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저자 Karina R. SANTILLAN
(Authors)
이화여자대학교 아시아여성학센터
발행처
Asian Center for Women`s Studies Ewha Womans University
(Publisher)
URL http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Article/NODE06277823
APA Style Karina R. SANTILLAN (2015). Livelihoods for women in Mindanao. Asian Journal of
Women's Studies, 21(1), 15-30.
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To cite this article: Karina R. Santillan (2015) Livelihoods for women in Mindanao: A post-conflict
reconstruction approach, Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 21:1, 15-30
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The conflict in Mindanao has displaced over two million people in the period 2000 to 2009. As it
subsides, the displaced return to their communities and begin the process of reconstruction. This
paper studies how women contributed to the post-conflict reconstruction of Mindanao by
engaging in livelihood activities. It explores five different livelihood intervention projects
implemented in Mindanao between 2000 and 2010. The extent of women’s contribution to
post-conflict reconstruction is measured by identifying the benefits gained at household and
community levels, generated by women’s livelihood work. I argue that women’s participation
in such activities have led to economic, social and political reconstruction of the communities
affected by in Mindanao. This paper also compares the women’s livelihoods approach with
other reconstruction strategies. It also illustrates that interventions for reconstruction therefore
must include livelihood programs that encourage women’s participation, as exemplified by the
experience of Mindanao.
Keywords: post-conflict reconstruction; women’s livelihood; Mindanao; internally displaced
persons (IDPs)
Introduction
Around 950,000 people were displaced in 2008 following armed confrontation between the
Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and rebel groups from Mindanao (DSWD, 2010,
August 10). When the conflict began in Mindanao in the 1960s, people of affected communities
had to overcome the challenges of displacement. They had no choice but to move to evacuation
centers, stay with relatives, or resettle in other locations. They lost their possessions and liveli-
hoods. Quite often they were poor before the displacement and, after being displaced, were at
risk of becoming even poorer. In this unfortunate situation, the safety and security of families
were priorities, while reconstruction efforts had to begin immediately.
This paper explores the participation and role of women in post-conflict reconstruction by
reviewing five livelihood projects implemented in Mindanao. It aims to answer the following
questions: how did women contribute to such reconstruction in Mindanao through their livelihood
work? What were the benefits at the household and community level as a result? Why should
these be promoted, compared to or along with other reconstruction approaches?
I argue that women’s participation in different livelihood activities result in economic, social
and political reconstruction of conflict-affected communities in Mindanao. Immediate and direct
contributions were in the form of additional income and better provision of food for the women’s
families. But, depending on the livelihood intervention design and implementation, such work has
also resulted in reconstruction contributions in the form of farm inputs and harvest facilities,
* karina.santillan@gmail.com
social services such as health and daycare centers, better nutrition for household members,
accumulation of savings, reduction of debt, revival of social capital through the formation of
associations and cooperatives, and promotion of peace in the community. However, the livelihood
projects undertaken by women and presented in this paper, were mostly involved in work such as
small-scale businesses, farming activities, and employment that did not require formal
education. The income they earned from these was not enough to provide for other important
needs such as education of their children or repair and improvement of their houses. The
impact and contribution of their work, therefore, was limited to providing for needs that could
be fulfilled by small incomes. I argue here that governments and aid agencies recognize
women as very capable actors in the post-conflict reconstruction process. Assistance in the
form of more gender-sensitive, coordinated and sustainable livelihood interventions need to be
developed and channeled for reconstruction among the conflict-affected communities in
Mindanao.
The second component, social reconstruction, is the rehabilitation of services such as health
care, education and social integration. Social integration refers not only to the reintegration of ex-
combatants or IDPs, but also the forming of new social values and establishing relationships and
institutions based on factors such as kinship, socio-economic interests and shared experiences
(Sorensen, 1998). The last component, political reconstruction, is women’s participation in
peace building.
Background
Mindanao economy and the livelihoods situation
The Mindanao economy was driven by the growth of the lumber sector, which peaked in the
1960s. The growth of the sector began to dwindle in the 1990s due to indiscriminate and unsu-
pervised logging. Mindanao is also rich in mineral resources, with deposits of gold, copper, chro-
mite, coal and silver. It has the world’s largest nickel reserves. The cement, power and beer
industries and utilities such as malls, banks, universities and machine shops exist in Mindanao,
but are concentrated in the more developed urban areas of Mindanao such as Iligan, Marawi,
Davao, and Cagayan. Small businesses have been stable, but have had limited opportunities
for new employment, while local investments have been restricted due to the conflict. Mindanao
is the poorest compared to the other two major island groups of Luzon and Visayas. It has the
highest incidence of poverty at 39 percent in 2006 and accounts for 33 percent of the Philippines’
poor families. Within Mindanao, the Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) is the
least developed area as it contributes less than one percent to the Philippines’ GDP (Manghahas,
2010; USAID, 2005).
Sixty percent of the population in ARMM lives below the poverty threshold. Poverty is
highest in the agricultural sector, yet households are highly dependent on it, along with forestry
and fishing. Four of the ten poorest provinces in the Philippines are in ARMM: Sulu, Tawi-Tawi,
Maguindanao and Lanao del Sur. The majority of those neither working nor studying are women
in these areas. Many are unskilled and only work at home. There is also a tendency to give fathers
and older siblings priority in getting available jobs (USAID, 2005). Many young people do not
have jobs in the formal economy and a large number of job opportunities for them are in the infor-
mal sector. In Mindanao, a large number of young people are employed in manufacturing, con-
struction, finance and real estate, but not so in ARMM. However, the agro-processing, tourism
and service sectors have the potential to grow and provide jobs. (USAID, 2005).
lands (Soriano, 2006). The Philippines government and the donors have mainly provided assist-
ance in the form of humanitarian aid. Long-term and reintegration needs of the IDPs have been
insufficient, and on return to their homes, they received little assistance for reconstruction of their
communities. Also, no long-term reconstruction strategy has been initiated by the government for
when the displaced return to their homes (IDMC, 2009).
The gender dimension of providing aid to conflict-affected areas in Mindanao is not widely
discussed in donor evaluation reports. Nevertheless, the Philippines government and various
bilateral and multilateral donors recognize the importance of providing aid for Mindanao,
taking gender issues into account. This recognition is apparent in the Statement of the Official
Development Assistance – Gender and Development Network in 2006. This seeks to further
improve women’s participation in the development process, promote gender equality and under-
take gender mainstreaming (ODA-GAD, 2006). Moreover, the Republic Act 7192, or the Women
in Development and Nation-Building Act, states that a significant portion of ODA funds must be
used by agencies “to support programs and activities for women” Also, the National Economic
and Development Authority (NEDA), the agency that coordinates and monitors the flow of
ODA into the Philippines, published the Harmonized Gender and Development Guidelines for
Project Development, Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation (NEDA, 2007). Through
these statements and initiatives, the Philippines’ agencies have recognized the need for gender
mainstreaming in the allocation of ODA.
Not many donors have published reports on the kinds of projects that take gender issues into
account implemented by them in Mindanao. These concerns are easily set aside in times of armed
conflict and food insecurity because these are not seen as urgent for basic survival. Gender stereo-
typing can also be observed in development projects, for instance, health education and reproduc-
tive health care is merely given to the women in evacuation centers, while farming technologies
are taught mainly to men, even if women are engaged in traditional agricultural systems (Padilla,
2005).
La Frutera
La Frutera is a modern banana plantation and processing plant that employs 2,000 women and
men and now exports bananas to Saudi Arabia and Japan. It is located on 1,300 hectares in
ARMM in a town that was a former base of the MNLF and a recruitment area for the Moro
Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) guerillas. The company is a collaboration of the following:
the Abdullahh Abbar & Ahmed Zainy Co. of Saudi Arabia, farming experts from Israel, De Nadai
family of Italy, Chiquita Brands International and some members of the Moro Islamic Liberation
Front (Nuguid-Anden, 2003). The operation of La Frutera in Buluan, Maguindanao is headed by
Datu Toto Paglas (USAID, 2005).
The town of Buluan in Maguindanao is known to have remained peaceful even during
the height of the government-MILF war in 2000 that destroyed the towns around it. Datu
Paglas, the town’s mayor in 2002, explained that this became possible due to the constant
dialogue with the town’s elders regarding livelihoods for the community. He said that the
trouble disappeared when people were provided work. An increase in livelihoods led to a
decrease in criminal activities and thus improved the peace and law and order situation
in the town. The stability of the town attracted investors, which created even more jobs
(USAID, 2005). The workers are a mix of Christians and Muslims, some of whom are
former MILF combatants. Fear and mistrust was prevalent in La Frutera in the beginning,
as some workers went to work toting guns. Nevertheless, policies and practices within the
company were established to foster tolerance between Christians, Muslims, rebels, pacifists,
men and women (USAID, 2005). Rose Sira, a female Human Resource and Development
manager of La Frutera, testified that the culture of harmony was difficult to establish in
the beginning, but now is there, among the men and women workers (Nuguid-Anden,
2003).
Kulaypa Mamangcas, a Maguindanao woman who is a supervisor in La Frutera, said that
the plantation had changed the women’s lives. Earlier, there was little work available for
them, but now there is. Their work is labor-intensive and workers do not require much
formal education. They receive training for only two weeks during which they train how
to do simple tasks like bagging, spraying, propping, weeding, carrying and stacking. The
local Datu (chief) decides whom to hire and favors heads of households and former MILF
combatants who are older. To increase productivity, workers were paid per bunch of
bananas. This helped in promoting production as well as an increase in the worker’s daily
remuneration from 150 pesos to 200 pesos (USAID, 2005). La Frutera also involves its
employees in community development and social responsibility activities (Nuguid-Anden,
2003). La Frutera Development Foundation was established in 2000 and provided training
for livelihood work for the people of Buluan. For instance, the company develops small-
scale businesses like extracting banana fibers or making compost from bananas and sugar
(USAID, 2005).
The Frutera Corporation is an example of collaboration between the private sector and
members of the community. The corporation’s success is due to Mindanao’s comparative
advantage in agriculture. It employs men, women, Christians, Muslims and ex-combatants.
Giving priority to heads of households in the hiring process did not exclude women from
being hired, as some of them were household heads. Some women also occupied higher-
level positions and were able to contribute to economic reconstruction by getting stable
incomes for their families. They also made a significant contribution to social reconstruction
as they participated in the company’s community development and social responsibility activi-
ties. Political reconstruction also became possible through peaceful working relations among
men, women, Christians and Muslims. Because of the livelihoods provided by La Frutera to
the locals of Buluan, the town remained peaceful even at the height of the conflict in 2000.
According to the testimony of the mayor, Datu Paglas and some employees of the plantation,
sustainable peace and development in the community can be attributed to the work provided
to people of Buluan, both men and women. Their engagement in work in the plantation has
brought about sustained peace to the community.
Development Authority to help facilitate the exchange of business information for small and
medium-sized enterprises. In addition, the Government of Japan provided a one million dollar
grant for gender-related poverty reduction projects focusing on women vendors of selected
public markets. Resource centers in various towns were built as venues for training and lectures
on alternative livelihoods, drop-in clinics, day-care centers, cold storage for their products,
lockers and washrooms (Mangahas, 2010).
The women’s centers became primary venues for interaction. So, the women felt that these
had become places where they could socialize and form groups, instead of having to face pro-
blems on their own (Mangahas, 2010):
It’s a place where we can meet each other often and form a bond, unlike in the past when we were on
our own. Now, we no longer approach the city hall authorities directly. Instead, we go as a group.
Earlier, we used to visit them individually and no action was ever taken on our demands. Now as
a group, we have their ear because we are more powerful.
– Geraldine Aguia (31years), a vendor from Panabo City
A grant from ADB’s Japan Fund for Poverty Reduction benefitted 1,600 women vendors in
eight towns of Mindanao (Mangahas, 2010). They received training in food processing, making
native delicacies, fruit processing, ice cream making, simple accounting and bookkeeping. Alice
Buenafe (46 years) finished training in making ice-cream and said it helped her to contribute to the
family income, together with her husband who is also a vendor. Their daily income increased,
averaging 1,200 pesos ($25.26). Anecita Buenaflor, a vegetable vendor, visits the center to
help prepare bicho, a local sweet delicacy. The extra work she did here contributed to her
family income, especially during the down time at the market (Mangahas, 2010). Gabriela
Ocana (49 years), received training in making soap and was now able to sell soap and fruit.
She said her family is also able to save some money by using the soap she made. Many
women received training in cookery and were able to improve their cooking skills and run
small eateries. Other training was given for making herbal medicines, hair styling, dressmaking
and nail care. Apart from livelihood training, the center was also used as a day-care center where
the children of the vendors were housed while they were at work (Mangahas, 2010).
The project is an example of assistance provided to women who already have existing liveli-
hoods. This was in the form of knowledge transfer about small and medium enterprises. In
addition, the project was gender-sensitive and specifically targeted the women vendors of the
communities, who were able to contribute to post-conflict reconstruction by participating in
the project. This helped improve their family incomes, generated savings, and enabled them to
seek alternative livelihoods. Their contribution to social reconstruction came in the form of pro-
vision of health clinics and day care centers. Social capital was also improved as women gathered
in the women’s centers to discuss and resolve their problems as a group.
Oxfam identified the main problems of the IDPs before implementing the project. It noted that
they lacked awareness and understanding of their rights to basic services; lacked support for basic
needs; were at risk of disease due to inadequate access to safe water, sanitation facilities and
health services; lacked livelihood options that limited their choices; had no support for food pro-
duction; and had limited capacity for diversifying their income and livelihood options. All of
these factors limited both the food and incomes available to the households. With these issues
in mind, Oxfam identified three sectors on which assistance would be focused: public health,
access to information, and livelihood and food security. The livelihoods and food security
sector, therefore, supported agricultural and aquaculture rehabilitation, provided livelihood assist-
ance, facilitated networking with responsible local government units, and encouraged diversifica-
tion and development of alternative livelihoods.
The Oxfam staff was guided by several principles in addressing the livelihood needs of the
community. Their involvement with the members of the community needed to be consultative,
participatory and open to negotiation. It was necessary for them to recognize the capacities of
the community members. They had to respect and understand the dynamics of the community
and be sensitive to the local culture. Finally, they had to be gender sensitive and sought equal par-
ticipation by the men and women of the community.
The report on the program’s impact and outcomes, particularly its livelihoods and food secur-
ity dimensions, indicates that the promotion of organic and diversified farming decreased the cost
of farm production and reduced the farmers debts. The beneficiaries expressed an improved sense
of health because of their gradual shift to organic farming, which eliminated their use of petro-
chemical fertilizers and pesticides. They were also able to increase savings because they no
longer needed to buy pesticides and fertilizers. Prior to shifting to organic farming, fertilizers
and chemical pesticides cost them 8,000 to 10,000 pesos ($160-200) for every hectare of land,
but with organic farming, their cost on farm inputs reduced to 500 pesos ($10) and they were
able to spend their savings on food and other needs.
The women participated in income-generating activities such as raising ducks and goats, soap-
making, growing vegetables, and making salted eggs and balut or boiled duck eggs. These gave
women access to new sources of income and they noted an improvement in their family diets
because they were able to have more substantial foods such as fish, eggs and vegetables,
which came directly from their own work in gardens, fish culture cages and duck-raising.
Some women also reportedly sold goats when they needed immediate cash, but the goat livestock
project had limited success because of the death or theft of animals.
The women beneficiaries donated two eggs per week to their organization. In this way, other
women in the barangay (village) used these to raise ducks as well. In Barangay Lasangan, 60
women members have been actively raising ducks and there was an increase in the number of
women getting involved in this activity. Livelihood training was conducted in partnership with
the Philippines Department of Agriculture. The Oxfam staff had little technical knowledge of
agriculture, raising livestock or other income-generating activities that the community wanted.
So they linked up with other agencies that possessed the requisite knowledge in these fields,
for instance, technicians from the Department of Agriculture were invited as resource persons.
To assess this project, a focus group discussion among women beneficiaries was conducted.
They said they were now more active in the economic sphere and participated in the production
and management of farms and gardens. They were more involved in community affairs, decision-
making, negotiation and had gained confidence and awareness of women’s roles in resolving con-
flicts. Their involvement in the livelihood projects gave them more knowledge and provided them
additional means of earning and contributing to family incomes.
Active involvement by women in organizations and livelihood projects gave women the
awareness that they were capable of earning and taking part in community activities. The
evaluation report indicated that they took steps to go beyond reproductive work within their
households and socialize with other women in the community. Their experience of being dis-
placed led them to make decisions on their own and assume leadership positions in the
community.
The impact of Oxfam’s assistance to the community was limited in several ways as its liveli-
hood projects were small-scale and provided only minor increases in income to the beneficiaries.
Oxfam recommended that future livelihood interventions should focus on access to and sustain-
able management of natural resources and should be involved in training for production of higher
value products and access to markets. The beneficiaries also said that the assistance was termi-
nated prematurely and they needed better technical and management skills to sustain the projects.
Finally, although many women beneficiaries became involved in the livelihood projects and in
making decisions at the community level, deeply-embedded cultural and religious beliefs still
remained that constrained them from taking full advantage of their capacities. Oxfam rec-
ommended that women and men in the community should continue to be educated regarding
their rights for a change in attitudes among men to occur.
Oxfam specifically targeted IDPs in this project. A needs assessment conducted among them led
to the identification of their most important needs, livelihood being one among these. This interven-
tion led to more agricultural opportunities and alternatives. The project was gender-sensitive as it
encouraged equal participation both by men and women. Women’s participation in organic and
diversified farming contributed to economic reconstruction through increased savings, reduced
debts and additional income. Their contribution to social reconstruction was in the form of the
women’s groups which encouraged mutual help. They made contributions to group savings for
those who needed help in emergency situations. Also, they made contributions to enable others
to participate in livelihood activities such as raising ducks, making soap and growing vegetables.
high export growth, along with Central Visayas (Balisacan et al., 2008). A big factor in promoting
export growth and vitality of regions are the export zones, which are concessional facilities estab-
lished by the Philippines Export Zone Authority. However, these were established in some
regions and not in others, therefore, the regions that have export zones have better opportunities
and facilities for export growth, while those that do not lag behind.
In terms of foreign direct investments, Mindanao received a total value of P1.704 billion in
2008. Foreign and foreign-affiliated firms in Mindanao mostly operate in the wood products
industry, manufacturing, fishing and fish products, banana production, mining, coconut products,
coffee and cacao production (Tadem, 2010). Therefore, it cannot be said that investments, trade
and employment are absent in Mindanao. Its rich natural resource base is crucial for attracting
investment and development projects. However, these projects are concentrated in some pro-
vinces and regions within Mindanao. For instance, major infrastructural developments such as
international airports and ports, energy plants and bridges were developed in Butuan City,
Cagayan de Oro City, Davao, Pagadian, Dipolog and Zamboanga (Tadem, 2010). These are
peaceful and Christian-dominated areas within Mindanao, while the Muslim-inhabited provinces
and cities have not had any such projects.
In principle, infrastructural projects should benefit the entire country, to facilitate the move-
ment of people, capital and goods. However, these are concentrated in regions and provinces
that already have the administrative capacity, political influence and funds, while, the poorer
regions such as the ARMM and others do not. Although the government is active in promoting
sectors in Mindanao that are economically viable such as agriculture and natural resources, these
are labor intensive and extractive. They are highly dependent on natural resources rather than
human resources. Although Mindanao earns revenue from these, not many people here are
employed in the manufacturing and services sectors, which make use of human capacities
rather than natural resources.
The central government’s manner of distribution of development projects among the regions
of the country do little for the reconstruction of Mindanao. Unequal distribution of these projects
is a reality; the poorest regions continue to be neglected. The top to bottom development approach
in the Philippines setting cannot be expected to immediately and directly provide for Mindanao’s
immediate reconstruction needs. In comparison, the livelihoods approach assumes a bottom-up
means of reconstruction. It begins within the community and directly benefits the participants
and their families.
encourage peaceful transactions and cooperation among members of the community, and can be
undertaken both by men and women.
Donor approaches
The approaches used by major donors involved in the Mindanao conflict varied according to their
policies and interests. The ADB, European Commission, Japan, UNDP, U.S. and World Bank
have been giving aid to Mindanao for a variety of sectors. Nevertheless, the reconstruction of
Mindanao is mentioned in their overall aid policy for the Philippines. Major donors consider
the peace process between the Philippines government and the MILF as a major factor in deter-
mining the success and effectiveness of their own development efforts. These donors also con-
sider socioeconomic development of conflict-affected areas in Mindanao to be important for
reducing poverty and achieving peace (Kudo & Yoshiumura, 2008).
It is fortunate that major donors allocate funds and projects for the reconstruction of Mindanao
and recognize the need to focus on projects that are community-based and encourage socioeco-
nomic activity. However, they do not mention the importance of involving women in these. Donor
assistance for reconstruction of Mindanao should consciously allocate funding for women’s live-
lihoods and so recognize that they are capable household heads and reconstruction actors. Donors
must ensure that planning and implementation of socioeconomic activities include training for
and provision of some more options that encourage the participation of women. Their monitoring
and evaluation must also study the impact of these projects on women and other community
members, and make recommendations on how to sustain these livelihood activities even
without donor support.
Overall analysis
The conflict has been a constant challenge for Mindanao’s development, especially in areas with
Muslim populations. Like many other conflict-ridden regions of the world, this too was charac-
terized by competition among different religious, ethnic and political groups vying for power and
resources. It also manifests the common characteristics of conflicts in Third World Countries
(Douma, Frerks, & van de Goor, 1999): a colonial history, the favoring of certain sectors of
society, and weaknesses of the government in managing resources, and the lack of fair and
equal access to decision-making processes. To date, the possibility of clashes between the military
and the armed groups remains, even after the signing of the Comprehensive Agreement on the
Bangsamoro between the government and the MILF on March 27, 2014, which grants autonomy
to the ARMM in exchange for disarmament by the MILF. The Mindano conflict has not followed
a regular sequence of stages of pre-conflict, conflict, peace process, and reconstruction. It has
often reverted to conflict just when reconstruction has begun, or conflict and reconstruction are
known to occur simultaneously.
The focus of this paper is on the reconstruction stage, recognizing that it is the most crucial
one in every conflict because it promotes opportunities to rebuild lives and regain losses in prop-
erty. Although initial emergency response and humanitarian aid has been helpful, it is very impor-
tant to determine what approaches have worked to ensure and sustain the ability of the affected
population to recover and overcome poverty. Furthermore, this paper focuses on the capability of
women as actors of reconstruction. Although it does not compare their capabilities with those of
men, nor does it deny that the latter are capable contributors, it recognizes that both men and
women suffer due to the loss of resources and both need access to food, health, education and
other social services. But women suffer in conflict differently from men. Some become heads
of households, trying to manage reproductive work and earn a living. It is also true that they
were not easily included in decision-making processes and were not immediately recognized as
capable actors in post-conflict reconstruction. This is evident in that there is little written work and
research about their roles in post-conflict reconstruction efforts.
The projects demonstrate that women’s participation in different livelihood activities result in
economic, social and political reconstruction of conflict-affected communities in Mindanao. The
most immediate and direct contribution made by them is in the form of additional income and
better provision of food for their families. But depending on the intervention design and
implementation, women’s livelihoods also add to reconstructive contributions by providing
farm inputs and harvest facilities, social services such as health and daycare centers and better
nutrition for family members, savings, reduction of debt, revival of social capital through the for-
mation of associations and cooperatives, and promoting peace in the community.
It was also observed that women were mostly involved in livelihood generation via small-
scale businesses, farming activities or employment that did not require formal education. The pro-
jects demonstrated that such development is a means of meeting basic needs, but has so far been
unable to meet public services such as education and better health service or for repairing housing
structures. The impact and contribution of their livelihood work is therefore limited to providing
needs that only require small amounts of money.
The projects did re-establish social and economic interdependence among its beneficiaries.
Social networks based on a beneficial exchange of labor, assets and food grew. The livelihood
work also included interventions for skills-training, micro-credit, agricultural tools, market
access, and strengthening of community organizations. However, there were no initiatives
made for infrastructural development such as roads, schools, hospitals or houses. The projects
activated economic and community development by capitalizing on local resources and opportu-
nities. Although small-scale, these efforts revived post-conflict economies via petty trade, were
open to everyone, did not require large investments or access to land, could be carried out any
time and could instantly generate income. However, some work such as soap-making or duck-
raising were livelihoods that may easily crowd the market within small communities. Neverthe-
less, it is noteworthy that the livelihood interventions for women and conflict-affected commu-
nities in Mindanao have in common the collaboration among multilateral and bilateral donors,
government units, private corporations, people’s groups and community members. Proper coordi-
nation by these actors contributes to livelihood interventions in the form of technical training,
sharing of knowledge and encourages more active involvement in the reconstruction process.
In addition, the case of Oxfam and ADB demonstrated the importance of conducting needs
assessments to determine specific intervention areas appropriate for the recipient community.
These livelihood projects also demonstrated that women are not typically victims of war, but
are social actors capable of influencing the course of reconstruction by being involved in agricul-
tural production and the informal sector, as well as mobilizing social networks. They are survivors
and household heads; they adapt to their environments when basic services break down and as
social networks disintegrate as result of conflict. However, the projects demonstrate constraints
in post-conflict reconstruction efforts, where women are still under-represented in decision-
making. Also, women’s organizations need more access to funds and programs. They need to
be more involved in reconstruction planning, decision-making and implementation, as well as
for strengthening linkages within regional and national economic planning.
Unfortunately, the projects do not represent an entirely effective livelihood intervention
approach for women. Their impact and scope need further investigation. For instance, many of
the assessment reports do not give gender-disaggregated data. There are no exact and separate
statistics and numbers for men and women beneficiaries. Also, many of the projects do not
mainly target women as beneficiaries. In other words, the needs of women in conflict-affected
communities are not taken into account adequately. The kinds of livelihoods women were
involved in generated only small incomes, while other livelihood options or employment oppor-
tunities were limited. Also, the sustainability of livelihoods was difficult to determine, especially
of projects generated via aid budgets as their implementation and monitoring was limited to
certain periods of time.
Exchanges and dialogue about livelihood opportunities are needed to find new avenues of
work. Research and evaluation reports on projects for women are few, which makes it
difficult to assess which ones are more appropriate and feasible. The range of such projects for
women are limited as well and there have been none that allow for employment in the formal
urban sector.
Compared with other reconstruction approaches, the livelihood projects rely on human
resources and the involvement of women. Large-scale development projects do not directly
provide for the basic needs of conflict-affected communities. On the other hand, the income gen-
erated by women through their work enabled them to buy food, medicines, and fulfill other basic
needs immediately. Such projects can also reach conflict-affected communities easily, especially
since these communities are located in areas that are difficult to access by public transport.
Resource persons for training can visit the communities, while local resources can be used to
develop income-generating activities. As these livelihood projects are developed, they can
thrive and become locally sustainable, without requiring people to migrate or travel to distant
places. Meanwhile, the reintegration of ex-combatants as an approach does not encourage the par-
ticipation of women. It fails to recognize them as reconstruction actors. It also fails to foster social
reconstruction because the ex-combatants have not been easily motivated to join the AFP and
experienced discrimination. Nor have they been able to form organizations that would help
their communities. Lastly, the donors’ approaches varied and do not implicitly promote the par-
ticipation of women in reconstruction efforts.
Conclusion
Armed conflict is a reality in many countries and communities and is a barrier to development. It
destroys resources and lives. The root causes of conflict and its impact require careful and in-
depth study depending on where it occurs and who are affected. The need to further understand
it is important because there is a need to prevent it from recurring. More importantly, there is a
need to help those who suffer from it. The conflict in Mindanao has lasted for decades, apart
from which the region is burdened by poverty and lack of employment opportunities. Even
though Mindanao is rich in natural resources, development here has been slow and minimal,
partly because of the conflict. Assistance for the affected areas is crucial. However, the Philippines
government and aid agencies have yet to coordinate efforts for effective reconstruction that would
support sustainable livelihoods.
The post-conflict reconstruction stage presents itself as an opportunity to rebuild lives and
properties. Both men and women suffer from such struggles and both are also capable actors
in post-conflict reconstruction. However, women’s role as active contributors to post-conflict
reconstruction is not widely recognized, although they are active contributors to such reconstruc-
tion, as seen here. One way in which they are able to do this is through livelihood development.
Women actively pursue such strategies in conflict situations because they are responsible for
taking care of their families and so they undertake work in agriculture or trading in order to
earn for their needs.
The reality of unequal distribution of development efforts and economic growth in the differ-
ent regions of the country, the lack of consistent policies for the reconstruction of conflict-affected
communities in Mindanao and poverty comprise some of the root causes of conflict that continue
to persist. Providing livelihoods to the women in these conflict-affected areas is not the single and
most effective approach to reconstruction, but it is one that can directly improve living conditions
of individuals, families and communities. It is an approach that is direct and can generate tangible
results immediately.
Notes on contributor
Karina R. SANTILLAN finished her Masters in International Studies, majoring in Development
Cooperation, at Ewha Womans University in Seoul, South Korea. She graduated with a degree in Bachelor
of Arts in European Languages, majoring in Spanish, from the University of the Philippines, Diliman.
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Abstract in Tagalog
Mahigit dalawang milyong tao ang nawalan ng tahanan at lumikas dahil sa kaguluhan sa
Mindanao noong 2000 hanggang 2009. Sa panandaliang paghupa ng kaguluhan, sila ay
bumalik sa kanilang komunidad upang simulan ang proseso ng muling pagtatag ng kanilang
buhay. Ihinahayag ng artikulong ito kung ano ang naiambag ng mga babae sa proseso ng
pagtatag matapos ang kaguluhan. Ito ay isang pag-aaral kung paano nakatulong ang mga
babae sa pamamagitan ng paglahok sa mga gawaing pangkabuhayan. Tinitignan nito ang
kinahinatnan ng limang proyektong pangkabuhayan na naisakatuparan sa Mindanao sa mga
taong 2000 hanggang 2010. Sinukat ang saklaw ng ambag ng mga kababaihan sa proseso
ng pagtatag sa pamamagitan ng pagtukoy ng mga benepisyong naibigay nila sa kanilang
pamilya at komunidad, na siyang naging bunga ng kanilang paglahok sa mga gawaing
pangkabuhayan. Pinatotohanan ng artikulong ito na ang paglahok ng mga babae sa iba’t
ibang gawaing pangkabuhayan ay nakatulong sa proseso ng pagtatag sa aspetong
ekonomiko, sosyal at politikal ng mga komunidad na apektado ng kaguluhan. Ikinikumpara
din ng artikulong ito ang paglahok ng mga babae sa mga gawaing pangkabuhayan sa ibang
mga paraan ng pagtatag na naisakatuparan ng mga gobiyerno at mga ahensya. Isinusulong
nito ang paglaan ng mga gawaing pangkabuhayan na hinihimok ang paglahok ng mga
babae bilang isang mahusay ng paraan para maisakatuparan ang proseso ng pagtatag
matapos ang kaguluhan.
Keywords: proseso ng pagtatag matapos ang kaguluhan; kabuhayan para sa babae; Mindanao;
mga taong lumikas dahil sa kaguluhan