.

0An Industrial mini project report

On

EARTHING AND GROUNDING PRACTISCES

A Disquisition submitted in partial fulfilment for the requirement of

Award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Electrical & Electronics Engineering
BY

S SRAVAN KUMAR - HT.NO:15D45A0207

Under the esteemed guidance of

CH SAI RAM
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Department of Electrical and electronics Engineering

SRI INDU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous Institution under UGC, New Delhi)
Recognized under 2(f) and 12(B) of UGC Act. 1956
Sheriguda village, Ibrahimpatnam, RR District – 501 510, T.S, INDIA

2014-2018

SRI INDU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

 (An Autonomous Institution under UGC, New Delhi)

Sheriguda, Ibrahimpatnam, R.R.District, 501 510

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work “EARTHING AND
GROUNDING PRACTISCES " being submitted by M PRADEEP
(15D45A0204), S SRAVAN KUMAR (15D45A0207) & R VENKATESH
(15D45A0209) in partial fulfilment of the academic requirements for the award of
Bachelor of technology in EEE, submitted to the Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Sri Indu College of Engineering & Technology,
Hyderabad during the period. 2015-2018.

Internal Examiner M. ShivaKumar

Dr.CH SAI RAM HOD, Dept of EEE
Professor, Dept of EEE Professor
SICET SICET

Co-ordinator External Examiner

 SOUTHERN POWER DISTRIBUTION COMPANY OF TELANGANA LTD.

CENTRAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE OF TELANGANA

#8-3-167/E/1,G.T.S.COLONY, VENGALRAO NAGAR, HYDERABAD-45. PH:040-23431126

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled “Earthing and grounding

practices” has been successfully carried out by in the partial fulfilment for the award of the

degree of bachelor of technology in Electrical& Electronics Engineering, Sri Indu College of

Engineering and technology, RangaReddy.

S SRAVAN KUMAR (15D45A0207)

At CPTI (Central Power Training Institute of

Telangana)/TSSPDCL/Hyderabad, with reference to: Lr.No:CGM(HRD)/GM(Adm)/AS(Est

t)/PO-D/472-D3/2016, Date:08.08.2017 under the guidance of Sri. RAJU

NAYAK/DE/EBC/TSSPDCL/HYD.

(SRI A. SRINIVASA RAO)

Place: Hyderabad
Divisional Engineer,
Date:
CPTI (Training)
TSSPDCL, Hyderabad.
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that work reported in the present thesis titled “EARTHING
AND GROUNDING PRACTISES” done by us in TSSPDCL, Hyderabad.

No part of the this is copied from books/journals/internet and where the

portion is taken the same has been duly referred in the text. The reported work
is based on the project work done entirely by us and not copied from other
source.

Signature of candidates

1………….……………...

2………….……………...

3………….……………...

4………….……………...

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 8 | 46
 Acknowledgment
With great pleasure, we want to take this opportunity to express our heartfelt gratitude
to all the people who helped in making this project work a grand success.

We are grateful to Mr. M. Shiva Kumar for his valuable suggestions and guidance
given by him during the execution of this paper work.

First of all, we would like to thank Mr. M. Shiva Kumar, Head of the Department of
Electrical & Electronics Engineering, for being moral support throughout the period of our
study in SICET.

We are highly indebted to Principal Prof. P. Mallesham, for giving us the permission
to carry out this project.

We would like to thank the Teaching & Non- teaching staff of Department of
Electrical & Electronics Engineering for sharing their knowledge with us.

Last but not the least; we express our sincere thanks to Mr. R. Venkat Rao,
Secretary, Sri Indu group of institutions, for his continuous care towards our achievements.

M. PRADEEP (15D45A0204)

S. SRAVAN KUMAR (15D45A0207)

R. VENKATESH (15D45A0209)

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 9 | 46
 ABSTRACT
The project deals with the analysis of EARTHING AND GROUNDING PRACTICES. In
today’s life electricity plays a very vital role. The demand of electricity is being increased day
by day. Therefore, many new projects are being introduced not only in town as well as in
remote areas also to avoid the fault current by constructing the earthing and their practices
The project work assigned to us was to do earthing and grounding practices. we consider the
measurement of the earth resistances in the generation station, it is possible to see that earth
resistance must be less due to the flow of fault current in the ground. We should construct the
earthing at least every 5 poles in the transmission. Maintain the earthing must due to avoid
the electric shock.
To avoid the electric losses and to control the fault current
into the ground we will use these earthing, we should keep the earth mat in the sub-stations
and other electric stations. We should construct the earthing different areas which type of
earthing is possible, while we constructing the earthing we have to use GI or copper pipe in
the earthing , while we constructing the earthing we have use the Bentonite powder, copper
or GI pipe electrode. To avoid the major accidents in the electric stations, we should have the
aware ness and protection of earthing and their practices in daily life.
This mini project covers the importance of Earthing and
Grounding practices. As part of case study and training takes place at CENTRAL POWER
TRAINING INSTITUTE(CPTI) OF TSSPDCL in Hyderabad.

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 10 | 46
 CONTENTS
DESCRIPTION PAGE.NO
1. CHAPTER: INTRODUCTION 01
1.1 EARTHING 01
1.2 GROUNDING 02
1.3 TERMINOLOGY 02
1.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUNDING AND 05
EARTHING
1.5 GENERAL REQUIRMENTS OF EARTHING 07
1.6 EARTH ELECTRODE 09
2. CHAPTER: EARTHING 11
2.1 EARTHING RESISTANCE AS PER IE RULE 11
2.2 EARHING AT CONSUMER PREMISES 12
2.3 EARTHING AT INDUSTIAL PREMISES 13
2.4 EARTHING SYSTEM IN SUB STATION 14
2.5 DANGER OF IMPERFECT EARTHING 14
2.6 EARTHING OF VARIOUS EQUIPMENT IN THE SUB- 15
STATIONS
2.7 PRECAUTIONS 16
3. CHAPTER: METHODS/TYPES OF EARTHING 17
3.1 PIPE EARTHING 17
3.2 PLATE EARTHING 18
3.3 STRIP EARTHING 20
3.4 COIL EARHING 21
3.5 MAINTENANCE FREE EARTHING 21
3.6 ADVANTAGES OF EARTHING 22

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e i | 46
4. CHAPTER: SOIL RESISTIVITY TESTING AND
METHODS

4.1 SOIL RESISTIVITY 23

4.2 SOIL TREATMENT 23
4.3 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE 24
4.4 MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE 25
a. THREE POINT METHOD
b. FOUR POINT METHOD
4.5 USE OF BENTONITE 27
5. CHAPTER: EARTH PIT & HUMAN ELECTRIC
SHOCK

5.1 MATERIALS USED IN EARTH PIT 28

5.2 HUMAN ELEMENT & ELECTRIC SHOCK 30
5.3 LIGHTENING ARRESTOR 31
6. CHAPTER: DO’S AND DONT’S 32
6.1 DO’S 32
6.2 DON’T’S 33
7. CHAPTER:APPLICATIONS 34

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e ii | 46
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1EARTHING:

What is meant by earthing?

Earthing implies connection of noncurrent carrying parts to ground like metallic enclosures.
Earthing is for human safety. Earthing is used to protect us from an electric shock. It does this
by providing a path for a fault current to flow to earth. It also causes the protective device to
switch off the electric current to the circuit that has the fault by help to fuse.
Earthing is a connection done through a metal link between the body of any electrical
appliance, or neutral point, as the case may be to the deeper ground through these metal links,
normally of MS flat, CI flat, GI wire penetrated to the earth grid.
Object of earthing is that all parts of apparatus other than live parts shall be at earth
potential. Earthing eliminates the possibility of any dangerous potential rise on the body of
electrical equipment. It drains away the charge on the equipment through an earth connection.
When an earth fault is occurred such as winding insulation failure etc. causes a heavy current
flow into the general mass of the earth. This causes blowing out of fuse or operation/ tripping
of protective devices. The potential under and around of the object shall be uniform nearly to
zero w.r.t. earth.
Apart from this it is to ensure that operators or working personnel shall be at earth
potential always, so that there will be no potential difference to cause shock or injury to a
person, whenever any short.
The primary requirements of a good earthing system are:
(1) It stabilizes circuit potential with respect to ground potential and limits the potential rise.
(2) It protects men & materials from injury or damage due to over voltage or touching.
(3) It provides low impedance path to fault currents to ensure prompt & consistent
operation of protective devices during earth fault.
(4) It keeps the maximum voltage gradient along the surface inside & around the substation
within safe limits during earth fault.
(5) It protects underground cables from overall ground potential rise & voltage gradient
during ground fault in the system.

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 1 | 46
1.2GROUNDING:
Grounding implies connection of current carrying parts to ground. It is mostly either
generator or transformer neutral. Hence it is generally called neutral grounding. Grounding is
for equipment safety. Grounding is shown in fig(a).

Fig (a)

1.3TERMINOLOGY:
For this standard, the following definitions shall apply.
1) Arc-Suppression Coil (Peterson Coil) - An earthing reactor so designed that its reactance
is such that the reactive current to earth under fault conditions balances the capacitance
current to earth flowing from the lines so that the earth current at the fault is limited to
practically zero.
2) Bonding Conductor — A protective conductor providing equipotential bonding.
3) Class I Equipment — Equipment in which protection against electric shock does not rely
on basic insulation only, but which includes means for the connection of exposed
conductive parts to a protective conductor in the fixed wiring of the installation.
4) Class II Equipment — Equipment in which protection against electric shock does not rely
on basic insulation only, but in which additional safety precautions such as supplementary
insulation are provided, there being no provision for the connection of exposed
metalwork of the equipment to a protective conductor, and no reliance upon precautions
to be taken in the fixed wiring of the installation.
5) Dead — The term used to describe a device or circuit to indicate that a voltage is not
applied.
6) Double Insulation — Insulation comprising both basic and supplementary insulation.
7) Earth — The conductive mass of the earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero.

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 2 | 46
8) Earth Electrode — A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with and
providing an electrical connection to earth.
9) Equipment Earthing- It comprises earthing of all metal work of electrical equipment other
than parts which are normally live or current carrying. This is done to ensure effective
operation of the protective gear in the event of leakage through such metal work, the
potential of which with respect to neighboring objects may attain a value which would
cause danger to life or risk of fire.
10) System Earthing- Earthing done to limit the potential of live conductors with respect to
earth to values which the insulation of the system is designed to withstand and to ensure
the security of the system.
11) Touch Voltage (E Touch) - The potential difference between a ground metallic structure
and a point on the earth’s surface separated by a distance equal to the normal maximum
horizontal reach of a person, approximately one meter is shown in below figure (b)

Fig (b)

12) Step Voltage (E Step) - The potential difference between two points on the earth's surface
separated by distance of one pace that will be assumed to be one meter in the direction of
maximum potential gradient is shown in below figure (c)

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 3 | 46
 Fig (c)
13) Mesh Voltage (E mesh) - The maximum touch voltage to be found within a mesh of an
earthing grid.
14) Earthed Concentric Wiring — A wiring system in which one or more insulated
conductors are completely surrounded throughout their length by a conductor, for
example, a sheath which acts as a PEN conductor.
15) Electrically Independent Earth Electrodes— Earth electrodes located at such a distance
from one another that the maximum current likely to flow through one of them does not
significantly affect the potential of the other(s).
16) Final Circuit — A circuit connected directly to current-using equipment or to a socket
outlet or socket outlets or other outlet points for the connection of such equipment.
17) Main Earthing Terminal — The terminal or bar (which is the cquipotential bonding
conductor)
18) provided for the connection of protective conductors and the conductors of functional
earthing, if any, to the means of earthing.
19) Residual Operating Current — Residual current which causes the residual current device
to operate under specified conditions.
20) Switchgear — An assembly of main and auxiliary switching apparatus for operation,
regulation, protection or other control of electrical installations.
21) Supplementary Insulation — Independent insulation applied in addition to basic
insulation, in order to provide protection against electric shock in the event of a failure of
basic insulation.

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 4 | 46
22) Protective Conductor — A conductor used as a measure of protection against electric
shock and intended for connecting any of the following parts:
a. Exposed conductive parts,
b. Extraneous conductive parts,
c. Main earthing terminal, and
d. Earthed point of the source or an artificial neutral.
23) PEN Conductor — A conductor combining the functions of both protective conductor and
neutral conductor.
24) Equipotential Line or Contour — The locus of points having the same potential at a given
time.
25) Earth Grid — A system of grounding electrodes consisting of inter-connected connectors
buried in the earth to provide a common ground for electrical devices and metallic
structures.
26) Earth Mat — A grounding system formed by a grid of horizontally buried conductors and
which serves to dissipate the earth fault current to earth and also as an equipotential
bonding conductor system.

1.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUNDING AND EARTHING:

Grounding:
1. Grounding implies connection of current carrying parts to ground. It is mostly either
generator or transformer neutral. Hence it is generally called neutral grounding.
Grounding is for equipment safety.
2. Grounding is done for protection of power system equipment and to provide a effective
return path from the machine to the power source.
3. During lightening dangerous high voltage can develop in the electrical distribution
system wires.
4. Grounding provides a safe return path around the electrical system of your house thus
minimizing damage from such occurrences.
There are three requirements for grounding:
a. Shall provide a low impedance path for the return of fault current, so that an over current
protection device can act quickly to clear the circuit.
b. Shall maintain a low potential difference between exposed metal parts to avoid personnel
hazards.

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 5 | 46
c. Shall control over voltage.
The below figure (d) shows grounding.

Fig (d)

Earthing:
1. Earthing means connecting the dead part (the one which does not carry current under
normal condition) to earth. For example electrical equipment frames etc.,
2. Under fault condition these parts may attain high potential w.r.t earth (ground) so any
living being touching these parts will be subjected to potential difference which may
result in floe of current of such a value which may prove to be fatal.
3. So earthing is to ensure safety or protection of electrical equipment and living being by
discharging electrical energy to earth (ground).
4. Under balanced operating conditions of power systems, earthing system does not play any
role. But under any ground fault condition, it enables the ground fault current to return
back to the source without endangering human safety. The below figure (e) shows the
circuit of earthing.

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 6 | 46
 Fig (e)

1.5 GENERAL REQUIRMENTS OF EARTHING

Earthing shall generally be carried out in accordance with the requirement of I.E. rules, 1956,
as amended from time to time and the relevant regulation of the electricity supply. Codes
/Standard given below may also be referred:

i) IS:3043 - Code of practice for earthing

ii) National Electricity Code - 1985 of BIS
iii) IEEE guide for safety in AC substation grounding no. ANSI/IEEE standard, 80-1986.
In cases where direct earthing may prove harmful rather than provide safety, relaxation may
be obtained from the competent authority.

 Earth electrodes shall be provided at generating stations, substations and consumer

premises in accordance with the requirements.
 A far as possible all earth connections shall be visible for inspection.
 All connections shall be carefully made. If they are not properly made or are inadequate
for the purpose for which they are intended, loss of life or serious personnel injury may
result.

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 7 | 46
  Each earth system shall be so devised that the testing of individual earth electrode is
possible. It is recommended that the value of any earth system resistance shall not be
more than 5 ohms unless otherwise specified.
 The minimum size of earthing lead used on any installations shall have a nominal cross-
section at areas of not less than 3.0 mm2 if of copper and 6.0 mm2 if of galvanized iron
or steel. The actual size will depend on the maximum fault current which the earthing
lead will be required to carry safely.
 It is recommended that a drawing showing the main earth connection and earth
electrode be prepared for each installation.
 No addition to the existing load whether temporary or permanent shall be made, which
may exceed the assessed earth fault or its duration until it is ascertained that the existing
arrangement of earthing is capable of carrying the new value of earth fault current
resulting due to such addition.
 All materials, fittings etc. used in earthing shall confirm to Indian Standard specification
wherever these exist. In the case of material for which Indian standard specifications
does not exists, the material shall be approved by the competent authority.
 An earthing electrode shall not be situated with in a distance of 1.5 meter from the
building whose installation system is being earthed.
 The earthing electrode shall always be placed in vertical position inside the earth or pit
so that it may not be in contact with all the different earth layers.
 The sensitivity of the protective equipment, system voltage and the maximum fault
current directly relate to permissible value of earth resistance. In case the earth exceeds
the permissible value, then in the event of earth fault, the fault current may not reach a
sufficient value to operate the protective equipment (such as fuses or relays) and
dangerous condition may arise.
 The earth wire and earth electrode will be of same material. The earth wire shall be
taken through G.I. pipe of 13 mm diameter for at least 30 cm length above and below
ground surface to the earth electrode to protect it against mechanical damage.

All the earth wires run along the various sub circuits shall be terminated and looped firmly at
the main board and from main board the main earth shall be taken to earth electrode. The
loop earth wires used shall not be either less than 2.9 mm2 (14 SWG) or half of the size of
the sub circuits conductor.

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 8 | 46
1.6 SELCTION OF EARTH ELECTRODE

LOCATION OF EARTH ELECTRODE

The location of earth electrode should be chosen in one of the following types of soil

 Wet marshy ground.

 Clay, loamy soil and arable land
 Clay and loam mixed with varying proportions of sand, gravel and stones.
 Damp and wet sand, peat. Dry sand, gravel chalk limestone, granite, very stone ground
and all locations where virgin rock is very close to the surface should be avoided.
ELECTRODE RESISTANCE TO EARTH

 Conventional practices to measure the earth resistance is by using ohm’s law. For
electrode resistance to earth, current is injected to earth by electrode and electric field
travels through the earth. The voltage appears at certain distance from electrode and the
resulting impedance is electrode resistance to earth. This is similar to CT, where the
flow of primary current results in voltage appearing across CT secondary. This drives
the current through the connected relay (burden) the below fig(f) shows the earth
resistance.

Fig(f)
EARTH ELECTRODE

It is a metal pipe, rod or other conductor which makes an effective connection with the
general mass of the earth. When a fault is passing, the potential of the electrode is much
above the general mass of the earth. The potential exists over an area in the vicinity of the

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 9 | 46
electrode. The potential gradient i.e. the voltage drop between two points on the earth surface
is high close around the electrode. It decreases as moved away from the electrode. Each
electrode has a resistance area within which the voltage gradient exists. The resistance areas
of two earth electrode should not overlap each other; otherwise the effectiveness of the
electrode is reduced. The recommended distance between the two electrodes is twice of its
length minimum, if the rod length is L, separation distance shall be 2L.
To obtain low effective earth grid resistance, electrodes are connected in parallel. The total
resistance will be half of individual Resistance. The below figure shows the earth electrode
distance

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 10 | 46
 CHAPTER 2: EARTHING
2.1 EARTHING RESISTANCE AS PER IE RULE:

EARTH RESISTANCE:

The earth resistance value at earth bus bar should be less than 0.5 ohms for major electrical
equipment & installation.

RULE No: 61
(A) Max: permissible resistance of earthing system.
 Large power station: 0.5 ohms.
 Major sub-station: 1.0 ohms.
 Small sub-station: 2.0 ohms.
 In all other cases: 8.0 ohms.
 The earth continuity inside an installation: 1.0 ohms.
(B) Connection with Earth:
Earthing of neutral conductor of a 3-phase, 4-wire system.
Earthing of all metal casing / covering of electric supply lines or apparatus. Testing of
such earth resistance not less than once in every two years during a dry day of a dry
season shall be conducted and recorded. Test results should be recorded and shall be
made available to the EIG or Assisting officer to EIG, when required

RULE No: 67
Connection to earth
All equipment’s associated with HV/EHV installation shall be earthed by not less than two
distinct and separate connections with the earth having its own electrode, except an earth mat.
Testing of such earth resistance not less than once in every year during a dry day of a dry
season shall be conducted & recorded

RULE No: 90.

Earthing
In distribution system, all metal supports and all reinforced/ pre-stressed cement concrete
supports of overhead line and metallic fittings attached shall be permanently and effectively
earthed. Each stay wire shall be similarly earthed unless insulators have been provided in it at

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 11 | 46
a height not less than three metres from the ground. Every 5th pole as a minimum shall be
grounded, if the foundations are not cements concrete block

RULE No: 91.

Safety and protective device
Every overhead line erected over any part of street or public place shall be protected with a
device, approved by the EIG, for rendering the line electrically harmless in case it brakes.
The owner of every high and extra high overhead line shall be protected to the satisfaction of
the EIG, to prevent unauthorized persons from ascending any of the supports of such
overhead lines.

RULE No: 92.

Protection against lightening:
 The owner of every overhead line which is so exposed, as may be liable to injury from
lightening, shall adopted efficient means for diverting to earth, any electrical surge
during lightening.
 The earthing lead for any lightening arrester shall not pass through any iron or steel
pipe but shall be taken as directed as possible from the lightening arrester to a separate
earthing electrode/ mat.

2.2 EARHING AT CONSUMER PREMISES

As per rule 33 (i) of I.E. rules 1956, the supplier shall provide and maintain at the consumer’s
premises for the consumer’s use a suitable earthed terminal in an accessible position at the
point of commencement of supply.
a) Overhead Service Connection Lines:
1. The earthed terminal may be a 32 mm x 3mm or near about, consisting of copper plate with
three number (16 mm) studs.
2. One of the studs on the earthed terminal should be connected to the neutral wire of the twin
core supply lead.
3. The bearer wire should be connected to the second stud of the earthed terminal.
4. The consumer’s installation should be connected to the third stud of the earthed terminal.

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 12 | 46
5. The bearer wire should not be used as the earth lead. The bearer wire should be earthed at
both the pole ends and the consumer’s premises and by connecting it to the overhead neutral
wire and to the earthed terminal respectively.
6. The size of the bearer wire should be stranded 7/20 G.I. or near about size.
7. The bearer wire and the W.P. cable should be bunched together by porcelain reel insulators
or alkathene clips intervals of 6.1
b) Underground Cables:
1. The terminal block for earth connection may be of size 31 mm x 3 mm or near about,
consisting of copper plate with three number 12.5 mm copper or brass studs with lock nuts or
spring washers.
2. The neutral core of the cable, the lead sheath, the steel armour and the cable box should be
connected to one of the studs on the earthed terminal.
3. The metal part of the board’s meter should be connected to the second stud of the earthed
terminal.
4. The consumer’s installation should be connected to the third stud of the terminal.

2.3 EARTHING AT INDUSTIAL PREMISES

In factories and workshops all metal conduits, trucking, cable sheaths, switchgear,
distribution fuse boards, starters, motors and all other parts made of metal shall be bonded
together and connected to an efficient earth system. The electricity regulations made under
the factories act require that adequate precautions shall be taken to prevent non-current-
carrying metalwork of the installation from becoming electrically charged.
In larger installations, having one or more substations, it is recommended to parallel all earth
continuity system.

2.4 EARTHING SYSTEM IN SUB STATION

The earthing system comprises of earthing (or) grid,

earthing electrodes, earthing conductors and earth connections.
Earth Mat or Grid:
The primary requirement of earthing is to have a very low earth resistance. If the individual
electrodes driven in the soil are measured it will have a fairly high resistance. But if these
individual electrodes area inter linked inside the soil, it increases the area in constant with soil
and creates a number or paralleled path and hence the value of earth resistance in the interlink

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 13 | 46
state, which is called combined earth resistance, will be muchlower than the individual
resistance.
However interlinking of earth pit electrodes is necessary. The sub-station involves many
earthing through individual electrodes. In order to have uniform interconnection, a mat or
grid or earthing conductor is formed inside the soil. Thus a mat is spread underneath the sub
station. Hence if a ground electrode is driven in the soil, the interlinking can be done by a
small link between that electrode and earth mat running nearby. The spreading of such a mat
in the soil also ensures the object of earthing that and surface under and around the sub-
station is kept at as nearly absolute earth potential as possible.

Earth Mat connection in a Sub-Station:

 The neutral point of such system through its own independent earth.
 Equipment frame work and other non-current carrying parts of the electrical
equipment’s in the substation.
 All extraneous metallic frame works not associated with equipment.
 Handle of the operating pipe.
 Fence if it is within 2 m from earth mat.

2.5 DANGER OF IMPERFECT EARTHING

 If the transformer neutral is not earthed properly, in the event of an earth fault in the
system a condition will occur resulting in high voltages resulting in irreparable damage to
the transformer.
 If lightning arrester earth is not proper, in the event of lightning discharge, the lightning
arrester will become in-effective and this may cause injury elsewhere in the equipment.
 In case air brake (AB) switch handle is not earthed properly, during the operation of the
AB switch, the touch voltage limits may not exceed and cause injury to the operator.
 In-effective earthing in a distribution system may, not only result in life hazards but also
may affect metering.

2.6 EARTHING OF VARIOUS EQUIPMENT IN THE SUB-STATIONS

a. Isolators and switches:

A flexible earth conductor is provided between the handle and earthing conductor attached to
the mounting bracket and the handle of switches is connected to earthing mat by means of
two separate distinct connections made with MS flat. One connection is made with the

SICET/DEPT.OF EEE P a g e 14 | 46
nearest longitudinal conductor, while the other is made to the nearest transverse conductor of
the mat.
b. Circuit Breakers:
For every breaker, there will be five earth connections to the earth mat with MS flat
(i) breaker body
(ii) relay panel
(iii) CTs of the breaker
(iv) Two side of the breaker structure.

c. Power Transformers
The tank of each transformer shall be directly connected to the main grid. In addition there
shall be as direct a connection as practicable from the tank to the earth side of projecting
lightning arrestors. The transformer track rails shall be earthed either separately or by
bonding at each end of the track and at intervals not exceeding 60.96 meter (200 feet).
The earthing of neutral bushing shall be by two separate strips to the earth grid and shall
likewise be run clear to rank cell and coolers.

d. Ground Wire
All ground wires over a station shall be connected to the station earth grid. In order that the
station earth potentials during fault conditions are not applied to transmission line ground
wires and towers, all ground wires coming to the station shall be broken at and insulated on
the station side of the first tower or pole external to the station by means of 10” disc insulator.

e. Current Transformers and Potential Transformers

The supporting structures of Current Transformer and Potential Transformer unit of bases, all
bolted cover plates to which the bushings are attached connected to the earthing mat by
means of two separate distinct connections made with MS flat. One connection is made with
the nearest longitudinal conductor, while the other is made to the nearest transverse conductor
of the mat.

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2.7 PRECAUTIONS
a. Always see that earthing requirements are observed without any compromise.
b. Never use an earth return to serve as neutral when tapping single phase supply.
c. Consumer neutral must always be maintained pucca and proper linkage with the system
neutral ensured.
d. Remember that earth wire will carry current during fault conditions and hence adequate
size of the wire should be used for earthing.
e. Remember that removal of the earth or improper maintenance of the earth system will
cause single voltages at some points which may cause over fluxing conditions on the
feeding power transformer and cause irreparable damages inside the power transformers.

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 CHAPTER 3: METHODS/TYPES OF EARTHING

3.1 PIPE EARTHING:

Pipe earthing is the best form of earthing and is very cheap in

cost. In this method of earthing, a galvanized and perforated pipe of approved length and
diameter is placed up right in a permanently wet soil. The size of pipe to use depends on the
magnitude of current and the type of soil. Usually the pipe used for this purpose is of
diameter 38 mm and 2.5 meters in length for ordinary soil or of greater length in case of dry
and rocky soil. The depth at which the pipe must be buried depends upon the moisture of the
ground. The pipe is placed at a depth of 3.75 meters. The pipe at the bottom is surrounded by
broken pieces of coke to increase the effective area of the earth and to the earth and to
decrease the earth resistance respectively. Another pipe of 19 mm diameter and minimum
length 1.25 meter is connected at the top to G I pipe through reducing socket. In our country
in summer the moisture in the soil decrease which cause increase in earth resistance. So a
cement concrete work, is done in order to keep the water arrangement accessible, and in
summer to have an effective earth, 3 or 4 buckets of water are put through the funnel
connected to 19 mm diameter pipe, which is further connected to G I pipe.

The earth wire (either G I wire or G I Strip of sufficient cross

section to carry faulty current safely) is carried in a G I pipe of diameter 13 mm at a depth of
about 60 mm from the ground). The below figure (g) shows pipe earthing.

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 Fig (g)

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3.2 PLATE EARTHING:
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed vertically
in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of earthing.
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of copper
with dimensions 60 cm x 60 cm x 12 mm or of galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60 cm x
60 cm x 6.35 mm is buried vertical in the earth which should not be less than 3m from the
ground level. The earth plate is embedded in alternate layers of coke and salt for a minimum
thickness of 15 cm. The earth wire is securely bolted to an earth plate with the help of a bolt,
nut and washer made of material of that of earth plate (made of copper in case of copper plate
earthing and of galvanized iron in case of G I plate earthing).
A small masonry brick wall enclosure with a cast iron
cover on top or an RCC pipe round the earth plate is provided to facilitate its identification
and for carrying out periodical inspection and tests.
For smaller installations G I pipe earthing is used and
for larger stations and transmission lines, where the fault current, likely to be high, plate
earthing is used. Below figure (h) shows the plate earthing.

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 Fig (h)

3.3 STRIP EARTHING:

In this method of earthing, strip electrodes of cross section not less
than 25 mm x 1.6 mm if of copper and 25 mm x 4 mm if galvanized iron or steel are buried in
horizontal trenches of minimum of depth 0.5 m. If round conductors are used, their cross-
sectional area shall not be smaller than 3.0 mm2 if of copper and 6 mm2 if of galvanized iron
or steel. The length of buried conductor shall be sufficient to give the required earth
resistance. It shall not be less than 15m.

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 This type of earthing is used at places which have rocky earth bed
because at such placed excavations work for plate earthing is difficult. And it is also called as
wire earthing. The below fig (i) shows the strip earthing.

Fig (i)

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3.4 COIL EARTHING :
In this type of earthing GI wire no.8 SWG is used in
the coil form instead of GI pipe. The pit for earthing is only 1800 mm depth and
600 mm section, the gi earth wire is wound in the form of a coil 50 mm DIA and
450 mm length and placed at the bottom vertically in the centre the GI wire from
the top of the coil extends right above the ground level and fixed firmly with the
bottom end of the earth wire embedded in the P.S.C. pole the surrounding space
around the coil is 350 mm dia is filled up by 300mm alternate layers of salt and
charcoal/coke up to 1500mm from the bottom. The top and remaining
surrounding space is filled up with loose earth
It may be mentioned here that proper connections and rigid joining must be done
in the earthing system, otherwise the purpose will not be served which the
earthing is provided.

3.5 MAINTENANCE FREE EARTHING:

In conventional earthing system GI pipe is used as earth electrode. It is provided with

charcoal and salt as conducting media, which provides a reasonable earth. Corrosion
of metallic parts is comparatively fast. It also requires maintenance by way of
watering of earth pits and chiselling of corrosion prone parts and replacement. It also
requires monitoring which may not always be feasible in certain crowded and
inaccessible areas. With technological developments in this field, modern
maintenance free and durable earthing system employs steel conductors as electrode
which are copper cladded and utilize graphitic compounds and non-corrosive salts as
“Ground Enhancing Material” which do not lead to corrosion. Such earth pits also do
not require the usual watering schedules to maintain the earth resistance with in
limits. Maintenance free earths are to be constructed as per RDSO’s specification no
.RDSO/ PE/ SPEC/ 0109-2008 (REV‘0’). Where the earth pits are not easily
accessible for schedule maintenance, maintenance free earth pits shall be provided.
In areas where clusters of earth pits are required to keep the earth resistance low,
provision of maintenance free earth pits should be made during initial installation.
Below figure (j) shows maintenance free earthing.

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 fig (j)

3.6 ADVANTAGES OF EARTHING

Reduced operation & maintenance cost
Reduction in magnitude of transient over voltages.
Improved lightning protection.
Simplification of ground fault location.
Improved system and equipment fault protection.
Improved service reliability
Greater safety for personnel & equipment
Prompt and consistent operation of protective devices during earth fault.

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CHAPTER 4: SOIL RESISTIVITY TESTING AND METHODS

Soil resistivity testing is the process of measuring a volume of soil to determine the
conductivity of soil. The resulting soil resistivity is expressed in ohm-meter or ohm-
centimetre.
Soil resistivity testing is the single most critical factor in electrical
grounding design. Good soil models are the basis of all grounding designs are they are
developed from accurate soil resistivity testing.

4.1 SOIL RESISTIVITY:

The resistance to earth of a given electrode depends upon the electrical
resistivity of the soil in which it is installed. This factor is therefore, important in deciding
which of many protective systems to adopt. It is a critical factor in design of systems that rely
on passing current through the earth’s surface. An understanding if soil resistivity and how it
varies with depth in the soil is necessary to design the grounding system in an electrical
substation, or for lighting conductors. It is needed for design of grounding electrodes for
substations and high voltage direct current transmission systems. It also can be a useful
measure in agriculture as a proxy measurement for moisture content.
The most substations the earth is used to conduct fault current when there
are ground faults on the system. In single wire earth return power transmission systems, the
earth itself it is used as the path of conduction from the end customers back to the
transmission facility.

Earth conductivity is, however, essentially electrolytic in nature and

is affected, by the moisture content of the soil and by the chemical composition and
concentration of salts dissolved in the contained water. Grain size and distribution, and
closeness of packing are also contributory factors since they control the manner in which the
moisture is held in the soil. Many of these factors vary locally and some seasonally so that the
table should only be taken as a general guide which is shows in below table.

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 The type of soil largely determines its resistivity is given in below table:
Types of Soil Resistivity:

Sl. Type of soil Resistivity in

No. Ohm-cm

1 Loamy garden soil 500 – 5000

2 Clay 800 – 5000

3 Clay, Sans and Gravel mix 4000 – 25000

4 Sand and Gravel 6000 – 10000

5 Slates, Slab sand stone 1000 – 50000

6 Crystalline Rock 20000 – 100000

4.2 Soil Treatment:

a) When the soil resistance is high, even the multiple electrodes in large number may also
fail to produce low resistance to earth. To reduce the resistivity of soil immediately
surrounding the electrode some salt substances are made available as a solution with
water. The substances are used salt sodium chloride (NaCl), Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), copper sulphate (CuSO4) and soft cock and charcoal in
suitable proportion.
b) Nearly 90% of resistance between electrode and soil is within a radius of two meters
from electrode/ rod. Treating this soil will result in required reduction in earth resistance
by excavation of one meter diameter around top of the electrode/ rod to 30 cm deep and
applying artificial soil treatment agency and watering sufficiently.
c) General practice to treat the soil surrounding the ground electrode with common salt,
charcoal and soft cock in order to bring down the earth resistance. These conventional
methods are effective in soils of moderately high resistivity up to 300 ohm-meter. When
the soil resistivity exceeds this value, these conventional methods of chemical treatment
will be inadequate to get desired value of earth resistance

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4.3 Effect of Temperature:
The temperature coefficient of resistivity for soil is negative, but is
negligible for temperatures above freezing point. At about 200 C the water in the soil begins
to freeze and introduce a tremendous increase in the temperature coefficient. The resistivity
changes 9% per degree C. Below 0-degree C resistivity rises abnormally.

4.4 Measurement of earthing Resistance:

1. Three point Method
2. Four point Method

A. Three point Method:

1. In this method earth tester terminal C1&P1 are shorted to each other and connected to
earth electrode under test.
2. Terminals P2 & C2 are connected to the two separate apikes driven in earth. These two
spikes are kept in same line at the distance if 25 meters and 50m due to which there will not
be mutual interference in the field of individual spikes.
The fig (k) shows the three point method

Fig (k)

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B. Four point Method:
1. in this method 4spikes are driven in earth in same line at the equal distance Outer two
spikes are connected to C1 & C2 terminals of earth tester.
The fig (l) shows the four point method

Fig (l)

4.5 FACTORS WHICH DETERMINE RESISTIVITY OF SOIL

The resistivity of soil for earthing system depends upon the following factors:
1. Type of soil.
2. Moisture content.
3. Chemical composition of salt dissolved in the contained water.
4. Concentration of salt.
5. Temperature of material.
6. Grain size and distribution of grain size.
7. Size and spacing of earth electrodes.

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Max: permissible resistance of earthing system.
1. Large power station: 0.5 ohms.
2. Major sub-station: 1.0 ohms.
3. Small sub-station: 2.0 ohms.
4. In all other cases: 8.0 ohms.
5. The earth continuity inside an installation: 1.0 ohms

4.5 Use of Bentonite:

 Bentonite is clay with excellent electrical properties. It swells to several times its
original volume when suspended in water. It binds the water of crystallization and the
water absorbed during the mixing process is retained over a long period. Bentonite
suspension in water when used to surround the earth electrode virtually increases the
electrode surface area.
 Use of bentonite around the earth electrode results in reduction of ground resistance by
about 25- 30 %.
 Bentonite has a tremendous capacity to absorb water and retain it over a long period.
 Even during the summer months, bentonite suspension retains the moisture whereas the
natural soil dries up.
 Bentonite may be used to advantage in rocky terrain.

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CHAPTER 5: EARTH PIT & HUMAN ELECTRIC SHOCK

5.1 Materials used in earth pit

The materials used in earth pit are:

a. Earthing pipe
b. Earthing strips
c. Earthing wire
d. Earthing plates
e. Bakelite powder

a. Earthing Pipes:
Also called Pipe Electrodes, these are used widely in power transmission applications.
Our hot dipped GI and Copper earthing pipes with funnel are robust in construction,
easy to install and durable in performance provide good earthing. These are fabricated
using premium quality raw material and are available in sizes like 20mm dia, 50mm
Dia, 65mm dia and 75mm dia in lengths varying from 1 meter to 3 meters or as desired.
Our pipe electrodes are accurate in dimension, corrosion resistant and high in tensile
strength.

b. Earthing Strips:
We bring forth a range of earthing strips in various sizes and specifications to meet the
diverse requirements of the clients. Their thickness may vary from 3mm to 6mm and
width from 15mm to 100mm. Our strips are made of good quality GI, Copper or
Aluminium. The strips have good thermal and electrical conductivity. Our earthing
strips are dimensionally accurate, robust in construction, corrosion free and durable in
performance.

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 c. Earthing Wire :
Earthing wires made of GI or Copper are extensively used in various electrical,
electronic and automobile equipment. Made in various sizes using the premium grade
galvanized metal, these GI earthing wires offer high durability and excellent shock
resistance. Further, these are well checked on various quality parameters before being
delivered to our clients.
d. Earthing Plates:
Earthing plates may be made of GI, CI or Copper as required. We are engaged in
providing a gamut of earthing plates in various sizes as per the clients' specification and
requirements. Our range of earthing plates is widely demanded in the market owing to
their features of corrosion resistance, shock resistance and high durability. Extensively
used for industrial purposes, these are in strict compliance with set industrial standards.

In olden days we have used char coal and salt in the earth pit for lowering the resistance
value in 1:1 ratio but due to these following reasons they are not used

 Char coal stores the water poured into earth pit and lowers the resistance in the same
way the water stored there causes the rusting of the earth electrode resulting the
failure of earthing.
 Salt is also used for lowering the resistance value but it eats away the conductor
resulting failure of the earthing.

To over come these problems now we are using bentonite powder by mixing it with soil in
1:3 ratio.

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5.2 HUMAN ELEMENT & ELECTRIC SHOCK:

Electric shock is possible only when the human body bridges two points of unequal potential
as shown in fgure-4. Maximum tolerable current for human body is 160 mA for one second.
If this limit exceeds, it will result in death due to ventricular fibrillation (heart attack).
Allowable body current IB (Amperes) for two body weights, as per IEEE STD: -80 are given:
IB = 0.116/ ÖTS for body weights of 50kg
= 0.157 / ÖTS for body weight of 70kg.
TS = Duration of current exposure (fault clearance time).
TS IB (50kg) IB (70kg).
0.2sec 259 mA 351 mA.
0.5sec 164 mA 222 mA.
1.0sec 116 mA 157 mA.

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5.3 Lightning Arresters:
Lightning Arresters Typical Lightning Arrester, also called Surge Arrester, comprises a high
voltage terminal made of Copper of Aluminium mounted on top of a building. It is
electrically connected to the ground terminal through a wire to protect the building in the
event of lightning. If lightning strikes the building, it will preferentially strike the lightning
rod and be conducted harmlessly to ground through the wire, instead of passing through the
building where it could start a fire or cause electrocution. Lightning arresters can be
commonly seen mounted on tall buildings, monuments, towers, water tanks etc.

A very important point worth noting in this regard is that a lightning arrester or lightning
protection system as a rule never stops the action and effects of lightning. However, it
provides ample protection and insurance against the damage to the building and electrical
devices. Our lightning arresters are a guarantee to this.

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 CHAPTER 6: DO’S AND DONT’S

6.1 DO’S:

1. Ensure that the electrodes are embedded below permanent moisture level.
2. Inspect earth electrode regularly.
3. Ensure that every earth wire shall be of copper, galvanized iron or steel.
4. Ensure good and reliable electrical connection between earthing leads and earth
electrodes.
5. Ensure that path of earth wire should be as far as possible, out of reach of any person.
6. Consider all parameters while designing earth system.
7. Ensure the size of earth wire should be proper and according to IS 3043 (Code of practice
for earthing and IE rules)
8. Ensure that all materials, fittings etc. used in earthing system shall confirm to IS
specification wherever they exist.
9. Ensure safety while working on electrical installations.
10. Ensure that as far as possible all earth terminals should be visible.
11. Ensure that voltage between neutral to earth should be below 2.0 volts

6.2 DON`T:

1. Don’t connect single pole switch or fuse in a neutral circuit. Always connect it in the live
or phase wire circuit.
2. Don’t renew a blown fuse until you are satisfied as to the cause of its blowing and also as
to the removal of the cause.
3. Don’t use copper or aluminum wire as substitute for fuse wire.
4. Don’t touch or tamper with any electrical gear or conductor unless you have made sure
that it is dead and earthed. High voltage apparatus may give shock or flashover without
touching.
5. Don’t disconnect earthing connections or render ineffective the safety gadgets installed
on mains and apparatus till you are at work.
6. Don’t expose your eyes to an electric arc. Painful injury may result even with short
exposure.

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7. Don’t take unnecessary risk with electricity. Low voltage under certain circumstances can
be dangerous.
8. Don’t use paint, enamel and grease on the electrodes.
9. Don’t use neutral conductor as earth wire.
10. Don’t use water pipe line for earthing.
11. Don’t make series connections for earth path.

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 CHAPTER 7: APPLICATIONS

7.1APPLICATIONS:
1. Sub stations & switching stations
2. Remote Terminal Units
3. Transformer & Generator neutral earths
4. Lightning arrester earths
5. Equipment earths include panel
6. Earthing is used to protect you from electric shock
7. It is used to protect human lives as well as provide safety to electrical devices and
appliances from leakage currents.
8. It is used to avoid the risk of fire in electrical installation system.
9. It is used to protect electric system and buildings from lighting.
10. To serve as a return conductor in electric traction system and communication.

7.2 CONCLUSION:
From the above methods of grounding the maintenance free earthing is much better.

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