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CHAPTER 2
CELL STRUCTURES & THEIR FUNCTIONS

CHEMISTRY
 Possible to understand cells
 Cells are composed of chemicals
 Chemicals = responsible for many of the cell’s characteristics

CELLS
 Basic living unit of life
 Human = trillions of cells + acts as a host to countless other organisms
 Determines the form and function of the human body
 1/5 of the size of the smallest you can make on a sheet of paper
 Complex living structures
 Many characteristics in common
 Most cells are specialized to perform specific fxns
 A highly organized unit

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ORGANELLES
 Performs specific fxns

NUCLEUS
 An organelle containing cell’s genetic material

CYTOPLASM
 Living material surrounding the nucleus
 Contains many types of organelles

CELL MEMBRANE
 Plasma membrane
 Where the cytoplasm is enclosed

ORGANELLES LOCATION FUNCTION/S

Nucleus Often near the center  Genetic material of
cell (DNA) & nucleoli
 RNA synthesis &
ribosomal subunit
assembly
Ribosomes Cytoplasm  Protein synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic Cytoplasm  Many ribosomes
Reticulum attached
 Protein synthesis
Smooth Endoplasmic Cytoplasm  Lipid synthesis
Reticulum  Detoxification
Golgi Apparatus Cytoplasm  Modifies protein
structure
 Packages protein in
secretory vesicles
Secretory Vesicles Cytoplasm  Materials produced in
cell

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 Formed by Golgi
apparatus
 Secreted by
exocytosis
Lysosome Cytoplasm  Enzymes that digest
material taken into
the cell
Mitochondrion Cytoplasm  Aerobic respiration
 ATP synthesis
Microtubule Cytoplasm  Supports cytoplasm
 Assists in cell division
 Forms components of
cilia & flagella
Centriole Cytoplasm  Facilitates the
movement of
chromosomes during
cell division
Cilia On cell surface w/ many on  Move substances over
each cell surfaces of certain
cells
Flagella On sperm cell surface w/ one  Propel sperm cells
per cell
Microvilli Extensions of cell surfaces w/  Increase surface area
many on each cell of certain cells

DETERMINING SPECIFIC STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS

1. Number of organelles
2. Types of organelles
e.g. cells secreting large amts of protein = well-developed organelles that synthesize &
secrete protein
muscle cells = proteins and organelles that enable them to contract

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FUNCTIONS
1. Cell metabolism & energy use
 Cell metabolism – chemical rxns that occur w/in cells
 Energy released = for cell activites
- Synthesis of new molecules
- Muscle contraction
- Heat production -> regulates body temperature

2. Synthesis of molecules
 Synthesizes protein, nucleic acids, & lipids
 Diff cells = do not all produce the same molecules
 Structural & fxnal characteristics = types of molecules produced

3. Communication
 Produce & receive chemical & electrical signals
 Allows them to communicate w/ one another
e.g. nerve cells = communicate w/ one another
w/ muscle cells = muscle cells contract

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4. Reproduction & Inheritance

 (Cells) Copy of genetic info of individual
 (Specialized cells) Transmit the info to next generation

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CELL MEMBRANE
 Plasma membrane
 Outermost component of cell
 Encloses the cytoplasm
 Forms boundary bet. material inside & outside of it
 Extracellular substances – substance outside of cell
 Intracellular substances – substance inside of cell
 Supports cell contents
 Acts as selective barrier that determines what moves into and out of the cell
 Plays a role in communication bet. cells
 Molecules:
- (major) Phospholipids, proteins
- Cholesterol, carbohydrates

FLUID-MOSAIC MODEL
 Phospholipids form a double layer of molecules
Lipid barrier between the inside & outside of cell
 Hydrophilic
- Water-loving
- Polar, phosphate-containing ends
- Face the cellular & intracellular fluids
 Hydrophobic
- Water-fearing
- Non-polar, fatty acids
- Face away from the fluid on either side of the membrane towards the center
of the double layer
 Molecules
- Cholesterol – added strength & flexibility
- Protein – “float”; extend from inner to outer surface of cell membrane
= membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor molecules,
enzymes, or structural support
- Carbohydrates – bound to some protein molecules (modifies fxn)
 Membrane channels (+ carrier molecules)
- Movement of substances thru cell membrane
 Receptor molecules
- Part of intercellular communication system
- Enables cell recognition & coordination of the activities of cells
e.g. nerve cell = release a chemical messenger that moves to a muscle cell
= temporarily binds to a receptor on the muscle cell membrane
- Binding – signal that triggers a response (contraction of the muscle cell)

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MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE

Selectively Permeable
 Allow some substances, but not others, to pass into or out of the cells

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 Intracellular material = different composition than extracellular material

 Cell’s survival = depends on maintaining the difference
 Intracellular – enzymes, glycogen, potassium ions
 Extracellular – sodium, calcium, chloride
 Nutrients in, waste out
 Permeability + ability to transport certain molecules = able to maintain proper
intracellular concentrations of molecules
 Disruption/cause of death of a cell
1. Rupture of membrane
2. Alteration of its permeability characteristics
3. Inhibition of transport processes

MEMBRANE TRANSPORTS
Passive
 Does not require the cell to expend energy
 Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

Active
 Does require the cell expend energy (ATP)
 Active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis

TYPES TRANSPORT REQUIRES ATP? EXAMPLES

Diffusion With the concentration No O2, CO2, Cl-, urea
gradient thru the lipid
portion of the cell
membrane or thru
membrane channels
Osmosis With the concentration No Water
gradient (for water) thru
the lipid portion of the
cell membrane or thru
membrane channels
Facilitated Diffusion With the concentration No Glucose in most cells
gradient by carrier
molecules
Active Transport Against (or sometimes Yes Na+, K+, Ca2+, H+,
with) the concentration amino acids
gradient by carrier
molecules
Secondary Active Against the Yes Glucose, amino acids
Transport concentration gradient
by carrier molecules;
Energy for secondary
active transport of one
substance comes from
the concentration
gradient of another
Endocytosis Movement into cells by Yes Ingestion of particles
vesicles by phagocytosis or
receptor-mediated
endocytosis & liquids
by pinocytosis

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Exocytosis Movement out of cells Yes Secretion of proteins

by vesicles

SOLUTION
 Generally composed of one or more substances (solutes) dissolved in the predominant
liquid or gas (solvent)

 Diffusion
- Solutes moving from a higher concentration to a lower concentration
- Results from natural, constant random motion of all solutes in a solution
- More solute particles occur in higher conc. than in lower conc.
- Moves randomly = higher to lower > lower to higher
- Important means of transporting thru the extra- & intracellular fluids
- Substances (nutrients & some waste products) can diffuse into & out of the
cell
- Normal intracellular conc. of many substances = diffusion
 At equilibrium
- Net movement stops
- Movement of solutes in one directions = balanced in the opp. Direction
 Concentration gradient
- Difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent bet. 2 points divided by
the distance bet. the 2 points
- Steeper when the difference is larger/distance is smaller
- Substance moves down (or w/) the gradient = higher to lower
- Substance moves up the gradient = lower to higher
Does not occur by diffusion
Requires energy
 Phospholipid bilayer
- Barrier to most water-soluble substances
 Small, water-soluble substances can diffuse bet. the phospholipid molecules
of cell membranes
 Channels – where other water-soluble substances pass through
= consists of large protein molecules that extend from one surface
of cell membranes to the other
= several channel types = allows only certain substances to pass thru
= size, shape, charge of a molecule
e.g. Na+ = Na+ channels; K+ = K+ channels; Cl- = Cl- channels
= rapid movement of water across cell membrane also occurs here
 Lipid-soluble molecules = readily pass thru the phospholipid bilayer
= O2, CO2, steroids

 Leak Channels – constantly allows ions to pass through

 Gated Channels – limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and
closing

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OSMOSIS
 Diffusion of water across a selectively-permeable membrane
 Higher water concentration to lower water concentration
 Water can pass thru either bet. phospholipid molecules or water channels
 Important to cells = large volume changes caused by water movement can disrupt cell
fxns

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 Occurs when cell membrane is less permeable, selectively permeable, or not permeable
to solutes
 A conc. gradient for water exists across the cell membrane
 H2O diffuses from solution w/ higher water conc. across the cell membrane into a solution
w/ lower water conc.
 Ability to predict direction of water movement = depends on knowing w/c solution on
either side of the membrane has the higher water conc.
 Conc. of solution = expressed in solute conc. (not in water conc.)

Osmotic Pressure
 Force required to prevent the movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane
 Measure of tendency of water to move by osmosis across a selectively permeable
membrane
- Measured by placing a solution into a tube that is closed at one end and
immersing the tube in distilled water
- Water molecules move by osmosis thru the membrane into the tube, forcing
the solution to move up the tube
- Net movement stops when hydrostatic pressure in the tube causes water to
move out of the tube at the same rate at w/c it diffuses into the tube by
osmosis
- Osmotic pressure = hydrostatic pressure
 Greater conc. = greater osmotic pressure = greater tendency of water to move into
solution
 Less concentrated solutions (less solute, more water) to more concentrated solutions
(more solute, less water)

Hydrostatic pressure
 Moves water out of the tube back into the distilled water surrounding the tube

Hypotonic
 Lower concentration of solutes + higher concentration of water relative to cytoplasm
 Water has less tone or osmotic pressure than the cell
 Cell swells
 Hemolysis

Isotonic
 Equal concentrations
 Neither shrinks or swells

Hypertonic
 Higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water relative to cytoplasm
 Water has more tone than cell
 Cell shrinks
 Crenation

 Solutions injected to the blood vessels or tissues must be isotonic to the body’s cells
because swelling or shrinking disrupts normal cell function & can lead to death

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