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Dimensional Systems
DEBNARAYAN JANA
Dept. of Physics, University College of Science and Technology
92 A P C Road, Kolkata -700 009 W.B.
E-mail: djphy@caluniv.ac.in
ABSTRACT
Degeneracy is an important concept in physics and chemistry.
Degeneracy and symmetry are closely connected. We distinguish between
two types of degeneracy - symmetric or systematic and accidental one. In
this paper, we illustrate the concept of degeneracy through some two
dimensional quantum mechanical problems. We have also indicated the
breaking of the degeneracy by suitable application of perturbing
potentials.
18
16
a=4
Scaled Potential [2V(x)/k]
14
12
10
4
a=2
0
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Distance (x)
Repeating the previous arguments for This indicates that T|n〉 satisfies the eigen
k=1,2,…d, we can show that ψ =Cψ0 signaling function criteria of the Hamiltonian with the
that the ground state of the Hamiltonian same energy eigenvalue En. So, T|n〉 and |n〉 are
defined in equation (12) is non-degenerate. degenerate eigenkets of the Hamiltonian. In
However, it is not possible to make any other words, the energy eigenvalue
comment for any excited states because of the corresponds to more than one eigen function.
impossibility of super-symmetry partner Besides, any linear combination of the wave
Hamiltonian which conserves the energy functions is also an eigen function of the
spectrum10 of the Hamiltonian. Moreover, we Hamiltonian with the same energy eigenvalue.
know that the excited states of any Hamiltonian Hence, the choice of the eigen fucntions of a
in higher dimension d>1 is in general degenerate energy level is not unique. In
general, two situations may arise for T|n〉. T|n〉
(always!) degenerate.
might be completely different from |n〉 or T|n〉
3. Mathematical Meaning of Degeneracy could be simply a multiple of |n〉. In the later
It is a common folklore that if a system is situation, we may write in mathematical form
symmetrical in some sense, its energy levels as
are usually degenerate. The symmetry and
degeneracy are often closely linked.11-14 T|n〉 = gn |n〉 (16)
However, it is not always easy to find out the
symmetry which is responsible for the where gn could be termed as the degree of
degeneracy in the problem. For example, degeneracy of the n-th energy level.
classically, in a central field, the equations are
invariant under rotations. As a consequence,
and the normalized wave function as Therefore, the energy levels remain the same
for distinct wave functions under the
ψ n , n ( x, y ) =
x y
transformation (qnx⇔pny). As a specific
example, we take Lx=2Ly, then the energy
levels corresponding to eigenstates (nx, ny) and
4 ⎛ n π ⎞ ⎛ nyπ ⎞
sin ⎜ x ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ (19) ⎜ 2ny , nx ⎟ are degenerate. Thus, (4,1) and
Lx Ly ⎝ Lx ⎠ ⎝ Ly ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(2,2) are degenerate. This type of degeneracy is
Here, the quantum numbers can take positive
accidental because they are not related to any
integer values starting from 1. It is obvious that
geometrical symmetry but to some hidden
in this case, two quantum numbers are required
symmetry16,17 in the problem.
to describe the energy eigenvalues and the
energy is the sum of one dimensional energy
eigenvalues of particle in a box problem. The
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2π x ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
ψ 2,1 ( x, y ) = ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ y⎟ (22)
⎝L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
Apart from this type of geometric degeneracy,
there is also accidental one. In this case, two or
different pairs of integers give the same sum of
the squares. For
example,
very simple perturbation given in the exercise energy eigenvalue after the perturbation
of Sakurai’s book19 and consider its effect on becomes
the first three eigenstates of the problem. The
perturbation V(x,y)=λ xy within the square box 4 × 256
of length L. The first order correction to the (π 4 + )
Ene1=E fe + 81 λ L2 ;
system for any n-th eigenstate is given as 4π 4
2 ∫
P12 = x sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟ dx
L 0 ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 5π x ⎞ ⎛ 5π ⎞
ψ 5,5 ( x, y ) = ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ y⎟
⎝L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
⎛ π y ⎞ ⎛ 2π y ⎞
L
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 7π x ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
∫ y sin ⎜⎝ ⎟ sin ⎜
L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
⎟ dy ψ 7,1 ( x, y ) = ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜ y ⎟ (27)
0 ⎝L⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝L ⎠
The degeneracy and the first few energy levels are shown in tabular form.
nx ny n=nx+ny Comments
0 0 0 Ground state
Non-degenerate
1 0 1 First Excited State
0 1 1 Doubly Degenerate
0 2 2 Second Excited State
2 0 2 Triply Degenerate
1 1 2
0 3 3 Third Excited State
3 0 3
1 2 3 Four Fold
2 1 3 Degenerate
90
80
70
1d
Degeneracy (g(n))
60 2d
3d
50 4d
40
30
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Energy Level (n)
⎜ 2 ⎟ − ⎜ 2 ⎟ = ω ( F1 + F2 + F3 )
Like the energy eigenvalues, the wave 2 2 2 2
1.5
Probability Density P0,1(x,y)
1.0
0.5
0.0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance in y direction (y)
Figure 4: Variation of the probability density P0,1(x,y) as a function of y for two values
of α. The dashed curve is drawn for α=0.1 while for continuous curve, the value of
for α=0.3.
This is due to the fact that the Hamiltonian In Figure 4, we show schematically the
is invariant under rotation by any angle φ. probability density P0,1(x,y) corresponding to
After rotation, the rotated Hamiltonian remains ψ0,1(x,y) as a function of y keeping x constant
the same as the original Hamiltonian. Note that for two values of α. It is seen from the figure
for three dimensional systems, when the that the probability density P0,1(x,y) is peaked
Hamiltonian is spherically symmetric, it is at two points along y directions. Moreover, the
invariant under rotations about any axis. In that magnitudes as well as the positions of the
situation, the Hamiltonian commutes with all peaks are functions of α. It is amazing to note
three components (Lx, Ly and Lz) of the angular that although the oscillator does not possess
momentum. The vanishing commutator any preferred direction; however, one of the
relation also points out that the Lz and H must first excited states namely ψ0,1(x,y) has
have simultaneously same eigenstate provided acquired a particular direction. By symmetry
the states are non-degenerate. The degeneracy principle, since x and y are equivalent for this
can be viewed from the eigenstates ψ0,1(x,y) 2d harmonic oscillator, there must be another
and ψ1,0(x,y). The wave function ψ0,1(x,y) can wave functions whose probability density must
be written within a normalization constant N1 peak up along x directions. A quick look
as reveals that the probability density of ψ1,0(x,y)
−α ( x 2
+ y2 )
has the required property. This implies that
ψ0,1(x,y) = N1 ye (37) these two wave functions must have the same
182 Physics Education • July − September 2009
energy. One should also note that there could 5.3 Breaking the Degeneracy of Isotropic
be other wave functions – linear combinations Harmonic Oscillator
of these two wave functions - which also have
the same energy. Now, let us pay attention to To break the degeneracy of the isotropic
oscillator, one can add some potential such as
the ground state wave function ψ0,0(x,y)
H′ = λ xy or any other functional form. We
ψ 0 , 0 ( x , y ) = N 0 e −α ( x + y2 )
= N 0 e −αr (38)
2 2
would like to illustrate here simple perturbation
in terms of spring constants to remove the
This state is independent of φ, so rotation does degeneracy in the system. To do this, we have
not produce any new state and hence, this is the to introduce a very simple perturbation in terms
only state which is non-degenerate. A close of different spring constants in two directions x
inspection points out that this is also an eigen and y. Let us assume that the spring constants
state of Lz with eigen value zero. Thus, the kx and ky are different by an infinitesimal
commutator between H and Lz is satisfied by amount η in the following way:
this wave function. However, the situation is
k x → k + η and k y → k − η with η << k . Thus,
slightly complicated for the two degenerate the Hamiltonian in this new variable reads as
eigen functions. In polar coordinates, the wave
functions are given by 1 1
H= ( px2 + mω 2 x 2 ) + ( p y2 + mω 2 y 2 )
2m 2m
ψ 1,0 (r , φ ) = N1r cos(φ )e −α r
2
1
+ η ( x2 − y 2 )
ψ 0,1 (r , φ ) = N1r sin(φ )e −α r 2 2
(39)
=2 2 1 2 1 2
A straightforward calculation shows that they =− ∇ + kr + η r cos(2φ )
are not the eigen functions of Lz. In fact, 2m 2 2
Lzψ1,0=λψ0,1 and vice versa. Then, one might = H0 + H′ (41)
worry about the commutator relation between
the Hamiltonian and Lz. These wave functions where H0 is the unperturbed part of 2d
are the eigen functions of H; but surprisingly, harmonic oscillator and H′ is the perturbed part
not the eigen functions of Lz. It is due to the of it. Now, because of this angle dependence of
fact that degenerate eigen functions are not the perturbed part, it is easy to visualize that
necessarily the eigen functions of Lz. However, [H0,Lz]=0 but [H′,Lz]≠0. In other words, the
a linear combination of the degenerate eigen perturbation breaks the rotational invariance
functions can be constructed to form the eigen already present in the unperturbed part. We
functions of Lz. For example, the wave will notice immediately that this deficiency of
functions this symmetry is responsible for the breaking
of the degeneracy. It is easy to notice that from
ψ = ψ 1,0 + iψ 0,1 = N1eiφ e −α r
2