MQ 45982

DESIGN OF LOW PROFILE TRANSFORMERS FOR
HIGH FREQUENCY OPERATION
by
Valentin Bolborici
A thesis submitted in confonnity with the requirements

for the degree of Master of Applied Science
Graduate Department o f Electricai and Cornputer Engineering
University o f Toronto
O Copyright by Valentin Bolborici 1999

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Design of Low Profile Transfomers for High
Frequency Operation
Master of Applied Science, 1999

Valentin Bo lborici
Graduate Department of Electricai and Computer Engineering

University of Toronto
Abstract
This thesis is concemed with the design of low profile transfomrs for high
fiequency operation that are used in dc/dc resonant converters.
The tirst objective of this work is to examine three different available design methods
for high fiequency transformers, and to make a comparison of the results for a specific
design A comparison with the Finite Eiement anaiysis results is also done in order to see
if these methods are accurate in terms of predicting losses.
The second objective of this work is to develop an algorithm that generates design
curves for a class of high fiequency transfomers that are height constrained. The key
starting point in developing this algorithm is that an optimal design can be achieved when
copper and core losses are in a certain ratio dictated by the constants that characterize the
specific loss curve of the magnetic material.
A set of design curves, developed using the proposeci algorithm for a specific power
level, is presented at the end of this thesis.
Design of Low Profile Transfwmers for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Acknowledgements
.-.
111
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude and appreciation to his supervisor,
Professor J.D. Lavers, for the opportunity to perfonn this work and for his guidance
throughout the preparation of this thesis.
1 would also like to thank to Professors P. Jain, J.D. Lavers and F.P.Dawson for
granting me financial support for this work
The author also extends gratitude to his fiend Philippe Blanchard for usefid discussions
during the preparation of this thesis.
Design of Low Rofile Transformas for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Table of Contents iv
Table of Contents
Abstract ...................,.,..........................................................................................................
il
..
...
Ac knowledgements...... ... . ...
........................................................................................ 111
Table of Contents............................................................... ...........................................iv
Nomenclature.........,....................................... ....................................................................vi
Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Motivation ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Thesis Focus ........................... .
.......................................................... 5
1-3 Thesis Overview....................................... ...,, .................................................-7
Chapter 2 Identification of the Problem. ...........................................................................9

2.2 Introduction .................... --.....,..........
,.......9
2.2 Area Product............
.,. ..................................................................................9
2.3 The Choice of the Magnetic Material and Flux Density.................................. 12
2.4 The Choice of the Current Density .................................................... 1 5
2.5 Summary ....................................................................................................... 17
Chapter 3 Revue of Available Design Methods ............................................................. 18

3.1 . .
introduction..................... .
..................... ...........18
3 -2 The Classicai Design Approach .....................
...........................................19
3.3 Classical Design Approach with Improved Estirnate of Coil Loss ..................27
3.4 Optimized Transformer Design Method......................................................... 30
3.5
3.2, 3.3, and 3.4 ..................................
.,
.
...
Cornparison of the Results Using the Design Methods Describeci in Sections
........................................................ 37
3.6 Conclusions ................................................
Chapter 4 Design Curves for High Frequency Transfoma ......................

................43
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 43
4.2 The Choice of the Core and its Geometrïcai Dimensions................................44
Design of Low Profile Transfixmers for High Frquency Operation University of Toronto
Table of Contents v
The Expression for Core Loss ........................................................................ 46

The Expression for Copper L o s ...................
... ..........................................5 1
Calculation o f the Power Density and Current Density as a Function of
Transformer Height ....................................................................................... 54
Example of a Set of Design Curves................................................................56
4.6.1 ....
VariationofPowerDensitywithHeight ............ ....................57
4.6.2 Variation of Mount@ Area with Height ...........................................-63
4.6.3 Variation of Current Density with Height .......................................... .69
4.6.4 Validation of the Design Curves......................................................... 75
Summary ......................
............. ............................................................. 76
Chapter 5 Conclusions and Fu- Work ........................................................................77

Conclusions .................................................................................................. 77
Future Work .................................................................................................. 79
Appendix Calculation of Window Utilization Factor Ku ...................................... .........80

Appendix The value of coefficients Kj9 I(,. x and y for dif5erent core c o ~ g u r a t i o n and
s
temperature bcreases ....................
...........................................................82
Appendix Values of H and K factors .............................. .............................................. 83
Appendix Temperature rise AT versus -ce dissipation Y ........................................84
Appendix Mode1 Used in the F. E.Analysis of the Transformer ....................
............-85
Appendix Characteristics of K and F Magnetic Materials ............................................. 86
References ......................................................................................................................... 88
Design of Low Profile TfatlSformers for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Nomenclature vi
Nomenclature
Coefficients that descri'be the l o s curve for a ferrite.

Alternathg current.
Effèctive cross-section area of the center post.
Effective cross-section area of the selected cote-
Mounting area of a transformer-
Area produt of the core.
S&e area of a wound transformer.
Cross-section area of the single equivaient turn.
Cross section area of a wire filled with copper.
Necessary cross-section area of the wire used in the primary winding.
Necessary cross-section area of the wire used in the secondary winding.
Breadth of a square strand-
Magnetic flux density in the center pst.
Operating magnetic flux density in tesla unless specified.
Optimum magnetic flux density.
Magnetic flux density in the top and bottom plates at distance r.
Saturation magnetic flux density.
Widing width,
Fourier series coefficient at the fiequency considered.
Diameter of the finished cable over the strands in inches.
Diameter of individuai strands over the copper in inches.
Direct cment.
Power dissipation in dv.
Infinitesimal volume at distance r.
Operating kquency in Hz unless specified.
eddy-current b i s fkctor.
rms fàctor for the P harmonic (gi = 1 for i = 0, and gi = 2 for i 1).
Coefficient of heat transfer by convection.
Design of Low Profile Transfotmers fot High Frequency Operatiori University of Toronto
Nomenclature vii
Resistance ratio of individuai strarads when isoiated.

Thickness of a layer.
Height of transformer.
Height of window area.
Curtent density per unit of length in a iayer (Nm).
The nns value of the current in the primary winding.
The rms value of the current in the secondary winding.
Equivalent cunent in the single equivdent tuni,
The rms value of the current in a winding.
Current density.
Constant depending on the number of strands N.
Waveform fàctor.
Ratio between the height of window area h,and the height of transformer b.
Current density coefficient.
Coefficients that depend on the con6iguration of the core
Coefficient that considers the skin effect.
Tunis ratio.
Window utilization factor.

Coefficient that considers the proximity effect.
Number of layers.
Mean-length tum.
Manganese-Zinc.
Number of strands in the cable,
Nicke1-2inc.
Number of tunis in a layer.
Number of turns in the primary winding.
Number of tums in the secondary winding.
Total nwnber of turns made of square strands.
Number of tunis in a winding.
Power dissipation in the center pst.
Total power dissipation in a winding.
Design of Low ProfiIe Transformas for High Frequency Operation University of Taonto
*.*
Nomenclature VUI
dc power dissipation in a winding.

Copper Ioss in the prhary windiag.
Copper bss in the secondary winding-
Power density,
Power dissipation in a core-
Specific power l o s of a magnetic materiai in mw/cm3.
Total power dissipation in a transformer.
Power dissipation in the top or bottom plate.
Pulse Wdîh Modulation,
Arbitrary distance fiom the center of the core.
Normalizing resistance.
Radius of the center p s t .
Radius of one strand
Outer radius of the core.
ac resistance of the primary winding.
dc resistance per unit length for the Litz wire used in the primary-
dc resistance of the prirnary winding.
ac resistance of the secondary winding.
dc resistance of the secondary winding.
dc resistance per unit iength for the Litz wire used in the secondary.
Resistance of the single equivalent tum.
Inner radius of the window area.
Total apparent power of transformer.
Rated apparent power of transformer.
Apparent power in the prirnary.
Apparent power in the secondary.
Apparent power in the one equivalent tuni.
Maximum temperature.
Thickness of the top and bottom plates.
rms voltage induceci in a winding.
effective volume of the center p s t .
m i g n of Low Profile Transformers for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto

Nomenclature ix
Effective volume of the core.

rms voltage in the prïmary winding.
Volt-per-turn in a winding.
Volume of the wiadings.
Wmdow a m
Coefficients that depend on the configuration of the core.
Zero Voitage Switching.
Geornetnd dimension for the DS core.
Temperature coefficient of resistivity of copper at 20°C.
Skin depth at the hdamental kquency.
S b depth at the ih barmonic.
Ratio of the thickness of a layer of foil to the skin depth
Temperature rise.
Magnetic flux in the center post.
Magnetic flux in the top and bottom plates.
Conductor spacing factor.
Efficiency.
Surfixe dissipation.
Permeability of fiee space.
Resistivity of wpper at 20°C.
Electricai resistivity of a wlliding at Tm.
Conductivity of copper.
Angular fkquency for the ih harmonie.
Design of Low Profile Transformas fw High Freqwicy Operation University ofToronto

Chapter 1:Introduction 1
Chapter1
Introduction
1.1 Motivation
In today's world, size rninimization and efficiency optixnization of electronic equipment

have becorne critidy important design issues. These design issues have naturaly appeared
£iom the fâct that in telecornmunications and computer systems, the present day trend is to
use distributed-power architecture topology. Also, as it is illustrated in two recently
published articles [l, 21, power supplies for the oew generatiom of ICs will require ratings
in the order of 160A at IV. The problem that appears here is the way these ICs will have to
be supplied and the fact that the power supply will have to be part of the IC in order to be
0
closer to the internai power grid.

Power supplies that are mainly used today in electronic equipment are switched-mode
converters. In order to achieve high power densities, there is a trend to increase the operating
fiequency. As the operating fiequency incfea~es,losses associated with the tum off and the
turn on of the electronic switches also increase. In switched-mode converters, these Iosses
becorne so significant at high fiequencies that the converter becornes impractical due to low
conversion efficiencies. In order to reduce switching losses, power supply designers
improved these converters by using the technique of sofl switching [3]. This technique
allows the electronic switches to tum on and off under the condition of zero voltage, zero
current or bath In this way, the power dissipation in the switch can be minirnized. This type
of converters is known as resonant converters,
A number of resouant converter topologies have been reporteci in the literature 141-[9].
These circuits exhîihit low switching losses and can be operated at high fiequency. For
example, a high frequency, low volume, point-of-load power supply for distributed power
systems is described in [4]. The key point in the operation of this resooant converter is that it
takes advantage of a very low transformer leakage inductance to achieve zen>-voltage
switching of ali its power semiconductor devices. Its resonant ringing fhquency is aiso
Design of Low Rofile Transformas for High Frequaicy Opedori University ofToronto
Chapter 1:Introduction
independent of load current. A 50W prototype operating at 3-. and a discussion of the
cornponent rquirements wcessary to reach 10 MHz is also presented.
A 1kW 5ûûkHz fiont-end converter for a distriiuted power supply system is d e m i
in [5]. The converter's topology is a standard power MOSFET H-bridge that drives a
transformer. Its switching îhquency is 500- and I uses a phase-shifted PWM technique
to avoid prirnary side switching losses. The converter's efficiency at fidi ioad approaches
90%.
Miwa describes another type of resonant converter in [a.This paper describes a
prototype 50W 40V-SV dddc resonant wnverter operating at S M H z and wasb~ctedwith
chip and wire hybnd techniques on a ceramic subsaate with copper thick film conductors.
The efficiency of this converter was found close to 85%.
An improved füii-bridge zero-voltage-switching PWM converter using a saturable
inductor is presented by Hua in [A.A saturable inductor is employed in the fU-bridge to
improve converter's performance. The current and voltage stresses as weil as parasitic
oscillations are significantly reduced compared to those of the conventional full-bridge zero-
vo ltage-switchhg PWM converters.
Asymmetrical pulse-width-modulated resooant dcldc converter topologies that exhibit
near-zero switcbulg losses while operating at constant and very high fkquencies are
described in [8]. The converters iaclude a bridged chopper to convert the dc-input voltage to
a high-fiequency unidirectiod ac voltage, which in turn is fed to a high-frequency
transformer through a resonant circuit. Experimental results for a 48V-SV, 30W converter
show an efficiency of 88% at a constant operating fiequency of 1MHr
Finally, in [9] two variations of a sofi-switched converter together, with a novel
asymmetrical PWM coatrol are proposed. The proposed convertedcontrol combination has
several advantages, such as simple aad effective wntrol, low-device vo hage stress, effective
use of parasitic elements, ZVS, and high hll-load and partial-load efficiencies, which make
them suitable candidates for highsfficiency highaensity applications. A prototype dc/dc
converter has been built. It achieves 94% efficiency for SOOWsutput power a d 5 0 ~ 1 2
power density.
Al1 of the resonant converters mentioned above use lnagnetic components - inductors
and transformers. The size of a resonant converter is a stroag fùnction of the magnetic
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequmcy Operation University of Tmmto
components. It is wefl known that the size of inductors and tramformers g n d y depends on
the operating frequency. The higher the fkquency, the smaller the inductors and
transformers are in physical size.
The design of hi@ frequency magnetic components becomes more complicated due to
several aspects that are not very important at low fiequency. The main issue for high
fiequency magnetic component design is tbat the winding loss imreases considerably due to
skin and proximity effects. Also, the magnetic flux density has to be reduced in order to
keep the core loss at acceptable levels.
For fkequencies between 100 lrHz and 2 MHz, the most cornmon materiais used are
MnZn and NiZn ferrites. These are characterized by a high electric resistivity resulting in
low eddy curent losses. For such high hquencies, magnet wire is inefficient and Litz wire
and copper foil become attractive alternatives. Above 2 MHz, Litz wire and copper foi1 aiso
become inefficient and the designer has to support the resulhg losses.
One of the most important magnetic compownts of resonant converters is the high
fiequency transformer. This component plays an important role in detemiining the
efficiency and the size of the respective converter.
Different design methods for transformers that work at high fiequency have been
published over the last two decades. Some of these design methods, together with
investigations of different construction types of high fkquency transformers, are descriid
in reference [1O] through [14]. For example, three types of high fiequency transformers with
dflerent magnetic and winding configurations used in resonant converters, are compared in
[IO] for a resonant converter appikation. The experimental results demonstrate the
characteristics of the self-inductance to voltage ratio versus fkquency. The magnetic flux
and eddy-current distriiutions of pot core, p h core and multi-element core tramformers
were calculated by a boundary element based CADKAE software package. Both
experimental and computer modehg resuits were used for optimum design of high
fiequency transformers and minimixing the copper losses in the transformer windings.
A transformer computer design aid is presented by Coonrod in [Il]. The design method
was developed for use at switching fiequencies above lOOktIz where the classical design
methods of using the saturation constraint results in an overheated transformer due to
excessive core loss. The operating flux density is selected instead by an optirnizatioa
- - - - --
Design of Low Profile T d o r m e r s for Hi& Ftequaicy Operation University of Tacmto

procedure that m h h h e s total transformer losses. Key equaîions used in the design
procedure are developed.
A highly efficient (99.5%) transformer and resonant inductor with very high power
density (1S O O W / ~aod ) profle (height < 0.4 in), are d e s c n i in [12]. The design of
~ ~low
these components is based on a trade-off study that estabiishes the optimum operating
fiequency to be around lMH2. These magnetic components were developed for a 95%
efficient 1kW resonant dc/dc converter.
Petkov presents a procedure for optimum design of a high-power high-fkquency
transformer in [13]. Tbe procedure is besed on both electncal and t h e r d processes in the
transformer and identifies the V A - r h g of ferrite cores in relation to the operatting
fiequency, the optimum flux density in the core, and the optimum current densities of the
windings providing maximum transformer efficiency.
In [14], a new p l a m integrated magnetic component with transformer and inductor
using multilayer printed wiring board is presented The transformer is located in an outer
ring, and the choke coi1 in an inwr ring. This magnetic component was designed to reduce
the loss and the height especiaiiy focusing on the relationship of winding resistance to the
thickness of copper foil The experimental resuits show that the component offers better
efficiency and lower electromagnetic noise than conventional components.
A great deal of the present hi& fiequency magnetic compownt design involves the
development of micro-machined devices. Examples of designs of such magnetic
components can be found in [15] and [ l q .
It is known that relatively simple design methods exist for tramformers and inductors.
One of these design methods is presented by McLyman in [ l q . This method starts fiom the
simple approach that the critical dimensions of a core can be related to the design niting of
the transformer - the total apparent power, frequency, operathg flux density. Empirical
correction fkctors are used to account for skin and proximity effect Iosses, and for the fàct
that magnetic flux density is considered constant inside the core. When used for high
flequency design, the design based on this method can be improved by using Litz wire
instead of magnet wire. In order to consider losses due to skin effect, the fonnula that
calculates the correction k t o r for the AC resistance presenred in [18] can be used.
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequeacy Operation University of Toronto
This method can be fbther improved considering both skin and proximïty eff'ects by
appiying the method to calculate copper l o s presented by Vandelac and Ziogas in [19]. The
key point in this method is that losses in any layer of the winding can be calculated if the
tangentid magnetic field on both sides of that iayer is known, This paper also describes the
effect of harmonies for the situation in which the current in the windings is not Sinusoidal,
This method was fiuther extendeci by Hurley [20J m developing an optimized approach. It
was shown in this paper that for any transformer core, it is possible to define a critical
fiequency. Above this critical hquency, the losses can be minimiled by selecting a flux
densÎty that is less than the saturation flux density. Below the critical fkquency, the
throughput of energy is resaicted by the Limitation that flux density canwt be gr- than
the saturation value for the core material in question.
As an altemative, in high fiequency transformer design there are many finite element-
modeling packages around These offer the possibility of representing the geometry and the
material properties more exactly- One of the disadvantages of the finite element approach is
that the results, whïie accurate, are for specific cases. It is thus dSfïcult to discem trends and
trade-O&.
Another objective in this field wouid be to devebp design curves for the range of
parameters that are of interest. It is known that a major constraint in the design of high
fkequency transformers that are used in rack mounted or printed circuit board converters, is
the height of the transformer. In order for the converter to M in narrow spaces, the height of
the transformer has to be limited by the width of the slot where the converter has to be
placed. An d y s i s regardhg the variation of the power density with the height of the
transformer has been shown by Ngo in [2 11. In this paper it has been developed an algorithm
to determine how does the height of the transformer infiuence the power density for a given
power, efficiency, fiequency, and volt per tuni.
1.2 Thesis Focus
As it has been mentioned in the 1 s t seztion, in many advanced teiecommunication and

computer systems, distributeci architecture topology is becoming popular because of
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequency Operation University of Toccmto
distn'buted themial profile, point+& use power regdation, and modular system design. Some
of the basic requirements on the point-&use power supplies employed in this architecture
are 1) high power density, 2) high efficiency, 3) low EMI, and 4) constant operating
fiequency. One type of power supplies that meets these requirements is the resonant
converter topologies descri'bed by Jain in 181. These topologies use two magnetic
components: a high fkequency inductor and a high fkquency transformer, The losses in
these two çomponents will dictate the efficiency of the converter. As a result, the design of
these two components has to be done very carefùiiy. Another design issue for these
magnetic wmponents is thek height. The height of these wrnponents must not exceed a
certain value imposed by the overd size of the resonant converter.
The design of the high ikeqwncy transformer, used in these resonant topologies, rises
the question " how weli do the conventional methods work in the high fiequency region, and
what are the aade-offs when the optimized approach is used?" To answer this question, the
conventional methoch can be used for designs in the region of interest and the results
compared, for losses at least, with the finite element anaiysis approach. Amther question
that rises would be "is it possible to generate some design curves that show the dimensions
of the transformer as a fbction of height ?".
In view of the foregoing, this thesis examines the three available design methods for
high fiequency transformers descriid above, and makes a cornparison of the results for a
specific design, A cornparion with the results of a Finite Element analysis is also done in
order to see if these methods are accurate in tenn of predicting losses. Mer that, an
algorithm to generate design c w e s for high fkquency transformers is proposed. The key
point in this algorithm is that it takes into consideration the height of the transformer when
this is a constraint. The height of the transformer, output power, eficiency, working
fiequency, and volt-per-tuni are considerd as input for the design, The algorithm has as an
output the other dimensions of the transformer and the current density in the windings. This
algorithm dBers nom the One d e s m i by Ngo in [2 11 as follows:
1). The algorithm uses a condition to get minimum loss in the transformer. It was shown
by Hurley in [20] that the minimum loss in a transformer happeos for a h e d operating
fiequency when the copper loss is equal to the core l o s multiplied by a coefficient d divided
by two, where d depends on the specific core loss and it wiil be explained in Chapter 2.
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequaicy Operation University ofTamto
Having this condition in the design, one expects to obtain a high power density for a
specified efficiency.
2). The algorithm considers the windings made of Litz wire instead of copper foil,
3). The algorithm will yield the current density that the windings must support in order
to obtain the expected efficiency. Knowing the current demity, the çopper cross-section area
of the Litz wire that is going to be used in fabricating the windings can be specified.
4). The two algonthms d s e r in the way the caiculations are done. The algorithm
described by Ngo in [20] uses an iteration process. The caicuiations are repeated in two
loops with the increment of two parameters until the expected los is met. Ln the algorithm
proposed in this thesis, the condition to have minimum loss r d t s in a system of two
transcendental equations that can be solved numericaliy. The solution yields two of the
geornetrical dimensions of the transformer. Ail other parameters çan then be obtained fiom
specified constraints and conditions.
A short description of each chapter is presented in the foliowing subsection.
1.3 Thesis Overview
Chapter 2 identifies several specinc problems in the design of high fkquency

transfomers These include the choice of the core, magnetic m a t e r a operating magnetic
flux density, and current density in the windings.
In Chapter 3 three of the available design methods for high fkequency transformer
design are briefly reviewed. The rnethods are compared for the case of a 500kHi1, 54VA
tramformer. The losses predicted by these three rnethods are compared to those predicted by
a 2-D Finite Element model.
In Chapter 4 an aigorithm to generate design curves for traasformers, having as an input

height, output power, efficiency, operating fkquency, and voit-per-turn, is presented. The
other dimensions of transformer and the current density in the windings are obtained as an
output of the algorithm. This chapter also presents a set of design curves generated by the
Design of Low Profile Transfomers for High Frequaicy Operation University of Tormto
Chapter 1 :Introduction 8
algorithm, These design cuves were developed for a transformer with a specifïc range of
output power, Merent efficiencies, operating fkquencies and different magnetic maîenals.
A discussion of these resuits is provided.
Chapter 5 presents the conciusions and f h r e work that should be done.
Design of Low Profile TCaflSformas fot High Frequency Operation University ofTorooto
Chapter 2: Identification of the Problem 9
Chapter 2
Identification of the Problem
Introduction
In Chapter 1, it was mted tbat relatively simple design methods for transfomers exkt
in the technical iideralure. The purpose of the present chapter is to show how it is possiae to
link the size of a transformer core to the required VA rating, fiequency, operating flux
density, and current density. This link achially represents the basic concept for the standard
design methods.
When initiating the design of a high frequency transformer, the two parameters that are
not directly design parameters are the operating flux deasity and the current density in the
windings. These parameters must therefore be chosen. A second objective of this chapter is
to descni the factors that govern the choice of these parameters.
2.2 Area Product
Consider a vertical section in a transformer as shown in Figure 2.1. According to

Faraday's law, the rms voltage induced in a winding will be equal to:
where:
Kf is the wavefonn coefficient (&= 4.44 for sine wave and 4.0 for square wave).
Nw is the number of tum in the winding.
f is the operathg hquency in Hz.
B, is the maximum or peak value of the flux density in tesla,
A, is the effective cross-sectional area of the core in cm2 (see Figure 2.1).
Design of Low Profile Transformers for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 2: Identification of the Pmblem 10
Figure 2.1 Cross-sectionai area and window area of a core.
The current in a given winding will be q u a i to:
where:
J is the current density in Ncm2.
A, is the cross section area of the wire filled with copper in cm2.
W. is the available wimlow area in cm2(see Figure 2.1).
Nw is the number of turns in a winding.
K,, is the window utilization tàctor and represents the amount of copper that appears
in the window area o f the transformer. The calculation of K,, is shown in
Appendix A.
The totai apparent power of the transformer will be:
Design of Low Profile Transformers for High Frequaicy Operation University ofTamto
In (2.2.3) the product of the effective cross section area A, and the avaüable window
area W. of the core is kwwn in the technical iiterature as the Area Product 4 - (2.2.4).
These three parameters (A, WC Ap) are used by core suppliers to summarize
dimensionai properties in theu data sheets. They are available for larninations, C cores, pot
cores, powder cores, ferrite toroids, and toroidal tape-wound cores.
Using the notation of Area hduct, the expression of the apparent power will becorne:
From (2.2.5) one can fïnd the necessary area product the magnetic core needs to handle
the apparent power S for a selected operaîing tkquency, current density, magnetic flux
density and of course Krand K,,.
Equation (2.2.6) is the key relation in standard design methods, and it ünks the size of
the core to the VA rat@, ûequency, operathg flux density, and current density in the
windings. In this expression, the parameters that are not directly design parameters are the
operaîing flux density B,and the current density in the windings J. These parameters m u t
therefore be chosen. Consequently, it is necessary to descrii the factors that govern the
choice of these parameters. The choices of the operating flux density and of the current
density in the windings are discussed in the next two sections.
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequency Operaiion University of Tacmto
Chapter 2: 1denti.ficaîionof the Problem 12
The Choice ofthe Magnetic Material and Flux Density
For low fkquency desigas (50/60Hz),where the losses produced by eddy currents aod
hysteresis are low, the materials used are u s d y süicon-steel laminations. As the operathg
fiequency increases, tbe losses prduced by eddy currents and hysteresis increase
and silicon-steel laminations are no longer efficient.
signif~cantly
For transformers h t operate at fkquencies between lOOkHz and 2MHz the most
cornmody used materials are MnZn and NiZn ferrites. These are cbaracterized by a high
electric resistivity that resuits in Iow to negligible eddy current losses. Further more, these
particular ferrites have low hysteresis losses in the specifïed frequency range.
The generic single valwd rnagnetiring curve for a magnetic material is shown in Figure
--
MAGNETlZlNG FORCE (H)
Figure 2.2 Magnetizing curve for a magnetic material
In Figure 2.2, four distinctive regions can be mted on the magnetizing c w e : (1) the
region between O and A where the rnagnetizing curve is wnlinear, (Ir) between A and B
- - - - - --
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequaicy Operation University ofToronto
C hapter 2: Identification of the Problern 13
where it is almost hear and bas a signifïcant slope, (ID)betweem B and C where the curve
again is nonlinear, and above C where it is linear and has a very small slope (equai to
the f i e space permeabiiity).
For low eequency designs (50/60Hz),wkre the losses produced by eddy currents and
hysteresis are low, the operating flux d e n s e chosen for a design is close to the knee point
region, i.e. below B (see Figure 2.2). As the opaating kquency increases, losses due to
eddy currents and hysteresis increase significantly and the flux density must be dropped to
the h e a r region between A and B sometimes very close to A (see Figure 2.2).
Manufhcturers of f d e s for high h p e n c y applications typically provide performance
factor data as a meam of assisting in the choice of operathg flux density. The performance
factor generaily relates flux density, fkquency, and a r e loss. Figure 2.3 shows one such
factor. This represents the product of magnetic flux density and fkquency as a function of
~equencyfor a constant specific power los. The performance k t o r for different materials
is shown in Figure 2.3 for a specinc power loss of 300 mw/cm3 at 80°C.
Figure 2.3 - Performance factor for different magnetic materials '
a Hi& Frequency Operation

Design of Low Rofile Transformas f University ofToronto
The perforniance fàctor can be used in the foilowing way to fInd the flux density thai
will be used in design. In Figure 2.3, assume that the K materiai will be used in a design at
500kHz operating fiequency and 80°C maximum temperature. In Figure 2.3, it can be seen
that at the SOOlrHz operating fiequency for the K material, the corresponding B x f product is
350 (kgauss x kHz), This yields a flux density o f 0.7 kgauss at 500kHz. The flux density
thus obtained provides a starting point for the design Depending on the cooling conditions
specific to the application, this flux density can be chosen higher or lower.
I
B
Flux Density [kgauss]
Figure 2.4 Specitic core loss for specific fiequencies2
' ~ ference
e 23, page 2.4
-- . . . --- -- - - -
Design of Low Profile Transformer~fot High Frequency Operation University ofToronto

In addition to the characteristics shown in Figure 2.3, it is also common for

manufacturers of magnetic materials to provide specific core loss curves developed îiom
empiricai data. An example of specinc loss curves for the K material can be seen in Figure
2.4. In Figure 2.4, the specific losses are shown at 80°C for specifïc fkquencies. For
example, assume that the K materiai will be used in a design at 5ûûkHz operaîing hquency,
80°C maximum temperature and a specinc power loss of 300 mw/cm3. In Figure 2.4 it can
be seen that for 300 mw/crn3 specüic power loss and 500 lrHz operating fiequency
corresponds a £luxdensity of 0.7 kgauss.
Functions that appruximate these speca?c l o s curves are aîso provided by ferrite
manufacturers. For the materials shown in Figure 2.4, the losses are approximated by the
following expression:
PL = a - f C - Bd, (2.3.1)
where:
PL is the specific power l o s in mw/cm3.
f is the fiequency in kHz.
&II is the magnetic flux density in kgauss.
a, c, d are coefficients specific to each type of magnetic material.
This section has shown the factors that govem the choice of the operating flux density
and the magnetic material. The objective of the next section is to show the factors that
govem the choice of the current density in the windings.
2.4 The Choice of the Current Density
In the last section it has k e n shown that for a nxed fkquency, the operating magnetic
flux density is the parameter that detemines the loss in the magnetic core. In a similar way,
the current density in the windings determines the copper 105s in the windings. The choice of
the current density has to be done in such way that the temperature of the hottest spot of the
transformer, due to core and copper losses, is lower than the insulation class temperature.
Design of Low Profile Transformets for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
It bas k e n shown in [17] that there is a unique relationship between the area product A,
and the current density used in the windings, on the one han& and the resulting temperature
rise on the other band. This relationslip has the fom:
where:
J is the current density in A./cm2.
Kj is a constant related to core configuration and bas a positive value.
A, is area product m cm4.
Y is a constant related to core co~gurationand has a negative value.
In Figure 2.5, the variation of current density as a finction of area product is shown for
a pot çore configuration and two temperature rises (2S°C and 50°C)-
0.0 1
0.0 1
O. 1 1 10 1O0 1
1O00
-id
AP
Area Product [cmA4]
Figure 2.5 Current density vs. area pmduct for temperature increases of 25°C and
SO°C for pot cores 3.
Design of Low Profile Tramformers for High Frequency Operation University ofToronto
An important observation cegarding Figure 2.5 can be made by ooting tbaî for cores
with a s d area product, the curent density in the windings is high, and for cores with a
large area product, the current density in the wùidings is low. Specificaily, when the area
product increases ten times, the m e n t density has to decrease roughly one and a half t h e .
The teason this bappens is that the ratio between the total extemal area and the volume is
higher for small transformer than for iarge transformers. For a constant power dissipation
per volume, in the case of large transformers there wül be more heat to be evacuated pet unit
of external area than in the case of srnall transformers. As a remit, the power dissipation per
unit ofvohune has to be bwered in order to obtain the same tenperahne rise. This WUlead
to the fact that the current density in the windings has to be lowered.
The objective of this chapter was to fàmiiiarize the reader with the following three things:
1) The possbility to link the size of a transformer core to the VA rating, fiequency,
operating flux density, and current density. This link actually represents the basic concept
for the standard design methods.
2) Describe the fàctors that govern the selection of the operating flux density. The
choice of the flux density is very important because it dictates the core loss.
3) Identify the factors that govem the choice of the current density in the windings.
Here an important observation bas k e n made: the current densÏty in tramformers has to
vary in an inverse relation to the area product in order to keep the maximum temperature
be low the insulation class temperature.
Design of Low Rofile Transformers for Hi& Frequency Operiitim University of Toronto
Chapter 3:Revue of Available Design Methods 18
Revue of Available Design Methods
3.1 Introduction
In Chapter 2 of this thesis, the basic concept that the simple design methods rely on,
namely the possibility to lin. the size of a transformer core to the VA rating, fkquency,
operating flux density, and current density, has k e n descriid. The hctors that govern the
choice of the operating flux density in the core and the current density in the windhgs were
also outlined.
Non-sinusoidal excitation at high fiequencies introduces new design issues: skin and
proximity effects in windings and increased eddy current and hysteresis losses in cores. The
starting point for an optimized design is the assumption that winding losses are
approximately equal to the core losses. However, m a high IÏequency transformer, the ratio
may be as high as 5:l. This is due to the hct that the flux density is limited by its saturation
value. At the high end of the fkequency scale, the transformer may be operating with a
maximum flux density that is weii below its saturation value in order to achieving an
optimum design.
The purpose of this chapter is to compare three available design methods that are
conventionally used for transformer design. The methods are compared using the specific
case of a 500kHz low profile transformer. An issue of particular interest is whether the
existing methods give reliable estimates of core losses. To answer this question, a 2-D Finite
Element analysis of the transformer is also undertaken
Al1 three methods use as input the total apparent power of the transformer S, the voltage
in the prLnary windhg V, the huns-ratio KT& the operathg fkquency E the temperature
rise AT, the waveform fàctor KGand the window utilization factor K,,.
The fist method is the classical design method descnbed by McLyman in [IV. This
method uses the basic concept, d e m i i d in Chapter 2, to Lùik the size of the transformer
Design of Low Profile Transfonners for High Frequency Operation University ofTaonto
Chapter 3:Revue of Available Design Methoàs 19
core (as measured by the area product) to its rated VA, fkquency, operating flux density and
current density. Copper losses due to skin effect are accounted for using an expression that
can be found in the iiterature [I8]. This method is shortly d e m i in section 3.2 of this
chapter.
The second design method was developed using the classical McLyman approach,
together with a winding loss calculation method which takes in consideration both skin and
proximity effects. The method was M y d e s c r i i in [19] and is briefly surnmarized in
section 3.3. A key feature of the method is that it incorporates an approximation of Litz
wire. This approximation is based on foi1 layers as suggested in [24].
The third design method is an optimized design method described by Hurley, WoIfle
and Breslin in [20]. The method incorporateci the approximation of Litz wire windings by
foi1 layers as suggested in [24]. Moreover, it was shown in [20] that for any transformer
core, it is possible to define a critical fiequency such tbat above this critical fkquency, the
.. .
losses can be rrmmmed by seIecting a flux deusity which is less than the saniration flux
density of the core material being used, BeIow the critical fiequency, the throughput of
energy is restricted by the limitation that the flux density cannot be greater than the
saturation value for the core materiai in question.
The main point that diierentiates this design method fiom the one described by
McLyman is the fact that the optimal method minimizes losses in a transformer under the
condition of a constant operating kquency or constant operating flux density. The
optiniized design method is shortly described in section 3.4 of tbis chapter.
3.2 The Classical Design Approach
This method was developed using the classical design of transformers as described by
McLyman in [lnThis method uses the basic concept, descriid in Cbapter 2, to Mc the
size of the transformer core (as measured by the Area Product) to its rated VA, fkquency,
operating flux density and current density. The current density is linked to the size of the
Design of Low Profile Transformas fot High Frequaicy Operation University ofTorcmto
Chapter 3: Revue of AvailabIe Design Methods 20
transformer by a coefficient K,. This coefficient is dsectly dependent to the temperature rise
AT, and is specifiç for each core configuration
Core l o s is found using an effective volume of the core V, and considering the magnetic
flux density B, constant inside the core.
Copper losses due to s k i .effect are accounted for ushg an expression thai can be found
in the literature [18]. No effort is made to include proximitty effect losses.
This method checks the temperature rise AT by calculating a SUfface dissipation Y and
comparing the result with one found experirnentdly for the same temperature rise.
The method is presented shortiy m tbe following steps:
1. First, the input data for the design bas to be specified. The data used as input is the total
apparent power of the transformer S, the voitage in the primary winding V, the turns-
ratio Km the operating fkequency Ç the temperature rise AT, the waveform f m o r Kt
and the window utilization factor &,.
2. Second, a magnetic materiai that is going to be used in the design must be selected. For
this material, the foilowing parameters have to be kwwn: the saturation flux demity B,,
and the parameters that describe the specific loss curve: a, c, and d. The selection of the
magnetic material depends on the operating fiequency and was discussed in Chapter 2 of
this îhesis.
3. For the magnetic material that will be used, the operatmg flux density Bm has to be
selected. The fàctors that govern the choice of the operating flux density have been
discwed in Chapter 2 of this thesis.
4. Based on the operating flux density selected at step 3, the area product A, necessary to
handle the total apparent power S must be determined The area product will be
determined using expression (3.2.1).
Design of Low Profile Transformers for High Frequency O p d m University ofTamto

Chapter 3: Revue of Available Design Methods 21
Note that (3.2.1) is similar to the area product expression (2.2.6) that was developed in
Chapter 2. However, the exponent x bas been introduced to account for the configuration
of the magnetic core. Typically, x is in the range of 1.14 to 1.20, depending on the core
configuration. In Appendix B is given the d u e of this coefficient for different core
configurations. In addition, the coefficient Kj has been introduced. This coefficient links
the current density in the windings to the size of the transformer. This coefficient is
specific for each core configuration. In Appendix B is given the value of this coefficient
for dif5erent core configurations and two temperature rises. The other parameters in
(3.2-1) are d e k d as fobws:
B, is the maximum value of the operating flux density.
f is the operating fkquency in Hz.
Kr is the waveform factor (TCf= 4.44 for sine wave and Kr= 4.0 for square wave).
K, is the window utilkation factor. The way this factor is calculated it is shown in
Appendix A.
5. Based on the area product determined at step 4, a core with an area product close to the
one calculated will be selected. For this core, the foilowing parameters must be known:
effective cross section area A, window area W,,the mean length tum MLT, and the
effective volume of the core V,- However, sornetimes, an exact or even nea. match is not
possible. This will have an impact on the power density and the temperature rise.
If the selected core has an area product that is much larger than the calculated one,
the resulted power density will be very low. This will yield a transformer that is too big
for the application where it has to be used.
If the selected core bas an area product that is much smaller than the calculated one,
the resulting temperature rise will be higher thaa the imposed one. This will make the
transformer t w hot and its winding isolation wili be stressed.
6. The next step is to determine the number of turns for the primary winding using
expression (3.2.2).
-- -
Design of Low Rofile Transformers foi. High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 3:Revue of Available Design Methods
The parameters in (3-2.2)are de- as fokws:

V, is the rms value of the voltage in the primary winding.
4 is the effective cross section area ofthe selected core.
I f the result is not an integer, the closest integer number of turns for the primary
winding will have to be selected in such way that it will result in an integer number of
turns in the seconàary winding. Based on the selected number of turns in the primary
winding, the flux density will be recalculated later to be able to calculate the core loss.
The rms value 1, of the current in the primary winding m u t be determined. This curent
wiil be calculated using the rated power of the transformer S, and the rms vahie of the
voltage applied to the primary winding V,.
The current density J in the windings is detennined using:
J=Kj.ApY
were y is a coefficient that depends on the configuration of the core. The value of this
coefficient is given in Appendix B for different core configurations.
The necessary cross-sect ion area A, of the wire for the primary winding is given by :
10. Based on the result obtained at step 9, a Litz wire is selected such tbat it bas a cross-
section copper area close to the calculated one.
11. Determine the number of turns Nsin the secondary winding using the nwnber of tums
Npin the primary winding, that was calculated at step 6, and the given turns ratio KTx
Design ofLow Profile Transformers foc High Frequaicy Operatiori University of Toronto
Chapter 3:Revue of Avaiiable Design Methods 23
12. Determine I,, the effective value of the current in the secondary winding. The value of
this current will be determined ushg the rms value of the current in the primary 1, and
the tunis-ratio Km
13. Determine the necessary cross-section area of the wire for the secoadary Win- A
:,
14. Based on the result obtaiwd at step 13, select a Litz wire for the secondary winding. The
selected wire should have a cross-section copper area close to the calculated one.
15. Check if the prirnary and the secondary windings fit in the bobbin. It has been noticed
that the turns-ratio of the transformer is a major d r a w k k in the design In order to have
an integer number of ninis in the primary and secondary windings, the number of turns
that is selected is usually larger than the one calculated with expression (3.2.2).
Consequently, both the primary and the secondary windings WUhave a larger number of
tunis that might not M in the bobbin. If the windings do not M, another core with a
bigger area product has to be selected, a d seps 6 to 14 have to be repeated. hother
way of dealing with this problem would be to select for the primary and secondary
windings Litz wire with a smaller cross-section copper area.
16. Detennine the dc resistance for the primary and secondary windings:
Rp-k =MLT*Np-$- ,
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequeucy Operation University ofTcnoato
The parameters in (3.2.9) and (3.2.10) are defined as foilows:

MLT is the mean length turn ofthe bobbin,
NP is the number of tunis in the primary winding.
NS is the number of tums in the secondary winding.
rp_dc is the dc resistance per unit of length for the Litz wïre used in the prirnary.
rs-dc is the dc resistaace per unit of lengîh for the Litz wire used in the
=ndary-
17.Determine the Ir, and k, factors (for the prbary and secoadary windings). These
factors account for the skin effect and are found using the foiiowing expression4:
k, =
Resistaace-to-Altm-kent
Resistance-to-Direct-Current
= + *
(y) 2
-G (3.2-11)
and
The parameters in (3.2.1 1) and (3 -2.12) are defïned as follows:

G is the eddy-current basis factor.
H is the resistance ratio of individual strands w k n isolateci (see Appendix C,
Table 1).
f is the operaîing fiequency in Hz
N is the number of strands in the cable.
DI is the diameter of individual strands over the copper in inches.
Do is the diameter of the finished cable over tbe strands in inches.
K is a constant depending on the nurnber of strands N (see Appendix C, Table II).
Reference [I 81, page 37.
Design of Low Profile Transformers for High Frequaicy Operation University ofTamto
Chapter 3 :Revue of Available Design Methods 25
18. Using the fhctors k,and k , calculated at step 17, the ac resisiance of the p m and
secondary windings wiil be determined:
19. Based on the ac resistances determined at step 18, the loss in the windings will be
calcuiated,
Pa= = RP-=- 1: (3.2.15)
20. Next, the core l o s is determineci. First, the flux density mut be recalcdated s h e , at
step 6, an integral number of tums had to be selected.
Second, ushg the values of the operathg flux deasity and operathg frequency, the
specific core loss PLcan be determined using the following expression:
Where a, c, and d are coefficients that describe the specinc loss curve for the magnetic
material used in design. Finaliy, multiplying the specific core l o s by the volume of the
core wiil yield the total core los.
Design of Low Profile Tramformers for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 3: Revue of Avaüable Design Methods 26
- --
2 1. Calculate the total power l o s ~Pl, and the adàce dissipation Y in order to detennine
whether the temperature rise AT exceeds the Limit imposed by design for the specified
cooling conditions:
where & is the total e x t e d area of the transformer and is equal to:
In (3.2.22), K, is a coefficient that relates the area product of a core to the externai area
of a wound transformer that uses that core. 'Ilus coefficient depends on the codiguration of
the core. Values of K, are presented in Appendix B for different core configurations.
The s&e dissipation Y is shown in Appendix D as a fimction of the temperature rise
for ttiree different ambient temperatUres. It c m be seen fiom this graph that the surfafe
dissipation Y has a value 0.03 w/cm2 at 2S°C temperature rise, and a value of 0.07 w/cm2
at 50°C temperature rise for a 25°C ambient temperature.
The classical design rnethod presented above has the advantage tbat it is a
straightforward design method that wi be easily irnplemented. One limitation of thh
method is the k t that the flux density is assumed to be constant inside the core. Thus, the
power dissipation in the core xnay not be accurately known. The second limitation is that the
CO pper loss calcuiation does not include the calculation of losses due to pmximity effect.
Design of Low Profile Triansformers for High Frequency Operation University ofToronto
3.3 Classical Design Approach with Improved Estimate of Coi1 Loss
This design method was devebped using the classical approach that was outiined in the
previous section of this chapter, together with a winding loss calculation method which
takes in consideration both skin and proximity effects. The method was fkst descnbed in
[19] and is briefly summatized in this section. A key feature of the method is tbat it
incorporates an approximation of Litz wire. The approximation is based on foil layers as
suggested in 1241 and is iliustrated in Figure 3.1. The difference between this method and the
design method d d b e d in the previous section is the way that losses in the windings are
calculated- The method described in section 3.2 takes in consideration the skin effect only.
The present method considers both skin and proximity effeçts.
The basis of the copper loss calculation is that the loss in any equivalent layer can be
estimated provided the tangential magnetic field on both sides of the layer are known.
The copper loss calcuiation can be summarkd as follows:
1. An approximation of the wimlings made of Litz wire with foil layers is made. This
approximation was presented by Carsten in [24] and allows the calculation of loss in
Litz wire using the method presented by Vandelac in [19]. The steps in arriving at this
approximation c m be seen in Figure 3.1. First, the round Litz wire (Figure 3.la) is
approxirnated with a square matrix of square strands (Figure 3.lb). M e r thaf the
square matrix is approximated with a stack of foils (Figure 3. l c). Finally, al1 stacks of
foils are joined together resuiting layers of foils as it is sbown in Figure 3. Id.
2. Next, the current in each foil layer is detennined. It is assumed that each layer shares a
curent equai to the total cmrent divided by the number of layers.
3. Finally, the loss in the winding must be calculated. In order to do so, the mmf diagrams
of the windings must be developed. From the mmfdiagrams, the valw of the m e n t i a l
magnetic field at both sides of each layer can be inferreci*
Next, based on the values of the tangentiai magnetic field at each side of each layer, an
expression for specüïc power loss per square meter for each layer and for each
harmonic of the current can be developed ushg Maxwell's equations.
Design of Low Rofile Transformas for High Frequency Operation University of Taonto
Figure 3.1 Approximation ofLitz wire with foil.
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequency Operation University ofToronto
Chapter 3: Revue ofAvailable Design Methods 29
The expression for specific power l o s can then be integrated on the entire area of each
layer. This integration yields the total power dissipation in each layer-
FWy,d g the power dissipation in all layen will yield the foilowiag expression
for the total power loss in the winding:
where:
Design of Low Profile Transformas fot High Frequaicy Operation University of Tamto
The parameters in (3.3.1) to (3.3.9) are defïned as foliows:

is the breadth of a conductor-
is the winding width.
is the Fourier series coefficient for the ia harmonie.
is the rms factor for the i<hharmonie (gi = 1 for i = 0, aad gi = 2 for i >= 1).
is the thickness of a layer.
is the current density per unit of length in a layer (Mm).
is the mean-length-tuni,
is the number of layers.
is the total number of tums made of square strands.
is the number of turns made of square strands in a layer.
is the normalking resistance.
is the skin depth at the fidamental fiequency.
is the skin depth at the ih harmonic.
is the conductor spacing fàctor.
is the pemability of fiee space.
is the conductivity of copper.
is the angular fiequency for the im harmonic.
This method is more accurate in calcuiating the losses in the wùidings than the one used
in the classical design method. However, it has the disadvantage that is more compticated
due to the fàct that it has to approximate the windings with foil layers.
3.4 Optirnized Transformer Design Method
Hurley, Woifle, and Breslin described an optimized transformer design method in 1201.
The method incorporates the approximation of Litz wire windings by foil layers as
suggested in [24].
It was shown in [20] that for any transformer core, it is possible to d e k e a critical
fkequency such that above this critical fkequency, the losses can be minimized by selecting a
Design of Low Profile T d o n n a s f o High

~ Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 3: Revue o f Available Design Methods 31
flux density which is less tban the saturation flux densïty of the core material king used.
Below the critical kquency, the throughput of energy is restncted by the limitation that the
fluxdensity cannot be greater than the saturation value for the core material in question
n i e method has as input the same parameters as the classical method demiibed by
McLymaa These parameters are: the total apparent power of the transformer S, the voltage
in the primary winding V, the turns ration K m the operating nPquency f; the temperature
rise AT, the waveform fàctor KGand the window utilization factor L.
This design method was developed using the foiiowing five basic equatiom:
A). The v o w e equafion for a wmding:
V=K,-f-Nw-B;A, (3-4.1)
B). The power equotion for a transformer:
S=K,-Ku-J-f-B;A,
C).The copper loss equation in a winding:
,P = p w - V , , , - K , - ~ 2
This equation is written under the assurnption that the windings are made of Litz
wire or foil and skin and proximity effects are not present. In this case wiii result that
the current density has a uniform distniution in the windings.
D). The core loss equation in a transformer core:
E). The thermai equation that relates heat flow to temperature rise AT, surfàce area &
and the coefficient of heat transfer h by:
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequency Operation University of T a m t o

Chapter 3:Revue of Avaiiable Design Methods 32
Tt bas to be noticed that expressions (3.4. l), (3.4.2) and (3.4.4) were also used in the
classical design method dem'bed by McLyman
Besides (3.4.1)to (3.43, the foiiowing equations that reiate the physical quaotities V ,
V , and & to the core size A, are also used:
where &, Kw, and K, are dimensionless coefficients and depend on the core
configuration.
that the minimum loss in a
It is shown in [20], using (3.4.2), (3.4.3), a d (3-4-4),
transformer occurs:
a). for a fixed operathg fkequency when
b). for a fixed flux density when:
The key point in this design rnethod consisis in the minimi?ation of the total l o s in the
transformer. This is done at constant fiequency by using the expression (3.4.9).This is the
main ciifference between the optimal design method and the one describeci by McLyman.
Based on equation (3.4.1)to (3.4. IO), the optimized design method is shortly describecl
as follows:
1. First, the input data for the design has to be specified. The input data bas been presented
at the beginning of this section. It bas to be mticed that the input data is the sarne a s the
input data for the classical design method descrt'bed by McLyrnan,
Design of Low Profile Transformas fm High Ftequency Operation University ofToronto

Chapter 3: Revue o f Available Design Methods 33
- -
2. Second, a magnetic material tbat is going to be used in the design must be selected For
this materid, the following parameters have to be kwwn: the saturation flux density
B, and the parameters that descrii the specific loss curve: a, c, and d
3. Based on the data input specined at 1. and 2., an optimum flux density (Bo)will be
calculated.
where:
This is the flux density where the losses are minimum for a fixed operaihg fiequency f.
Expression (3.4.1 1) was found in the foUowing way:
a). From the condition (3 -4.9) to get minimum loss and the fgct that the total loss Pi, is
equal to the sum between the core loss and the copper loss results:
Elirninating the current density in (3.4.3) using (3.4.2) results:
Replacing (3.4.4), ( 3 . 4 3 , and (3.4.15) in (3.4.14), an equation in A,, is yield. Solving this
equation for A, wili resuh:
- - --
Design of Low Profile Transformas foc High Frequaicy Operation University of Toronto
b). From (3.4.9), (3.4.3), and (3.4.9, an optimum vahe of the current density can be
found:
c). Substituthg the optimum value of J given by (3.4.17) and A, given by (3.4.16) into
the power equation (3-4.2) re& in expression (3.4.1 1) for the optimum flux density
Bo.
Calculate the neces- area product using the expression (3.4.16) in which B, is
substituted with Bo.
Based on the area product calculated at step 4, a core is seiected with an area product
that is close to the one calculated. For this core the following parameters have to be
known: effective cross section area A, window area W,, the mean length tum MLT,
and the effective voIume of the core V,. Sometimes, an exact or even near match is not
possible. This will have an impact on the minimum l o s condition imposeci at the
beginning of the design method.
Calculate the number of !uns for the prirnary and secondary windings. Select an integer
number of turns in the primary close to the one cdculated, so that an integer nurnber of
tums will result for the secondary winding, The nurnber of tums w
ill be calculated
using the same expression as the one used in the classical design method.
Determine the current density in the windings J using expression (3 -4.17).
Design of Low Profile Transformas for Wigh Frequmcy Operation University ofToronto
8. Calcuiate the nns value of the current in the primary winding 1, and the secondary
winding 1, using the same expressions as in the design rnethod described by McLyman
((3.2.3) and (3.2.7)).
9. Based on the values of the currents calculateci at step 8 and the current density
calculated at step 7, detemine the necessary cross-section area of the wire for the
primary winding A, and the secondary winding Am using the expressions (3.2-5) and
(3.2.8) fiom the design method descriid by McLyman.
1 O. Select Litz wires for the primary and the secondary windings.
I I . Calculate the dc copper loss.
The parameters in (3-4.19) are defined as follows:

N, - is the nurnber of tum in the winding.
p, - is the resistivity of copper at 20°C.
a20 - is the temperature coefficient of resistivity at 20°C.
,T - is the maxllnum temperature.
12. Recalculate the flux density for the selected number of tums in the primary winding
using expression (3-4-1a), and based on this value determine the core loss.
13. Calculate the factors k,and kr that take in consideration skin a d proximity effects.
First, the windings made of Litz wire must be approxïmated with foi1 layers as shown in
section 3.3. The k, fàctor, that takes in masideration the skin effect, is calculated with
the foDowing expressions:
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 3 :Revue of Available Design Methods 36
where:
r, is the radius of one strand.
6 is the skin depth,
The prorcimity effect factor k. for m layers is given by Doweli in 1251.
where:
m isthe numberoflayers.
A is the ratio ofthe thichess ofa layer of foi1 to the skin depth.
14. Determine the total copper loss, using the fàctors k, and k, calculated before.
Pm =k,-k;P,,
15. Calculate the total loss in the transformer PI, and the eficiency 0.
pi'x =Pau +Pr,
where S, is the rated power of the transformer.
One interesthg thhg can be noticed when compare this design method with the
previous ones. This design method considers the temperature rise AT a directly design
- --- -- - -
Design of Low Profile Transformasfor High Frequaicy Operatian University of Toronto

-
parameter. It can be seen that this parameter appears in the expression of the optimum flux
density, the expression of the area product, and the expression of the current density.
3.5 Cornparison of the Results Using the Design Methods

Described in Sections 3.2,3 -3, and 3.4
In the last three sections of this thesis three available design methods for tramformers
that operate at high fiequency have been presented. The most widely used transformer
design method is the classical design togeiéer with the copper bss calculation desc~l'bedby
Vandelac and Ziogas in Cl91 since it is simple, but also complete. McLyman's method is
simpler, using empmcai factors to wrrect losses. On the other band, the optimal design
method appears to be attractive. It is therefore of interest to compare these methods for a
specific design case.
The purpose of this section is to m e r to the following questions:
1). How do the results for a specific design dif5er when these design methods are used?
2). How accurate are these methods in terms of predicting losses?
To answer these questions, the design resiitts for a 54VA transformer using the design
methods d e s c r i i in 3-2, 3 -3, and 3-4, together with the Finite Element analysis performed
on these designs are presented in Tables 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3. The core that was chosen is the
power pot core or the DS cors, as it is known in the techaicd literature. This core was
chosen for the following reasons: it bas a high power density, very good electromagnetic
shielding and the windings are very easy to manufacture. The magnetic material used for
these designs is K material manufactured by ~ a g w t i c s .The
~ reason this material was
selected is that it bas a low specific l o s at 500kHz operating hquency and it will yield a
transformer with a hi& power density- The Litz wire used for designs is round Litz wire
mmufactured by New England Electric Wiie corporation6
5
Reference [23j, page 2.4
Reference [26]
Design of Low Profile Transfotmers for High Frequency Operation University ofToronto
The ratings of the transformer are:

- operating fhquency 5ûûkHz
- voltage in the primary winding 18Vrms square wave.
- current in the primary winding 3Arms Wamental plus 20% third harmonie.
- tum ratio 2.5 step-down with center tap on the secondary winding.
- 50°C operating temperature.
The Finite Element software package that was used is PC-OPERA issued by Vector
Fields. PC-OPERA is a suite of programs for 2-dimensionai electromagnetic field d y s i s .
The programs use finite element method to solve the partial dzerential equations that
describe the behavior of fields. The solution of these equations is an essential part of design
in rnagnetostatics, electrostatics and e l e c t r o ~ t i c s S
. ince much information is required
before the analysis may be @orme& data entry is carried out using a powerfûl interactive
preprocessor.
Using the graphical interaction within the preprocessor, the mode1 space was divided
into a contiguous set of triangular elements. The physicaI model may be describeci in
cartesian or cylindrical coordinates. Once the model bas been prepared, the solution is
calculated using a suitable analysis module. The analysis program iteratively determines the
correct solution induding non-linear effects if these are modeied. The result may then be
examined using a versatile interactive postprocessor.
The power pot core was modeled in this software in cylindrical coordinates. The
element type that was used to generate the mesh was the triangular linear element. The
rnagnet ic material was considered nonlinear. A separate analysis was done with Litz wire to
see how much the resistance increases due to skin and proximity effects. It was noticed an
increase of the ac resistance of 1-05 times the dc resistance for the Litz wire used in the
design In Appendix E, a Finite Element a d y s i s mode1 that was used in the calculation of
the core l o s for the transformer that was designeci using the optimized design method is
shown.
The following observations can be made regarding tbe data fiom Tabies 3.1 to 3.3:
1) When using the design method presented in section 3.4, a bigger wre wiii be yield than
if the methods presented in 3.2 and 3.3 are used. Consequentiy, the transformer
--
Design of Low Profile Transf'mers for Hi@ Frquency Operation University of Toronto
designed using the optimized design method has a power density that is almost half the
power density obtained when using the design methods descriid in 3.2 and 3 -3.This
cornes fiom the fàct that the optimized design rnethod minimizes the 105s in transformer
and a bigger core d l have to be used-
2) The dominant losses for ail designs are the copper losses, Looking at tables 3.2 and 3.3
it can be seen that the copper losses are roughly seven times the core losses. This
happens because of the drawback caused by the tu=-ratio. The condition to have an
integer number of tum in the primary and secondary windings leaâs in selecting a
larger number of tum in the primary and secondary windings. Consequently, the
operating flux density will decrease and the core loss will decrease as weil. On the other
band., the copper loss will increase as a result of increasing the length of the winding.
3) When using the design method presented in 3.4 the total loss is lower than when using
the design methods presented in 3 -2and 3.3- Lookmg at Tables 3.2 aud 3.3 it is noticed
that the total l o s for the design using the method presented in 3.4 is about 1.4 times
1ower than when using the methods presented in 3.3 and 3.4. Hence the efficiency of the
transformer increases h m 99.2% when using the method presented in 3.2 and 99.3%
when using the method presented in 3-3 to 99.5% when using the method presented in
3.4. These high efficiencies are validated by the fact that there were magnetic
components built before that bave similar efficiencies. For example, in [12] are
presented the experimental results for a low profile inductor and transformer. It is
noticed that the efficiency of the transformer is 99.5%, which is the eficiency that was
obtained for the optimïzed design.
4) If Finite Element analysis is pedormed on the designs yield with the three methods
describeci above, the total loss for the design using the rnethod described in 3.4 is lower
than when using the design methods presented in 3.2 and 3.3. Looking at the results
presented in Tables 3.2 and 3.3, it can be observed that the total l o s for the Finite
Element analysis perfiiormed on the design using the method presented in 3.4 is about
two times lower than for the Finite Element analysis performed on the designs using the
Design of Low Profile T r a n s f i a s foc High Frequaicy Operation University of Tacmto

rnethods presented in 3.3 and 3.4. Hence the efficiency of the transformer incteases
from 99.3% when using the designs performed with the methods presented in 3 3 and
3.3 to 99.7% when using the design performed with the method presented in 3.4. This
shows that the resuits of the Finite Element analysis follow the theoretical resuits of the
h e analytical methods.
5) The total losses given by the Finite Element anaiysis are lower than the losses predicted
by the anaiytic methods. The Finite Element analysis is more accurate than the
adytical methods because it calculates the magnetic flux density in almost each point
inside the core. Hence, it results that the design methods overestimate the losses. In
order to see if this is valid at higher muencies, a tramformer operaihg at 1MHz was
designed using the design method d e s c r i i in section 3.2. The calculateci core loss was
8.8 mW- When the Finite Element analysis was performed on the design, the core 1 0 s
was 5.3 mW, which confirmed that the analytical method overestimates the loss.
Design of Low Profile Tmnsfimners for High Frequency Operation University of Tamto
Table 3.1 Design Results

Design Core Mount Volume Power
Method Type Area [cm31 Density
[cm2] ~A./crn3 ]
McLyman
(section 3.2) 4.10
McLyman +
Vandelac
(section 3.3)
Optimized
Tramformer
Design
(section 3.4)
Table 3.2 Losses and Efficiencies for McLyman and McLyman +Vandelac Design Methods
Design
Method
McLyman
F-18 [tesla]
(section 3 2 )
McLyman +
Vandelac
(section 3.3)
Finite
Element
Analys is
Table 3 -3 Losses and Efficiencies for Optimized Transformer Design Method

Design Core Bave PCU ffe Ptot Efficiency
Method Type [tes la] ['KI rw Lw3 I%I
Optimized
Transformer
Design
Element
Analysis
- - - - -
Design ofLow Profiie Transformas fof Hi& Frequeacy Operatioa University of Toronto
3.6 Conclusions
The purpose of this chapter was to present three available design methods that are bIised
on the materiai presented in Chapter 2. The results for a specific design using these design
methods together with a cornparison with Finite Element analysis resuits were also
presented here in order to see if these methods are accurate in terms of predicting losses.
Finally, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1). Using the optunized design method a bigger core wiii be r e q d h m the design
but the efficiency of the transformer will be higher than if the rnethods presented in 3.2 and
3.3 are used. The increase in efficiency cornes nom the fact that the optimal design metliod
minimïzes the total loss in transformer. That means the price that has to be paid to have a
higher efficiency is to use a bigger core.
2). From the results of the designs it can be noticed that the copper bsses are much
higher than the core losses. This is a result of the drawback caused by the tums-ratio. From
here it follows that there is no big gain in using a magnetic materiai with a very low specific
loss at this fiequency since the operating flux density is weii beiiow saturation.
3). The results of the Finite Element analysis follow the resuits of the analytical
calculations. This means the design methods have a good prediction of losses when are used
at high fiequency operation.
Design o f Low Rofile Transfocmers for High Frequency Operation University ofToronto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency T d o r m e r s 43
Chapter 4
Design Curves for High Frequency Transformers
4.1 Introduction
The design rnethods presented in Chipter 3 of this thais do not take the height of the
transformer into consideration. In certain applications, this parameter represents a significant
design constraint. For example, if a resonant converter bas to be designed, and the converter
has to fit in a Limited space, the height of the transformer becornes an issue of the design.
The purpose of this chapter is to develop an algorithm that generates design curves for a
class of high fiequency tninsfbrmers that are kight constrained. In order to develop this
algonthm, it is nrst necessary to identify the parameters tbat cm be used as input. These
parameters are: the height of the transformer 4, rated apparent power S, efficiency q,
operating fkquency f, and voit-per-tum VT.AS an output, the other physical dimensions of
the transformer, together with the current density in the windings, will be obtained.
The key starting point in developing this algorithm is that an optimal design can be
achieved when copper and core losses are in a certain ratio dictated by the constants that
characterize the qecific l o s curve of the magnetic material. Using this condition, together
with the fact that the total loss in a transformer is equal to the sum between the core and
copper losses, a system of two equations will be obtained. Solving this system of equations
and using the conditions set for the geometrical dimensions of the core, the other dimensions
of the transformer together with the current demity in the windings will be obtained.
A set of design curws generated with the proposed aigorithm is presented at the end of
this chapter. A dimission regardhg the trade-off s when using different magnetic m a t e s ,
different operaîing fiequencies and different efficiencies is also presented here.
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frquency Operation University ofTamto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency Tramdiormers 44
4.2 The Choice ofthe Core and its Geomeîrical Dimensions
The algorithm will be developed for a specific type of core. The core that was chosen is
the power pot core or the DS core, as it is known in the technical literatute. This core was
chosen for the foiiowing reasons: it bas a high power density, very good electromagnetic
shielding and the windings are very easy to manufacture.
The top view of one halfof a DS core can be seen in Figure 4.1. Usually, for this type of
core, the average value of the angle a is 42 degrees (see [21]). The magnetic flux h e s will
cross the outer walls through the area A2. This magnetic £lux wïii cross the center post
through the area Ai. It c m be noticed that the area Ai is d e r than the total cross-section
of the center post This happens because the magnetic flux lines tend to follow the path with
the lowest reluctance. Of course there wiil be flux lines that WU
cross the remainder of the
center post d c e as weil, but the concentration of these lines will be very low. Hence, one
can consider, with a good approximation, that the magnetic flux lines are concentrated only
in area Al.
A cross section of the whole core is presented in Figure 4.2. In order to have the core
weli designed fiom a magnetic point of view, the foilowing conditions should be imposed:
1. The height of the window area hWwill be proportional to the height of the transformer h(
by a coefficient &.
Consequently, the thickness of the top and bottom plates will be:
2. In order to have a magnetic flux density in the top and bottom plates equal to or smaller
than the magnetic flux density in the center pst, the following condition must be
irnposed:
A, = A3 (4.2.3)
Design of Low Profile Transformas foc Hi& Frequaicy Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency Transfomers 45
Figure 4.1 DS core - top view
-
Figure 4.2 DS core vertical cross section
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 4: Design Cumes for High Frequency Transformers 46
where A3 is the surfàce area of a cyiinder that has the radius of the anter post R, and
the height equal to the thickness of the top or bottom plate t, as it is shown in Figure
4.2. Thus,
3. Ln order to have the same mgnetic flux density in the center p s t and in the outer wall, it
is necessary that:
Therefore, the effective area of the center p s t where the magnetic flux circulates is:
Based on these expressions, an expression for the core loss wiii be developed in the next
section-
4.3 The Expression for Core Loss
The objective of this section is to generate an expression for the core loss of a
transformer that uses a DS çore and has an arbitrary volts-pet-tum Vp/Np in the primary
winding. This expression will be firrther used in the algorithm to calculate the other
dimensions of the transformer and the current density in the windings.
The magnetic flux density in the effective area of the center p s t can be considered
constant and equal to:
Design of Low Profite Transformas for High Frequency O p d o r i University of Toronto

Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency Tramformers 47
where:
fis the operathg fhquency in lrHz
kptris the effective cross-section area of the center p s t in cm2.
Vp is the rms voltage in the primary winding in volts.
The expression (4.3.1 ) can be written as:
where VT is the voit-per-tum of the winding.

If R, is substituted with expression (4.2.4), one obtains:
- 10-V, [tesla]
Bq - 4 - f -0.466-R-h:- ( I - K , ) ~
Magnetic materiais rnanufacturers generally give the specific power loss for a f d e . For
example, one specific manufacturer7has developed the following expression:
where:
fis the fiequency in kHz.
B, is the magnetic flux density in kgauss.
a, c, and d are coefficients that descnk the specific loss curve of the magnetic
material.
7
Reference [23],page 2.1 1
Design of Low Profile Transformas for Hi@ Frequaicy Operation University ofToronto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency Trdormers 48
SpeciQing the flux density B, in tesia, (4.3.4) becomes:
Expressions for the power dissipation in the center pst, the outer waiis, and the top and
bottom plates can be developed ushg (4.3.5) and the expressions for the core dimensions.
These losses can then be summed in order to detennine the total core 105s.
The power dissipation in the center p s t will be equal to the effective volume of the
center p s t muftiplieci by the specific power loss of the magnetic material.
CmWl
Substituting (4.2.7) and (4.3.5) in (4.3.6), one obtains:
However, R, and B, are given by (4.2.4) and (4.33, respectively. Making these
substitutions in (4.3.7) and sirnpli-g the resulting expression, one obtains:
The power dissipated in the outer wali will be e q d to the power dissipated in the
center post from the condition to have the same flux density in the center p s t and the oiiter
wall (see condition (4.2.5)).
in order to calculate the power loss in the top and bottom plates, it is necessary to kaow
the value of the flux density in the top aml bottom plates. The basic assumption is that the
magnetic flux has to remain the same in ail-msgnetic path; there is no leakage f?om the core.
This is a reasonable assumption since the core operates well below saturation.
The magnetic flux in the center p s t will be:
Design of Low Profile Transformas fot High Frequency Operation University ofTamto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequeocy Transformers 49
In the top a d bottom plates the magnetic flux at a distance r &om the center will be
equal to :
where Br is the flux density at distance r from the center as it is shown in Figure 4.3-
Figure 4.3 Flux deasity Brat distance r from the center.
The condition for the two fluxes to be equal can be written as follows:
q,,
=O, (4.3.1 1)
Using (4.3.9) and (4.3.10) to equate 0, and 0- the foUowing expression is obtained:
Using (4.2.2) and (4.2.4) to substitute for t,, and R, an expression for the flux density in the
top and bottom plates as a function of the flux density in the center post is obtained:
Design of Low Profile Transfomers for High Frequency Operation University ofToronto
Chapter 4: Design C m e s for High Frequency T d o r m e r s 50
In order to calculate the loss in the top and bottom plates, it is first necessary to calculate the
power Ioss in an infinitesimal volume dv that is situated in the magnetic path. Let dv be an
in£initesimal volume at distance r fiom the center.
The power loss dpl in dv wiIl be eclual to the specific power loss multiplied by the volume
dv. It can be assumed that for a s m a l l dr, the flux density Br is constant inside the volume
dv-
dp, = PL-dv (4.3.15)
Using (4.3.5) and (4.3-14) to substitute for the specific power loss and volume dv, one
obtains:
a
dp, = a - f c - ( l ~ - ~ .4---n-t,
r)d -r-dr
180"
Substituting (4.2.2) and (4.3.13) in (4.3.16) the foiiowing expression is obtained:
a 1-K,
n-h, - r-dr
r r
Finally, substituting (4.3 -3) in (4.3.1 7) and simpliQing the resulting expression, one obtains:
---- - --
Design of Low Rofile Transformas for High Frequency Operatiori University of Toronto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency Transformers 51
The power dissipation in the top or botîorn pkte can be found integrating the power
dissipation in the volume dv over the entire pkte.
Substituting (4.3.1 8) in (4.3.19) and integrating between R, a d Rw the total 1 0 s in the top
or bottom plate is obtained-
The total power dissipation in the core wiU be equal to:
The total power dissipation in the core will be f i d e r used in the algorithm to be able to
calculate the other dimensions of the core and the current density. If the purpose of this
section was to yield an expression for the core loss, in the next section an expression for the
copper loss will be developed.
4.4 The Expression for Copper Loss
It can be demonstrated that the design of a winding with an arbiîrary voltage d

number of tum is quivalent to the design of a one-- winding having the same volt-per-
tum and power rating. For example, consider the design of a winding with N tums h ga
resistance R, voltage V, and power P. The rated current for this winding will be 1= PN.The
winding loss will be RI^ anà its core loss will be deterrnined by the volt-per-him VIN. Ushg
the same type of core, consider the problem of designing a wiading that bas only one tum,
the same volt-per-han as the wioding with N tums, and the same power P. The two
windings (singie turn and N turns) shouId also have the same current density. The resistance
Design of Low Profile Transfmers for Hi@ Frequency Operatiori University of Tamto
Chapter 4: Design Cumes for High Frequency Transfomers 52
- --
of the one-tiim wiading WUbe & because the single tum has 1/Ntimes the length a . N
times the area of the N-turn winding. Since both windings have the same volt per tu- the
core iosses will be the same in both cases. If the power ratings of the two windings are the
same, the current in the one-tum winding would be NI. Therefore, the winding 10% in the
one-tum winding is (R/N2)O2,or lU2 ,which is the same as the wiading loss in the N-han
winding. Since an N-tum aad one-tum design, each with the same volt-per-tum and power
rating and using the same fore, have the sarne wioding a d core losses, they are equident.
Having considered this, an expression for the copper loss, considering one equivalent tiim in
the transformer, will be developed It will be assumed that the modings are made of Litz
wire and the skin and prolomity effects are not present. In this case, the AC copper l o s will
be equal to the DC copper loss.
The total apparent power m the one equivalent tum bas to be equal to the apparent
power in the prirnary plus the apparent power in the secondary of the tlansfonner. This can
be written as:
where:
S, is the rated apparent power of the transformer.
q is the efficiency of the transformer.
The apparent power of the one equivalent turn will be also equal to:
VT is the voit-per-hum
ITq is the equivalent current tbat WUproduce the total power.
Design ofLow Profile Transformas for High Frequaicy Operation University of Taonto
From (4.4.1) and (4.42), it is possible to determine the expression for the equivaient
current as a function of the power delivered by the secondary whding, the volt-per-han, and
the efficiency:
The resistance of the single equivalent tum wiü be:
where:
& is the radius of center pst (see Figure 4.2).
Rw is the radius of window area (see Figure 4.2).
p,is the resistivity of copper.
& is the cross-section area of the one equivaient turn and is given by :
where:
hW is the height of window area (see Figure 4.2).
K, is the window utilization factor (see Appendix A for calculation of Ku).
The power loss dissipation in the One equivalent tum will therefore be:
The expression for the copper loss developed in tbis section together with the
expression for the core loss developed in 4.3 will be used in the next section to calculate the
other dimensions of the transformer and the current density in the windings.
Design of Low Profile 'irausformers for High Frequaicy Operatim University of Toranto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency T d o r m e r s 54
4.4 Calculation of the Power Density and Current Density as a

Function of Transformer Height
It has been demonstrated in 1191 that the minimum fosses in a high fkquency
transformer occur when:
for a fixed fkqueucy f where d is a coefficient in (4.3.5) which govems the core loss
density.
The total power loss in a transformer is equal to the core loss plus copper los.
From (4.5.1) and (4-5.2)it foliows that:
P,- = (d + 2) - P,
and
Using (4.3.8) and (4.3.20) to substitute for Pq and Ppi, in (4.3.21), a d after that
substituting the r d i n g expression in (4.5.3), the foMowing expression d l be obtained:
Substituting (4.4.6) in (4.5.4) d l resuit in:
Design of Low Rofile Transformas fot High Frequaicy Operation University ofToronto
Equations (4.5.5) and (4.5.6) represent a system of two e q d o n s with two unlmown
geometricai factors & a d Rw To solve this system, Rw will be expressed as a function o f
&,, using expression (4.5.6) and resulting in expression (4.5.7).
Using (4.5.7) to suMitute for Rw in (4.5.5), the foliowing transcendental equation with one
4 - n - a - a I-d -fs-d -(I-Kh~-d

P,, = ( d + 2 ) - + ht
360 - (2 - d):
Equation (4.5.8) has one uakoown I(b. This equation can be solved n u m e r i d y for a
range of values of the height of the transformer ht aod h d out how does &, Vary with the
height 4.
Design of Low ProfiteT d m e r s for High Fre~uarcyOperation University of Toronto

Chapter 4: Design C w e s for High Frequency Transformefi 56
M e r kt,the r e d t h g values of &, can be substinited in expression (4.5.7) for the

same range of values of the height of the transformer. T'us, it is possible to determine how
the inner radius of the window area R, varies with the height of the transformer.
The next step would be to calculate to calculate hW, R, and &, for the same range of
values of the height of the transformer & using expressions (4.2.1 ), (4.2.4), and (4.2.6).
The mounting area, the power density, and the current density wiii be calcdated using
the following expressions:
The expressions developed in this section will be used to generate a set of design curves
for a specific application. These curves, together with some observations, are presented in
the next section
4.6 Example of a Set of Design Cuwes
In the previous sections, an algorithtn was developed to generate design curves for
transfomers that operate at high fkquency. The power rating, the efficiency, the operating
fiequency, the volt-pet-turn, and the height of the transformer were used as input for the
algorithm. The power density, mounting area, and the current density in the windings were
obtained as output.
This section will present a set of design curves for a specific power leveL These design
curves represent the variation of pwer density, mountiog area and current density, as a
function of the height of transformer. The design curves have been generated for two
Design of Low Profile Transformas fot High Frequeacy Operation University of Toronto
efficiencies (99.0% and 99.5%), two kquencies (500kHi anci IMHz), two materials (an
-
expensive material - K material and a cheap material F material)', and for four values of
volt-per-turn (2,3,4, and 5 volt-per-tum).
4.6.1 Variation of Power Density with Height
The variation of power density with height for a high fiequency transformer that uses a
DS core can be seen in Figures 4.4 to 4.1 1. Clearly, there is an optimal core height at which
the transformer power demity reaches a maximum. In Table 4.1, peak vahes of power
density, together with the heights where these peaks occur, are Summarized. The variation of
the height was taken between zero and 3 cm. The upper limit for the height is set t 3 cm
because the primary interest is in low profile. The following observations c m be made:
1) As noted above, for any of the situations presented in Figures 4.4 to 4.1 1, there is a
criticai height where the power density has a peak. Above this critical height, the power
density decreases slowly but below it, degrades drastically.
2) It can be noticed that for the designs with lower efficiency (99.0%) the peak of the
curves is sharper than the peak for the designs with higher efficiency (99.5%). This means
the design with a higher efficiency bas a wider range for height to yield a transformer with a
power density close to the maximum,
3) From Table 4.1 it can be noticed that the peak occurs at a lower height when a lower
efficiency is wanted (99.0%) and at a higher height when a higher efficiency is wanted
(99.5%).
4) For a range of 2 to 5 volt-per-tuni, the peak of the power density occurs for the most
cases at 3 volt-per-tum.
5 ) When using the same operatmg ikquency and the same magnetic materiai, the peak
of the power density is lower for the design with higher efficiency, and higher for the design
with lower efficiency. For example, in Table 4.1 it can be noticed that when the K material
is used in the design, the peak of the power density is approximately thtee times higher for
the design with 99.W efficiency than the design with 99.5% efficiency. In the same table it
*K and F materiah are rnanufictmed by Magnetics The charaderistics ofthese materials are shown in
Appendix F.
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequency Operation University of Toccmto
c m be wticed that when the F rnateriai is used in the design, the peak of the power density
is approximately five times higher for the design with 99.0% efficiency than the design with
99.5% efficiency. With other words, it can be said that if the total loss is doubied, the peak
of the power density increases three times when the K maîerial is used and five tirnes when
the F material is used.
6) For the same materiai and the same efficiency it is mticed an increase in power
density when the operating kquency is increased. In Table 4-1 it is noticed an increase in
power density of roughly 1.4 times when the operathg fkquency increases fiom 500kHi to
lMHz
7) For the same design conditions (same efficiency and operatiog kquency) but using
different magnetic materials, it has been aoticed an increase of the power densïty when an
expensive magnetic material is used than when a cheap -tic material is used. This
cornes fiom the k t that expensive ferrites bave a lower specific l o s at high Gequency
operation than cheap ferrÏtes. For example, it can be noticed in Table 4.1 that for a 99.0%
efficiency and 500kHz or lMHz operathg fkquency, the peak of the power density when
using the K material is two times higher than when using the F materiai. Also, for a 99.5%
efficiency, the peak of the power density increases three times when the K materiai is used
than when the F materiai is used,
Table 4.1 The peak of the power density for ciifferent materials, efficiencies and Eequencies
p .
Magnet ic K F
Material
Efficiency [%] 99 99.5 99 99.5
operating
Frequency 500 1000
ml
Peak of the
po wer density 37 51
~A/cm3]
Optimal Height
km] 0.95 0.87
Design of Low Profile Trausformas fot High Frquency Operatioa University ofToronto
Power Density, 54VA, K mat, 500kHz,99%

40 1
O 0 2 0-4 0.6 0.8 1 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 32

O t0.k I * h t ~ . k ~ ' ~ W . k ~ 33
height [cm]
Figure 4.4 Variation ofpower density with height at 500kHz,99% eff., and K material
Power Density, S4VA, Kmat, SOOk.Hz, 99.5%

14
O 0 3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 33
O t0.k I'h t ~ . tO,kjvh
k ~ f0,k4
~ ~ 33
height [cm]
Figure 4.5 Variation ofpower density with height at SOOkHz, 99.5% eE, and K material
Design of Low Profile T r a n s f i e r s for High Frequaicy Operation University of Toronto

Chapter 4: Design &es for High Frequency Transfomiers 60
Go 60
Power Density, 54V4 K mat, lMHz, 99%
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 33
O h t ~ , I*ht0,k2'ht~.k3'ht0,k4
k 33
height [cm]
Figure 4.6 Variation o f power density with height at 1MHz, 99% e E , and K material
Power Density, 54VA K mat, IMHz, 99.5%
O O 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 33
O t0.k I*h t ~ , k t ~~ *. ~k t0.k4
~ ' ~ 33
tieight [cm]
Figure 4.7 Variation o f power density with height at lMHz, 99.5% eff., and K matenal
Design of Low Profile Transfotmers for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency Transfomrs 61
Power Density, S4VA F mat, SOOZcHz, 99%

'Of
-3
>--
dens-4V0, k
.-
Cr.
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
O 4),k l w ht 0 , k 2 ' ~t 0 . t ~ ~ ~ t 0 . k ~ 32
height [cm]
Figure 4.8 Variation of power density with height at 500- 99%eK, and F material
Power Density, 54VA, Fmat, 500kHiq 99.5%
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 32
O 10,k l * ht 0 . I ~ t~ ~' ~, k tO,kq
~ * ~ 32
height [cm]
Figure 4.9 Variation of power density with height at SOOkHi, 99.5%eE, and F material
Design of Low Profile Transformas f i High Frequmcy Operation University of Toronto

54VA F mat, lMHz 99??

Power Densitvnsitv
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 33
O r ~ , l'h
k t0,kZvht ~ . k t0,k4
~ ' ~ 32
height [cm]
Figure 4.10 Variation of power density with height at IMHz, 99%e E , and F material
Power Density, 54V4 F mat, IMHt, 99.5%
O 0 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
O htO,k I ' h t ~ , k 2 ' h t ~ . k j ' h t ~ . k 4 33
height [cm]
Figure 4.1 1 Variation ofpower density with height at 1MHz, 99.5%e E , and F materiai
Design of Low Rofile Transformas for High Frequaicy Operation University of Tamto
4.6.2 Variation of Mounting Area with Height
Besides the variation of the power density with the height of the transformer, another
important thing is to see how the mounting area varies with the h e i g k Figures 4.12 to 4.19
show the variation of the mounting area with height for a transformer with a specific power
level, for dinerent opaeting muencies, diffèrent efficiencies and different rnagnetic
materials. It is a h interesthg to see how the mounting area that corresponds to the peak of
the power density varies when dinerent materials or ditferent operating fiequedes are used
or different efficiencies are wanted. In order to notice this variations, Table 4-2 shows the
values of the mounting area for the heights where the peaks of the power d e n s e occur.
Looking at Figures 4.12 to 4.19 and Table 4.2, the following observations can be made:
1) The design curves presented in Figures 4.12 to 4.19 have similar shapes. At low
heights the mounting area is very big. As mon as the height increases, the mounting area
decreases rapidly until reaches a minimm If the height fùrthet increases, the mounting area
increases slowly remaining almost constant especially for low volt-per-tum. It should also
be noticed that the minimum mountiog area does not occur at the peak of the power density.
In fact, it occurs at a bigger height-
2) It can be noticed that above the height where the minimum occurs, the mounting area
is smaller for the design with a low volt-per turn, and bigger for the design with a high volt-
per-tum.
3) When using the same operating fkquency and the same rnagnetic material, the
mounting area is s d l e r for the design with lower efficiency, and bigger for the design with
higher efficiency. This happens due to the fact that at a lower efficiency the power density is
higher than at a higher efficiency. Hence, the volume of the transformer is lower and the
mounting area will be smaller. As it is wticed in Table 4.2, the mounting area increases
about 2.5 times when K material is used and 2.8 times when F material is used when the
efficiency increases ffom 99% to 99.5%.
4) For the same design conditions (same efficiency and operating fiequency) but using
different magnetic materials, it has been wticed an imxpase in mounthg area when a cheap
magnetic materiai is used instead of an expensive material. It is mticed, when looking at the
data presented in Table 4.2, tbat for the same design conditions when the F material is used
- - --- - -- - - -
Design of Low Profile Ttansformers for High Frequency Operatiori University ofToronto
Chapter 4 Design Curves for High Frequency Transformers 64
in the design, the mounting area increases roughly tmce compareci to the one obtained when
the K material is used.
5) For the same magnetic matenal and the same efficiency it is noticed that the
mounting area slowly decreases when the operating fkquency is increased In Figures 4.12
to 4.19 it can be noticed a decrease in mounting area o f roughly 1.25 when the operating
frequency is increased h m 500kHz to 1M H z
Table 4.2 The values of the mounting area that correspond to the peak of the power densities
Efficiency [%]
operating
Frequency
m l
Optimal Height
km1
LrMounting area
Design of Low ProfileTransformas f

a High Frquency Operaîion University ofTacmto
6
Mounting Area, 54V& K mat, SOOkHz, 99%
3
_*__________*--*----_.______________________-_._______________________._
___--------
2
- - - -
- * - - - - - - - - - - - O - - - -
O 0 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2-4 2.6 2.8 3 32

O t0,k l'h t ~ . k ~ ' ~ t ~ . k ~ ' ~ t ~ , k ~ 32
height [cm]
Figure 4- 12 Variation of mounting area with height at SOOkHq 99%eE, and K material
Mounting Are% 54Vk Kmat, SOOkHz, 99.5%

&
Z
\
I:\
"..\
s
O O 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 13 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 22 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 32

O 32
ht~,k -
I ' h ~ ~ , k 7 ' h t 0 , k 3W,k4
'h
height [cm]
Figure 4.1 3 Variation of mounting area with height at 500- 99.5% eE, and K materiai
Design of Low Profile Transformes for High Frequency Operation University of Tamto
O O 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
33
O -
htO,k I ' h t ~ , k 7 ' h t ~ . k 3 vt0,k4
h
height [cm]
Figure 4.14 Variation of mounting area with height at IMHz, 99% eff., and K material
Mounting Area, S4VA K mat, IMHz, 99.5%
__------_ _ - - - * - -
--
33
htO,k 1 ' h t ~ T k 2 * h t ~ . k t0.k4
3Th
height [cm]
Figure 4.15 Variation of mounting area with height at IMHz, 99.5%e E , and K material
Design of Low Profile Transfmers for Hi& Frquency Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency Transfomrs 67
O 0 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3 2

O h t ~ , kI * h ~ , k 2 p h t 0 , k 3t0,k4
'h 33
height [cm]
Figure 4.16 Variation of mounting area with height at SOOicNz, 99%eE, and F material
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1-4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 32
O h ~ ~ I ,* h
k t ~ , k 2 * h t 0 9 k1j 0* .hk ~ 33
height [cm]
Figure 4.17 Variation o f mounting area with height at 500- 99.5% e E , and F rnaterial
Design of Low Profile TfatlSformm f a High Frequency Operation University of Toconto

O 0.2 0-4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 32
O t0.k l * ht0,k27ht ~ , kt0,k4
~ ' ~ 33
height [cm]
Figure 4.1 8 Variation of mouoting area with height at 1MHz, 99% e E , and F material
O 0 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3-2
O ht~,kl*h~0,k2*ht~,k3'ht~,k4 33
height [cm]
Figure 4.19 Variation of rnounting area with height at 1MHZ, 99.5% eE, and F material
Design of Low Profile Transfmers fot High Frequaicy Operation University of Taonto
4.6.3 Variation of Current Density with Height
The algorithm presented in this chapter bas as an output, besides the power density and
mounting area, the current density that bas to be in the windings in order to obtain the
desired efficiency. The variation of the current densÏty with height for a transformer with a
specific power level is presented in Figures 4.20 to 4.27. Tt is also interesthg to see how
does the current density that corresponds to the peak of the power density vary when
different materials or different operating fiequemies are used or different efficiencies are
wanted- In order to notice this variations, Table 4.3 shows the values of the current density
for the heights where the peaks of the power density occur. Lookiog at Figures 4.20 to 4.27
and Table 4.3, the following observations can be made:
1) The design curves presented in Figures 4.20 to 4.27 have similar shapes. At low
heights the current density is low. As soon as the height inmeases, the current density
increases rapidly untii reaches a maximum If the height increases, the current
density decreases slowly remaining almost constant.
2) It c m be noticed that the current density is higher for a high volt-per-tuni and lower
for a low volt-per-tum. The reawn is that at high volt-per-tum, the length of the winding is
sbrter than the length of the winding at low volt-per-tum for two windings that have the
sarne induced voltage. Ln order to have the sarne power dissipation in the longer wuidhg as
in the shorter wioding, the current density in the windhg wÏth low volt-per-tum bas to be
decreased.
3) When using the same operating frequency and the same magnetic material, the
current density is lower for the design with higher efficiency, and higher for the design with
lower efficiency. In Table 4.3 it can be noticed that the current density is roughly 2.4 times
higher when the K material is used and 3.4 times higher when F material is used when the
efficiency decreases fiom 99.5% to 99%.
4) For the same design conditions (same efficiency and operating hquency) but using
dinerent magnetic materials, it has been noticed an increase in current density when an
expensive magnetic material is used instead of a cheap one. This wmes h m the k t that
when an expensive ferrite is used, the power density is higher than when a cheap f d e is
used. That means the dimensions of a core made of an expensive ferrite are smailer tban the
Design of Low Profile T d o n i i a s for High Frequency Operation University ofToronto

dimensions of a core made of a cheap ferrite. Hence, the length of the windings for a mre
made of an expensive ferrite is shorter tban the length of the windings for a core made of a
cheap ferrite. In order to obtain the same winding losses, the current deasity for the design
that uses a cheap material has to be decreaSed. It can be noticed in figures 4.20 to 4.27 that
for the core d e of F material the current density is almost haif of the one used in the
design that uses a core made ofK material.
5) For the same magnetic material and the same efficiency it can be observeci thaî the
current density cemains almost constant when the operating kquency is increased. In Table
4.3 it is noticed an increase m -nt den- of roughty 1.1 times when the operating
fiequency inmeases fiom 5ûûlrHz to 1M H z
Table 4.3 The values of the current density that correspond to the peak of the power
densities
Magnetic K F
Material
Efficiency [%] 99 99.5 99 99.5
Operating
Frequency 500 1000 500 1000 500 1000 500 1OOO
WI
Optimal Height
km] 0.95 0.87 1.25 1.18 1.1 1 1.95 1.8
Current Density
17.5 20 7.5 8 12 13.5 3.5 4
---- - - -
Design of Low Profile TratlSformers for High Frequency Operation University of Tamto
O 0 2 0-4 0.6 0.8 1 1 3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
O h t ~ , k1 * h t ~ . k 2 ' h t ~ . k 3to.k4
'h 32
height [cm]
Figure 4.20 Variation of current density witb height at SOOkFh, 99%eff., and K material
O 0 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1-6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3 2
O t0.k l'b t ~ , k ~ * ~ f oQ,k4
, k ~ ' ~ 32
height [cm]
Figure 4.21 Variation o f current density with height at SOOkHz, 99.5%eff., and K material
Design of Low Rofile Transfiers for tligh Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Chapter 4: Design Curves for High Frequency Transformers
Current Density, 54V4 K mat, 1MHz, 99%
O 0 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
O t0.k 1 ' h t ~ , k 2 * h
t~.k~'~tO.k~ 32
height [cm]
Figure 4.22 Variation o f current density with height at lMHz, 99%eE, and K materiai
Current Deusity, 54V4 Kmat, IMHz, 99.5%
O 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1 2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 32

O t0.k t ~ , k t ~~ ' . ~k t0,k4
~ ' ~ 32
height [cm]
Figure 4.23 Variation of current density with height at 1Ml& 99.5% eff., and K material
Design of Low Profile Transformers f a High Ftequency Openiticin University of Toronto

Current Dens, 54V4 F mat, 500kf4 99%
O 0 2 0-4 0.6 0.8 1 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 22 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2
O t0.k I'h f ~ . kf ~~ *, ~kt0,k4
~ * ~ 32
height [cm]
Figure 4.24 Variation of current density with height at 500kH.q 99% e&, and F materiai
Current Dens, 54V4 F mat, 500- 99.5%
0.8 1 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2-4 2.6 2.8 3 32

33
t0.k I*ht ~ . k t 0
~ , *k ~~ ' ~ t 0 , k ~
height [cm]
Figure 4.25 Variation of current density with height at 500kHk, 99.5%efE, and F material
Design of Low Profile Transfmers for High Frequaicy Operation University ofTaonto
Current Density, 54V4 F mat, IMHz, 99%

20
O 0 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 32
O t0.k I ' h t ~ . k 2 * h t 0 , k 3 ' h t 0 , k 4 32
height [cm]
Figure 4.26 Variation ofcurrent density with height at 1MHz, 99%eff., and F material
Current Density, 54Vq Frnat, 1MHq 99.5%

6
O O 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1-4 1.6 1.8 2 2 2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 33
O t ~ . k ~ ' ~ 1 0 . k ~ t0.k4
' ~ 33
height [cm]
Figure 4.27 Variation of current density with height at MHz, 99.5% eE, and F material
Design of L o w Profile Transformas for High Frequency Operaîion University ofToronto

4.6.4 Vaiidation ofthe Design Curves
The design curves expiicitly point to optimal core dimensions. However, sometimes, an
exact or even near match with available cores is not possible. This will have an impact on
the transformer optimization by decreasing the power density or increasing the temperature
rise.
In order to see if the design curves give diable data, a comparison of the design resuits
f?om Chapter 3, when the optimized design method was used, with the data 60m the design
curves generated in this chapter can be done. Looking at the d t s presented in Tables 3.1
and 3.3 it can be noticed that for the optimized design the height of the transformer is 1-6 cm
and the power density is 6.6vNcm3. The resuhed volt-per-tum is 3.6 and the efficiency of
the transformer is 99.5%. Looking at Figure 4.5 it can be noticed that for a height of 1.6 cm
and 4 volt-per-turn it results a power density of 11 ~ ~ c The
m reason
~ . the power density of
the optitnized design is lower is because a core with an area product double than the one
calculated was selected for the design. The selection ofthe core was irnposed by the fact that
both the secondary and the primary windings must have an integer nurnber of tums and the
windings must fit in the bobbin.
Assume w w that fiactional numbers of tunis c m be used in both windings. As a result,
a core with an area product equal to the calculated one can be used. This core will have a
height of 1.3 cm and an outer diameter of 2.2 cm. The resulted volt-per-tuni will be equal to
5.4. The resulted power density will be I 1 ~ ~ 1 c Looking
r n ~ . at Figure 4.5 it can be noticed
that for a height of 1.3 cm and 5 volt-per-turn it results a power density of ~o.svA/c~~,
which is very close to the one found using the optimal design method. From here it results
that the design curves give reiiable data.
Design of Low Profile Transfonners for High Frquency Operation University of Taonto
The purpose of this cbapter bas been to develop an algorithm that generates design
c w e s for a class of high tiequency transfomers that are height constrained-
First, the pararrieters that can be used as input were identifïed as the height of the
transformer output power S, efficiency q, operating fkquency f; and volt-per-turn VT.
The type of the core that has been chosen is the power pot core. For this type of core, a set of
conditions for the geometricai dimensions of the core have been imposed in order to have
the core well designed.
Second, an expression for the core l o s and one for the copper loss have been
developed. These expressions are based on the conditions set for the geometrical dimensions
of the core.
Third, based on the condition for optimum design and the hct that the total l o s in a
transformer is q u a i to the sum between the copper l o s and the core los, a system of two
equations with two unknowns bas been obtained- Solving this system of equaîions and using
the conditions set for the geometrid dimensions of the core, the other dimensions of the
core together with the current density have been obtained.
Finally, a set of design curves generated with the proposeci algorithm for a specific
power level transformer has k e n presented. A discussion regarding the trade-offs when
ushg diffierent magnetic matkials, différent operating fkquencies and diffetent efficiencies
has been also presented here.
Design of Low Profile Transformers for High F q u a i c y Operation University of Toronto

Chapter 5: Conclusions and Future Work 77
Chapter5
Conclusions and Future Work
The present work has two main purposes in the field of the design of transformers for
high fkequency operation used in resonant converters,
The first purpose of this work was to investigate three available design rnethods for
transformers that operate ai high fkequency. The results of a design for a specific power
level using these methods together with a cornparison to Finite Element anaiysis resuhs
performed on the design d t s bas been done in order to see if these methods are accurate
in terms of predicting losses. Analyzing the design resuits the following conclusions were
Obtained:
1). It bas k e n noticed tbat using the optimized design method a bigger core will be
yield f?om the design but the efficiency of the transformer will be higher than if the methods
presented in 3.2 and 3.3 are used This means that the pnce that has to be paid to have a
higher efficiency transformer is to use a bigger core-
2). From the resufts of the designs it bas been noticed that the copper losses are much
higher than the core losses. This is a result of the drawback caused by the tunis-ratio. From
here it follows that there is no big gain in using a magnetic material with a very low specific
loss at this fiequency since the operating flux density is well bellow saturation.
3). The results of the Finite Element analysis follow the results of the analytical
calculations. This means the design methods have a gmd preâiction of losses when are used
at high fiequency operation.
The second purpose of this tbesis was to develop an algorithm that generates design
curves for a class of high fkquency transfomers that are height constrained. The key
starting point in developing this algorithm was that an optimal design can be achieved when
Design of Low Profile Transformers for Hi& Frequaicy Operation University of Taonto
copper and core iosses are in a certain ratio dictated by the constants that characteriz the
specific loss cuve of the magnetic materiaL Using this condition, together with the fact tbat
the total loss in a transformer is equal to the sum between the core and copper losses, a
system of two equations will be obtaiwd. Solving this system crf equations and using the
conditions set for the geometrid dimensions of the core, the other dimensions of the
transformer together with the current density in the windings were obtained.
A set of design curves developed using the proposeci algonthm for a specifïc power
I)
level bas been presented at the end of this work. These design cmves represent the variation
of power density, rnounting area and current density, as a fünction of the height of
transformer. The design curves have k e n generated for two efficiencies (99.0% and 99.5%),
two fiequencies (5001rHz and IMHi), two materials (an expensive materiai - K material and
a cheap material - F material), and for four values of volt-per-turn (2, 3, 4, and 5 voit-per-
turn). Looking at these design curves the foiiowing generai conclusions couid be d r a m
1). The design curves can be used for the design of high kquency transformers where
the height is a constraint.
2). For each design curve there is an optimal height where the power density has a
maximum, That means the design curves can be used for minimizing the size of a
transformer for a given set of design parameters.
3). Far a given range of the voit-per-tuni, there is a certain value of the voit-per-turn
where the power density bas a maximum. With other words, using the design curves, a
global minimization can be obtaiaed choosing a specific volt-per-turn and a specific height
that correspond to the peak of the power density.
4). Using a cheaper material in the design wiii result in a bigger transformer than using
an expensive material with a low specific loss. That means fiom the design curves it can be
seen what are the trade-off s when using dBerent magnetic materiais in the design.
5). For the same design conditions but using different opemathg hquencies, it bas been
noticed an increase in power density when the operating fkquency is increased. This rneans
fiom the design curves it can be seen what are the trade-off s w k n using dserent operating
fiequencies.
-- -
Design of Low Profile Tmsformers for High Fre~uencyOperation University ofToronto

6). When a higher efficiency is wanted, a transformer with a lower power density will
result ftom design. Wth other words, the design curves show the trade-offs when difXerent
efficiencies of the transformer are wanted-
7). The design curves explicitly point to optimal core dimensions. However, sometimes,
an exact or even war match with avaihble cores is not possible. This wiil bave an impact ou
the transformer optmiization by deaeasing the power density or increasing the temperature
rise.
5.2 Future Work
There are several possible extensions of the work presented in this thesis:
1). In the proposed algorithm it was assumeci that Litz wire is used in the design and the
ac resistance is equal to the dc resistance. This is tnie for Litz wire until it reaches a certain
diameter. M e r that, the ac resistance increases more and the assumption is w t valid
anyrnore. It results that in the design cuves it shouid be taken in consideration the iacrPase
of the ac resistance d e r the diameter of Litz wire exceeds a certain value.
2). The algorithm was developed for a specific core configuration (the power pot core).
A similar algorithm can be developed for other core configurations.
3). The algorithm was developed using the efficiency of the transformer as an input
parameter. A similar algorithm can be developed using the temperature rise as an input
parameter instead of efficiency.
4). The biggest question relates to transformer design when the output voltage is low
and the current high The next generation of ICs wiil require power supplies at IVy30A and
operating fiequemies of 1-2MH.z. In this situation, copper foils coawcted in paralle1
become an attractive alternative. A s i d a r algorithm can be developed using copper foils
instead of Litz wire, and considering a low volt-per-tum in the design.
Design of Low Profile Transformers fm High Frequaicy Operation University of Tamto

Appendixes 80
Appendix A
Calculation of Window Utilkation Factor &9
The window utilization fàctor K,,is a measure of the amount of copper thai appears in
the area of the transformer. The window u t w t i o n factor is influenced by four factors:
1. Wire insuiation
2. W i e lay (fil1 factor)
3. Bobbin area (or, when using a toroid, the clearance hole for passage of the shuttle)
4. Insulation required for multilayer windings or between windings
The fiaction K,, of the available core window space that wilï be occupied by the winding
(copper) is calculated fiom areas Si, St, S3,and Sq:
Ku=S, 4 , - S , - S ,
where:
conductor area
S, =
wire area
- -
womd area
' 2
usable window area
usable window area

S, =
window area
usable window area

S, = (A3
usable window area + iasulation area
in which:
9
Reference [la,page 25 1.
Design ofLow Profile Tramformers for Hi& Frequency Operatiori University ofTamto
Conductor area = copper area
Wire area = copper area + iosulation area
Wound area = nwnber oftunis x wire area ofone turn
Usabie window area = available d o w area - residuai area that resuits h m the particular
winding technique used
Window area = available window area
Insulation area = area usable for winding insulation
For Litz wÙe:

SI = 0.449
S2 = 0.60
S3= 0.55 for pot core
S4 = 0.9 for one secondary
It wiil resuit:
K,,= 0.13
Design of Low Profile Transformers for Mgh Frequaicy Operation University ofToronto
Appendixes 82
Appendix B
The value of coefficients Kj, x, y, and K, for different core

configurations and temperature increases of 25°C and 50°C 'O
Pot cote 433 632 1.20 -0.17 33.8

1 1 I I I
Powder core 1 403 1 590 1 1.14 1 -0.12 / 32.5
Lamination 366 534 1.14 -0.12 41.3
C core 322 468 1.16 -0.14 39.2
Single-coi.1C core 395 569 1.16 -0.14 44.5
Tape-wound core 250 365 1.15 -0.13 50.9
10
Reference [ 17,pages 79 and 106.
Design of Low Profile Transfc~mersfor High Frequency Operation University ofTamto

Appendices 83
Appendix C
Values of H and K factors used in (3.2.1 1)
DC RES. SINGLE
FREQUENCY OHMSIM' STRAND
GAUGE COPPER O Rac/Rdc
b'H"
1,0000
850 kWz to 1.4 MHz
Table II
Design of Low Profile Transformers fot High Frequaicy Operation University of Toronto
Appendixes 84
Appendix D
1 ernperanue nse n1 versus surrace aissipanon Y

ambient temperatures 0,25 and 50°C
10 1O0
X
Temperature Rise [Cl
'' Reference [171, page 278.

Design of Low Profile Transformers for High F q u a i c y Operation University of T m t o
Appendixes 85
Appendix E
Model used in the Finite Element Analysis of the transformer
FILES
l I
UNKS
Le?#' :ni
Flux demity :T
Field strength :A nr
Poîential :Wb m-
Canduuhity :S m-.
Saune density,A w
Power :W
Force :N
en erg^ :J
Mass :kg
PRORLEM DATA
itnf comlossl0l Kop2
Lin& elements
mmetry
m~
~tmL pol.
Magnetic fields
No rnesh
7 regions
In the figure above a Finite Element analysis mode1 that was used in the calculation
of the core loss for the transformer that was designed using the optimized design method is
shown. The mode1 is described in cylindrical coordinates. In this figure region 1 represents
the core of the transformer, and regions 2-6 represent the wiadings in the transformer. The
background is represented by region 7. The m w t i c material in the core was considered
nonlinear.
Design of Low Profile Transfanners for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto
Appendix F
The characteristics of K and F magnetic materials12
1 . Material Characteristics
Initial Permeabiiity
I I
Maximum Usable Frequency
Saturation Flux Density 1
Density
2. Core Loss Information

For cornputer p r o g r d g purposes, the core loss curves c m be represented by the
equation below. The factors indicated in the table are split into dimete fkequeacy ranges, so
that the equation offers a close approximation to the experimentalcore loss curves.
where:
- B is the flux density in kgauss.
- fis the operating hquency in kHz.
'* Reference [23],pages 22 and 2.2 1.

- - - - - -- - - -
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frquency Operation University ofToronto
Appendixes 87
Design of Low Profile Transformers foc High Frequency ûperation University ofToronto
References 88
References
B. Chapel, "The fine art of IC design", IEEE Speçtrum, July 1999, pp. 30-34.
D. Herrell, "Power to the package", IEEE Spectrum, Juiy 1999, pp. 46-53.
N. Mohari, T. M. Undeland, and W. P. Robbins, "Power Electmnics - Converters,

Applications, and Design (second edition)", John W~ley& Sons, Inc., 1995.
LRO F. Casey, Martin F. Schlect, "A high fkquency, low volume, point-of-load
power supply for distriiuted power systems", IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, Vol. 3, No. 1, January 1988, pp. 72-82.
Loveday H. Mweene, Chris A Wright, and Martin F. Schlect, "A IkW 500kHz
&ont-end converter for a distri'buted power supply system", IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, Vol. 6, No. 3, July 1991, pp. 398-407.
Brett A. Miwa, Leo F. Casey, and Martin F. Scblecht, "Copper-based hybrid

fabrication of a 50W 5MWz 40V-SV dddc converter"? IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, Vol. 6, No. 1, January 1991, pp. 2-10.
Guichao Hua, Fred C. Lee, and Milan M. Jovanovic, "An improved fùii-bridge zero-
vo ltage-mitched PW M converter using a saturable inductor", IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, Vol. 8, No. 4, October 1993, pp. 530-534.
Praveen K. Jain, Andre St-Marin, and Gary Edwards, "Asymmetrid pulse-width-

modulated resonant dddc converter topologies", IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, Vol. 11, No. 3, May 1996, pp. 413-422.
- - .
Design of Low Profile Transfîmers for High Frequency Operation University ofToronto
References 89
Ramesh Oniganti, Phua Chee He*, Jeffrey Tan Kian Gu- and Liew Ah Choy,
"Soft-switched dc/dc converter with PWM control", IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, VOL 13, No. 1, January 1998, pp. 102-1 14.
F. K. Wong, J. W. Lu, H. B. Harrison, and S. Dimitrijev, "Appiicatioas of high

fiequency magnetic components for switching resonant mode power supply",
Proceedings of the IEEE International Coderence on Mustrial Techaology (KIT
1996) Shanghai China, 2-6 December 1996 (New York USA IEEE 1996) pp. 406-
410.
Neil R Coomd, 'Transformer compter design aid for higher ftequency switching
power supplies", EEE Transactions on Power Ektronics, VOL PE-1, No. 4,
October 1986, pp. 248-256.
Waseem A. Roshen, Robert L. Steigefwald, Richard J. Charles, Wiiiiam G. Earls,

Glenn S. Chydon, and Chester F. Saj,llHigh-efficiency, high-density MHz magnetic
components for low profile converters", IEEE Transactions on Industrial
Applications, VOL3 1, No. 4, JulflAugust 1995, pp. 869-877.
R Petkov, "Optimum design of a high-power, high-fiequency transformer", IEEE

Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 11, No. 1, January 1996, pp. 33-42.
T. Fujiwara, "Planaf integrated magnetic component with transformer and inductor

using multilayer printed wiring board", IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 34,
No. 4, J d y 1998, pp. 205 1-2053.
Charles R Sullivan and Seth R Sanders, "Design of microfàbricated transformers

and inductors for high-fkquency power conversiont1,IEEE Transactions on Power
Electronics, Vol. 2 1, No. 2, March 1996, pp. 228-238.
Design of Low Profile TtatlSfmers f w High Frequency Operatian University ofToroato

References 90
[16] Srinivasan Iyengar, Trifon M. Liaicopoulos, and Chong H. Ahn, "A dcldc boost
converter toward M y on-chip integraiion using new micromachineci planar
inductors", IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conférence, 1999, pp. 72-76.
[171 W. T. McLyman, "Transformer and inductor design handbook (second edition)",

New York: Marcel Decker, Inc., 1984.
[18f Frederick Emmons Terman, "Radio Engineer's Handbook", McGraw-Hili Book

Company,Inc, New York, 1943.
[19] J. P. Vandelac and P. D. Ziogas, "A wvei approach for minimizing high fkquency
transformer copper losses", IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, VOL 3, No. 3,
July 1988, pp. 266-277.
[20] W. G. Hurley, W. H. Wolfle, and J. G. Breslin, "Optimized transformer design:

inclusive of high-fieqwncy effects", IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol
13, No. 4,Juiy 1998, pp. 651-659.
[2 11 Khai D. T. Ngo and Ray-Shyang Lai, "Effêct of height on power density in spiral-
wound power-pot-core transformers",IEEE Transactions on Power EIectronics, Vol.
7, No. 3, July 1992, pp.601-606.
1221 Magnetics - Ferrite Core Material Selection Guide.
[23] -
Magnetics Ferrite Cores Cataiog FC-601.
[24] Bruce Carsten, "Calculating and controlling skin and proximity effect conductor
losses in switchmode magnetics", Bruce Carsten ASSOC.,Inc., 6410 NW Sisters Place
Corvallis, OR, USA, 97330.
Design of Low Profile Transformas for High Frequaicy Operation University of Toronto
References 91
P. L. Dowei, "Effects of eddy currents in t d o r m e r windings", Proc. IEE, voL113,

N0.8, August 1966, pp. 138791394.
Litz Wi Catalog, New England Electric Wire Corporation.
Vector Fields, "PC-OPERA Reference Manuai".
Vectar Fields, "PC-OPERA User Guide".
Joe King, "Mathcad 6.0 for E n g k r s n , Addison-Wesley hblishing Company hc.,

1997.
Design of Low ProfileT d o r m e r s for High Frquaicy Operation University ofToronto

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DESIGN OF LOW PROFILE TRANSFORMERS FOR

HIGH FREQUENCY OPERATION

A thesis submitted in confonnity with the requirements

O Copyright by Valentin Bolborici 1999

The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du

Master of Applied Science, 1999

Graduate Department of Electricai and Computer Engineering

fiequency operation that are used in dc/dc resonant converters.

if these methods are accurate in terms of predicting losses.

specific loss curve of the magnetic material.

level, is presented at the end of this thesis.

Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 Identification of the Problem. ...........................................................................9

Chapter 3 Revue of Available Design Methods ............................................................. 18

Chapter 4 Design Curves for High Frequency Transfoma ......................

The Expression for Core Loss ........................................................................ 46

Chapter 5 Conclusions and Fu- Work ........................................................................77

Appendix Calculation of Window Utilization Factor Ku ...................................... .........80

Coefficients that descri'be the l o s curve for a ferrite.

Resistance ratio of individuai strarads when isoiated.

Window utilization factor.

dc power dissipation in a winding.

m i g n of Low Profile Transformers for High Frequency Operation University of Toronto

Effective volume of the core.

Design of Low Profile Transformas fw High Freqwicy Operation University ofToronto

In today's world, size rninimization and efficiency optixnization of electronic equipment

closer to the internai power grid.

Design of Low Profile T d o r m e r s for Hi& Ftequaicy Operation University of Tacmto

1.2 Thesis Focus

As it has been mentioned in the 1 s t seztion, in many advanced teiecommunication and

1.3 Thesis Overview

Chapter 2 identifies several specinc problems in the design of high fkquency

In Chapter 4 an aigorithm to generate design curves for traasformers, having as an input

Chapter 5 presents the conciusions and f h r e work that should be done.

2.2 Area Product

Consider a vertical section in a transformer as shown in Figure 2.1. According to

Figure 2.1 Cross-sectionai area and window area of a core.

The current in a given winding will be q u a i to:

The totai apparent power of the transformer will be:

The Choice ofthe Magnetic Material and Flux Density

MAGNETlZlNG FORCE (H)

Figure 2.2 Magnetizing curve for a magnetic material

Figure 2.3 - Performance factor for different magnetic materials '

a Hi& Frequency Operation

Figure 2.4 Specitic core loss for specific fiequencies2

Design of Low Profile Transformer~fot High Frequency Operation University ofToronto

In addition to the characteristics shown in Figure 2.3, it is also common for

2.4 The Choice of the Current Density

Revue of Available Design Methods

3.2 The Classical Design Approach

Design of Low Profile Transformers for High Frequency O p d m University ofTamto

The parameters in (3-2.2)are de- as fokws:

The current density J in the windings is detennined using:

The parameters in (3.2.9) and (3.2.10) are defined as foilows:

The parameters in (3.2.1 1) and (3 -2.12) are defïned as follows:

Reference [I 81, page 37.

Pa= = RP-=- 1: (3.2.15)

3.3 Classical Design Approach with Improved Estimate of Coi1 Loss

Figure 3.1 Approximation ofLitz wire with foil.

The parameters in (3.3.1) to (3.3.9) are defïned as foliows:

3.4 Optirnized Transformer Design Method

Design of Low Profile T d o n n a s f o High

B). The power equotion for a transformer: