Building a Vision of Algebra for Preservice Teachers

Author(s): Sheryl Stump, Joyce Bishop and Barbara Britton

Source: Teaching Children Mathematics, Vol. 10, No. 3 (NOVEMBER 2003), pp. 180-186
Published by: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
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 Biiilding a
Vision of
Algebra
for Preservice Teachers
recommendations for changes in the they learned to think of it merely as symbolic
manipulation. Unfortunately, many of them
Recent
middle mathematics curriculumcreate
school students for elementary and
new chal- developed only a shallow understanding of the
lenges for those who teach preservice elementary concepts behind the rules and procedures, leav-
and middle school teachers. In particular, ing the
them ill-prepared to promote algebraic rea-
algebra strand that runs through NCTM's Princi-
soning in the early grades.
ples and Standards for School Mathematics This dilemma raises new questions for mathe-
(2000) presents a vision of algebra that is very matics teacher educators and calls for new
different from the algebra that most preservice approaches to preparing preservice mathema
teachers experienced in their own pre-college teachers. On three different campuses, the auth
education. Not only does Principles and Stan- of this article teach algebra courses to preserv
dards recommend introducing algebra in the elementary and middle school teachers who ha
early elementary years but it also advocates chosen mathematics as an area of specializat
developing algebra more conceptually. In con- The purpose of our courses is to develop preser
trast, most preservice teachers first encountered teachers' conceptual knowledge and to support
algebra in middle school or high school, where teaching of algebra in elementary and mid
school. We share the following goals in ou
By Sheryl Stump, Joyce Bishop, and Barbara Britton courses: to develop preservice teachers' und
standing of algebraic concepts, to foster more c
Sheryl Stump, sstump@bsu.edu, teaches mathematics content and methods courses to ele-
ceptual views about the nature of algebra, and,
mentary and secondary teachers at Ball State University in Muncie, Indiana. She is working to
promote a conceptual vision of mathematics. Joyce Bishop, cfjdb1@eiu.edu, lesser
worksextent, to explore ideas for teaching alge
with pre-
service teachers at Eastern Illinois University in Charleston, Illinois. Her interests to elementary
include and middle school students.
preparing teachers to promote algebraic thinking in grades K-8. Barbara Britton, Recommendations from various professio
Barbara.Britton@emich.edu, is an associate professor of mathematics education at Eastern
organizations (CBMS 2001; M A A 1991; NC
Michigan University in Ypsilanti, Michigan. Her major research interest is investigating the
beliefs of preservice teachers. 1991) have outlined the algebraic content that
appropriate for preservice teachers. This conte

1 80 Teaching Children Mathematics / November 2003

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includes investigating patterns, representing prob- lack a tailor-made textbook, each author integrates
lem situations with variables, analyzing functional activities for elementary and middle school stu-
relationships (linear, exponential, polynomial, and dents with college-level algebra materials.
so on) in various representations (tabular, graphi-
cal, symbolic, and verbal), and investigating alge-
braic structure. Although addressing all these top- Alternative Approaches
ics meaningfully in a one-semester course may be to Algebra
difficult, we use them as the framework for the Drawing from a variety of sources, one can select
algebraic content of our course. activities that illustrate the three conceptual
Because we want to foster preservice teachers' approaches to algebra adapted from Bednarz,
conceptual understanding and challenge their Kieran, and Lee (1996). What follows is a descrip-
views of algebra, we believe that presenting a tion of some of the activities that we have used
vision of algebra that is different from a traditional with preservice teachers.
algebra course is important. Rather than focus on
symbolic manipulation, we wish to focus on the Generalization
development of algebraic concepts. Bednarz, The act of generalizing mathematical relationships
Kieran, and Lee (1996) suggest four conceptual and precisely representing them with symbols lies
approaches to developing children's algebraic at the heart of what it means to do mathematics
ideas: generalization, problem solving, modeling, (Kaput 1987). These actions exemplify the power
and functions. We have found that these of algebra. Preservice
elementary
approaches also offer promising alternatives for and middle
school teachers
developing preservice teachers' algebraic ideas. should
appreciate
Briefly stated, generalization focuses on the con-the role of
generalization
struction of formulas that account for general pro- in math- Rather than focus on
ematics
cedures or relationships among quantities. and think of
Problem
solving emphasizes the forming andgeneralization
solving of as an
equations by using letters as unknowns. approach to algebra
Modeling
symbolic manipulation,
because
involves algebraic representations arising outitof
translates
we wish to focus on the
readily into activities
real-world situations and relationships originating
in observations or measurements. Athat are accessible to
function
approach examines various representations of
young students. In the development of algebraic
dependent relationships among real-world
elementary
quanti-mathemat-
ics curriculum,
ties, observing how change in one variable pro- much concepts
duces variation in another variable. early work with alge-
For our purposes, we have collapsed these fourbraic reasoning centers
approaches down to three: generalization, problemaround patterns. Chil-
solving, and a combination of functions and mod-dren identify and extend patterns, describe patterns
eling. Modeling a physical situation frequently in everyday language, and gradually learn to gen-
eralize the relationships among elements of pat-
involves identifying the function that explains the
terns in symbolic form.
situation, and the emphasis on relationships that is
inherent in work with functions may help interpret An activity that we call Area and Perimeter Pat-
the situation. The three approaches are a way to terns, adapted from Schielack and Chancellor
organize algebraic content that goes beyond build-(1995), provides a geometric context to promote
ing up layers of procedures. the visualization and generalization of the relation-
As we organize our curriculum around these ship between the number of pattern-block pieces
three categories, we draw activities from some ofused and the perimeter of a series of figures made
the exemplary curriculum materials developed inwith the pattern blocks, which grow according to a
recent years for elementary and middle school stu-specific rule. Describing these patterns with words
dents. These materials include the Mathematics in and symbols strengthens the preservice teachers'
Context series (National Center for Research understanding
in that mathematical expressions can
Mathematical Sciences Education and Freudenthal represent tangible physical relationships. Discus-
Institute 1998) and the Connected Mathematics sion of these problems provides opportunities to
series (Lappan et al. 1998a, b, and c). Because focus
we on the most basic element of algebra, the

Teaching Children Mathematics / November 2003 181

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 variable. We discuss how problems such as Area
and Perimeter Patterns support the notion of a vari-
able as a quantity that can vary.
In conjunction with these activities, we encour-
age our students to think about generalization from
a teacher's perspective. First, we share the general
questions to promote algebraic reasoning sug-
gested by Ferrini-Mundy, Lappan, and Phillips
(1997). These questions include the following:
"What are the variables in this situation?" "What
Area and perimeter patterns
The Activity
1. Use pattern blocks or triangle paper to
build a growing pattern of equilateral
triangles.
2. Find the area of each triangle using one
small green triangle as the unit of mea-
surement (that is, count the number of

quantities are changing?" "How are the variables small green triangles used to build each tri-
angle), and record the information in a
related?" "As one variable increases, what happens table.
to the other variable?" Then we ask preservice 3. Find the perimeter of each triangle (each
teachers to translate these notions into teaching side of a small green triangle counts as
practices by writing questions related to the Area one unit), and record the information in a
table.
and Perimeter Patterns activity. The activity, solu-
4. Graph the area and perimeter patterns on
tions, and a sample of the preservice teachers' two separate graphs.
questions appear in figure 1.
This early focus on algebra as generalization
The Solution

encourages our preservice teachers to think differ- Triangle

ently about algebra. It shifts attention away from Number Area* Perimeter**
the notion of algebra as a body of rules and proce- 1 1 3

dures and sets the stage for further experiences 2 4 6

with problem solving and functions and modeling. 3

Problem solving 5

Bednarz, Kieran, and Lee (1996) define the problem- 6 36 18

solving approach to algebra as forming and solving • 1 unit of area

equations using letters as unknowns. Our treatment ** 1 unit of len

of this approach begins with problems that invite atriangle

variety of strategies, not all of which use formal
Questions to Promote Algebraic
algebra. One example is the Chickens problemReasoning
from the Mathematics in Context series for stu-
• What would be the area and perimeter for
dents in the middle grades (National Center for the 11th triangle formed? Why?
Research in Mathematical Sciences Education and • From looking at the table, what statements
can you make about the number of the tri-
Freudenthal Institute 1998). Students examine
angle and the corresponding area and
three drawings, each of which is a different combi- perimeter?
nation of two of the three chickens in the problem • What will be the area and perimeter of the
(see fig. 2). Given the total weight for each pair of nth triangle? How do you know?
chickens, the problem is to find the weight of each • Could you ever build a triangle with a
perimeter of 44? How do you know?
chicken. A number of solution strategies will work,
• What are some similarities and differences
from guess and check to solving a system of equa- between the area and perimeter graphs?
tions. One strategy that incorporates informal rea- • Why is the graph of the perimeter a
soning is adding the weights of the three pairs and straight line?
dividing by two to find the combined weight of all
three chickens. The total weight of each pair can be
subtracted from this number to find the weight ofinterview assignment in which each preservice
the missing chicken. In discussing strategies for teacher poses the Chickens problem to an elemen-
this problem, we try to emphasize that informal tary or middle school student. In their written
reasoning about quantities is algebraic thinking asanalyses of the interview, the preservice teachers
much as is applying the procedures of algebra. describe the children's strategies and comment on
To give preservice teachers an opportunity to any algebraic reasoning that they observed. This
observe children's solution strategies, we make anexperience is valuable because it focuses preser-

182 Teaching Children Mathematics / November 2003

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vice teachers' attention on children's thinking. Pre-
service teachers observe the same strategies among
children as they have seen among their classmates. Chickens problem
Perceptive preservice teachers are able to discover
and describe the algebraic reasoning of which chil-
dren are capable before learning formal algebra.
This experience with problem solving from the
Chickens ^:.xi::rtiwmuhnm
point of view of both the learner and the teacher
introduces some of the more traditional methods
for solving problems associated with college-level
algebra, including writing and solving systems of
equations by substitution, elimination, graphing,
and matrices. We try to convey the idea that we are
not only accumulating layers of increasingly com-
plex procedures but also acquiring tools for solving
problems.

Functions and modeling

Functions may be used as unifying ideas to make
connections among mathematical concepts and
procedures, to make connections to other content
1. What should the scale read in the fourth picture1

areas, and to model real-world situations (Day 2. Now vou can find out how mam kilograms eaih .nicken weighs Show how

1995). Incorporating functions and modeling into

an algebra course for preservice teachers helpsReprinted with permission from Mathematics in Context, © 1998
them develop a conceptual understanding based on Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
the integration of multiple representations of math-
ematical situations and appreciate the role that
functions and modeling play in elementary andlyzing and comparing the patterns of change in
middle school curricula. Traditionally consideredtables,
a the shapes of graphs, and the forms of equa-
topic for secondary curricula, functions appear tions
in (see fig. 3).
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, The "Testing Paper Bridges" activity from
which states that students are expected to do the
Thinking with Mathematical Models (Lappan et al.
following in as early as grades three to five: 1998c) introduces linear functions as students dis-
cover how many pennies paper bridges of various
• Represent and analyze patterns and functions, thicknesses can support. Students record their data
using words, tables, and graphs in a table and graph and make predictions beyond
• Investigate how a change in one variable relates
the values in their data. This activity helps students
to a change in a second variable interpret slope as a constant rate of change.
• Identify and describe situations with constant or"Requesting a Reward" from Growing, Grow-
varying rates of change and compare them
ing, Growing (Lappan et al. 1998b) tells the story
(NCTM 2000) of a king and a peasant who make alternative offers
for placing rubas, or money, on the squares of a
In our classes, preservice teachers analyze chessboard to determine the peasant's reward for
saving the life of the king's daughter. Students
change in a variety of contexts that are representa-
investigate contrasting patterns of exponential
tive of three classes of functions: linear, exponen-
tial, and quadratic. Investigations from the Con-growth to determine which deal is best for thé
nected Mathematics series (Lappan et al. 1998a, peasant.
b, This activity introduces a pattern of
and c) feature preliminary experiences with thesechange that differs from the constant change of lin-
classes of functions that our college-level algebra
ear relationships in that the value of the rubas on
texts further explore. In each investigation, stu-
each consecutive square of the chessboard is a con-
dents model real-world situations and examine
stant multiple of the value of the previous square.
how change in one variable relates to change inIn
a "Counting Handshakes" from Frogs, Fleas,
and Painted Cubes (Lappan et al. 1998a), students
second variable. Students make decisions by ana-

Teaching Children Mathematics / November 2003 1 83

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сзшзвинн
Classes of functions

Connected Thinking with Growing, Growing, Frogs, Fleas, and

Mathematics Mathematical Models Growing Painted Cubes
Project Title

Activities Testing Paper Bridges: Requesting a Reward: Counting Handshakes:

Find out how thickness of Investigate repeated Explore the total number
a bridge affects strength doubling and tripling. of handshakes among

Table

Breaking

Thickness Weight Square Plan 1 Plan 2 Players Handshakes

0

Graph

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5 z:::::::::::::!:^::::::::::^: ю "-:'-■-■:-::-":::;-:: = ::::::: = ::: z:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

tir ti i ттт тт Ни т т tniTTi tím г т i » 1 1 1 M ¿ffffffl+f-ffi 1 1 i ITTI 1 1 1 1 1 1 fc I ! N ! ; Ml t N N 1 1 1 N и ! I N 1 1 N I »,
0 12 3 4 5 6 » 0 12 3 4 5 6 fc 0 1 2 3^ 4 5 6^
Thickness Square Number of Players

Equation , n
J = 8.7jc у = 2п-'у = ъп-' y = č^Z}l , n
General Form
y = mx + b У = а(Ь) у = ах +bx + c
Change There is a constant Each /-value is a constant First differences between
difference between multiple of the previous successive /-values are not
successive y-values for /-value. constant, but second
each constant change in differences are constant,
the x-value.

184 Teaching Children Mathematics / November 2003

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explore the quadratic relationship between the num-
ber of players on a team and the total number of high
fives among all the players. By making a table, stu-
dents see that as the size of the team increases, the
number of high fives increases by consecutive num-
bers; the difference between consecutive increases
is 1. Although the change is not additive, as in a lin-
ear relationship, or multiplicative, as in an exponen-
tial relationship, it still follows an orderly pattern.
This exploration of functions and modeling is
compelling evidence to the preservice teachers of the
power of algebraic representation. The preservice
teachers come to recognize how the shape of a graph
is related to the pattern of change in each class of
functions. They also learn to inspect equations to dis-
tinguish among the various types of functions and to
interpret the meaning of each number or variable.
Throughout these investigations, they revisit the
notions of generalization and problem solving.
To encourage preservice teachers to explore the
role of functions and modeling in elementary and
middle school curricula, we ask them to search avail-
able resources, such as textbooks, journals, or the
Internet, for an elementary or middle school activity
that addresses the concept of function. We ask them
to discuss the lesson's strengths and weaknesses, its
potential for extending students' understanding of
functions, and the ways in which the lesson
addresses the NCTM Algebra Standard. The lessons
that they find address topics such as growing pat-
terns, function machines, input/output tables, and
graphs. For preservice teachers, this exercise vali-
dates the idea that functions actually do appear in
elementary and middle school curriculum materials.
Each of these three conceptual approaches - gen-
eralization, problem solving, and functions/model-
ing - provides a different kind of opportunity for
strengthening preservice teachers' understanding of
algebraic concepts. Furthermore, we believe that
looking at algebra from a variety of perspectives
broadens preservice teachers' views about the nature
of algebra.
Insights
Our students generally appreciate the opportunity
to explore algebra materials for elementary and
middle school students because many begin the
course without a strong conception of appropriate
algebra for children. That many of these activities
come from currently available elementary and
middle school curriculum materials is motivating;
students can picture themselves implementing the
Teaching Children Mathematics / November 2003 1 85
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material. We find, however, that materials designed
for elementary and middle school students fre-
quently challenge but sometimes bore preservice
teachers. Our students are often confident in their
own knowledge of the material, but they still may
be perplexed by questions that require a deeper
understanding. They often struggle to clearly com-
municate their understanding of the mathematical
relationships embedded in the activities, but they
do not always need to explore the same concept
from as many angles as the well-developed materi-
als present. We are compelled to use the materials
judiciously, selecting important elements of the
activities but avoiding over-repetition. The chal-
lenge for the course designers is to select the com-
ponents that will thoroughly develop the concepts
without slowing the pace too much.
Throughout our courses, we give students
opportunities to reflect on what they are learning.
Some students' comments reveal their appreciation
for a more conceptual understanding of algebra.
The following is one such comment:
Although I have many experiences with' algebra, I
have still learned some important algebraic ideas this
semester. One of the ideas I feel I have learned is the
importance of identifying why particular variables go
together in the way that they do in problems. Before
this class, I would write equations and pay no atten-
tion to the explanation of why the equation was writ-
ten the way it was. By completely understanding the
equations written, the problem has much more alge-
braic meaning.
Even when not specifically prompted to do so,
other students reflect on how these experiences
may be beneficial to them as future teachers, as in
the following excerpt:
I have learned that solving an algebraic problem is
more than just finding the correct answer, but also
understanding how one derived that answer and
where each part of the formula comes from. One
must be concerned with the answers to the questions
"What is the answer to this problem?" and also "Why
is that the answer to the problem?" As a future
teacher, I have learned that I must not overlook the
second question, which in most cases is harder to
answer, in my classroom.
An important goal for mathematics teacher edu-
cators is to organize experiences for preservice
teachers that will broaden their vision of algebra so
that they can effectively promote algebraic reason-
ing to elementary and middle school students. We
hope that this collection of ideas will serve as one
step toward accomplishing that goal.
 References nected Mathematics: Frogs, Fleas, and Painted
Cubes: Quadratic Relationships. Glenview, 111.: Pren
Bednarz, Nadine, Carolyn Kieran, and Lesley Lee, eds.
tice Hall, 1998a.
Approaches to Algebra: Perspectives for Research
and Teaching. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1996.
Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences Growing: Exponential Relations
Prentice Hall, 1998b.
(CBMS). The Mathematical Education of Teachers.
Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of
America, 2001. matical Models: Representing R
view, 111.: Prentice Hall, 1998c.
Day, Roger P. "Using Functions to Make Mathematical
Mathematical
Connections." In Connecting Mathematics across the Association of Am
for F.Change: Recommendations f
Curriculum, edited by Peggy A. House and Arthur
Preparation
Coxford, pp. 54-64. Reston, Va.: National Council of of Teachers of Mat
Teachers of Mathematics, 1995. ton, D.C.: MAA, 1991.
Ferrini-Mundy, Joan, Glenda Lappan, andNational Center for Research in Mathematical Sciences
Elizabeth
Education and Freudenthal Institute. Mathematics in
Phillips. "Experiences with Patterning." Teaching
Context: Comparing Quantities. Chicago: Ency-
Children Mathematics 3 (February 1997): 282-88.
clopaedia Britannica Educational Corporation, 1998.
Friel, Susan, Sid Rachlin, and Dot Doyle. Navigating
through Algebra in Grades 6-8. Reston, Va.:National
NationalCouncil of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM).
Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2001. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics.
Kaput, James J. "Representation Systems andReston,
Mathe- Va.: NCTM, 2000.
matics." In Problems of Representation in the Teach-
ing and Learning of Mathematics, edited byics. Reston, Va.: NCTM, 1991.
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Schielack,
Janvier, pp. 19-26. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erl- Jane F., and Dinah Cha
baum, 1987. Mathematics with Manipulative
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Lappan, Glenda, James T. Fey, William M. Fitzgerald,
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Susan N. Friel, and Elizabeth Difanis Phillips. A
Con-

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