………… 6

B. Working of four stroke diesel engines……………………………………… 7

5. Two stroke cycle engines ……………………………………… 8

A. Working of two stroke petrol engine……………………………………… 8

B. Working of two stroke diesel engine……………………………………… 9

III. STUDY ON VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS

A. Redwood viscometer ……………………………………… 11

B. Saybolt Viscometer ……………………………………… 12

1. Constant speed characteristics of single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine

(Brake drum loading) ……………………………………… 15

2. Constant speed characteristics of single cylinder 4-stroke diesel engine

(Alternator drum loading) ……………………………………… 23

3. Viscosity using Saybolt viscometer ……………………………………… 30

4. Flash and fire point test

B. Using Pensky Martins apparatus ……………………………………… 35

5. Valve timing diagram of 4s diesel engine……………………………………… 37

Exp. Atten- Perfor- Rough Fair

3 Viscosity using Saybolt viscometer

Flash and fire point test using

Flash and fire point test using

Valve timing diagram of

WRITING A TECHNICAL REPORT

GENERAL STUDY ON ENGINES

OUTLINE OF PETROL ENGINE

h. According to Number of Cylinders

3. BASIC ENGINE COMPONENTS AND NOMENCLATURE

(e) Crank shaft

4. FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINES

A) Working of four Stroke Petrol Engine

F OUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE

FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

5. TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINES

A. Working of Two-Stroke Petrol Engine.

B. Working of a two stroke diesel engine.

STUDY ON VISCOSITY MEASUREMENTS

SI Unit of dynamic viscosity is Pascal-second (Pa-s) or kg/ms

The Viscosity of a liquid is affected by changes in temperature and pressure. That is a

The Study of Viscosity is known as Rheology

Following are the essential parts of a Redwood Viscometer

Following are the essential parts of a Redwood Viscometer

(i) For SUS values between 32 and 100

 = (0.0026  SUS) – 1.95 /SUS

(ii) For SUS values greater than 100

 = (0.0022  SUS) – 1.35/SUS

CONSTANT SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLE CYLINDER

4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE (BRAKE DRUM LOADING)

1. Fuel consumption Vs. Brake Power

SAMPLE CALCULATION / WORKING FORMULAE:-

Determination of maximum load which can be applied:

Power =5bhp= 5 x 0.75kW =3.75 kW,

N = speed of the engine in rpm

Determination of Brake power

T = W x 9.81 x R where R= brake drum radius +rope diameter

Determination of fuel consumption

Determination of brake thermal efficiency,