AREAS OF GENETICS to explain such phenomena as adaptation

1. CLASSICAL GENETICS and speciation.

consists of the techniques and
methodologies of genetics that predate the 8. ECOLOGICAL GENETICS
advent of molecular biology. builds upon the basic principles of
population genetics but is more explicitly
2. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS focused on ecological issues.
studies the influence of varying genetics While molecular genetics studies the
on animal behavior. structure and function of genes at a
studies the effects of human disorders as molecular level, ecological genetics
well as its causes. focuses on wild populations of organisms,
answers some very interesting questions and attempts to collect data on the
about the evolution of various behavior . ecological aspects of individuals as well as
molecular markers from those individuals.
3. CLINICAL GENETICS
Physicians who are trained as Geneticists APPLICATIONS
diagnose, treat, and counsel patients with Plant and Animal Improvement
genetic disorders or syndromes. Medicine
Genetic Engineering
4. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Genetic Counselling
builds upon the foundation of classical Legal Applications
genetics but focuses on the structure and
function of genes at a molecular level. APPROACHES TO GENETICS
It employs the methods of both classical  TRANSMISSION GENETICS
genetics (such as hybridization) and Patterns of inheritance of traits are
molecular biology. examined.
Experiments are designed so that the
5. MOLECULAR SYSTEMATICS transmission of traits from parents to
use of molecular information to determine offspring can be analyzed through several
the patterns of descent, and therefore the generations
correct scientific classification of  PEDIGREE ANALYSIS
organisms tool used in transmission genetics
Leads to inferences concerning the mode
6. EPIGENETICS of inheritance of a particular trait
study of inherited features not strictly  CYTOGENETICS
associated with changes in the DNA Study of chromosome structure and
sequence behavior during cell division
Karyotype - tool used in cytogenetics
7. POPULATION GENETICS - illustrates the
studies the distribution of and change in chromosomes of any
allele frequencies of genes under the species arranged in a
influence of the four evolutionary forces: standard sequence
natural selection, genetic drift, mutation  MOLECULAR GENETIC ANALYSIS
and migration. It is the theory that attempts
Includes information on the nature,
expression, replication, regulation of the
genetic information.
Includes also determination of nucleotide
sequences
 RECOMBINANT DNA STUDIES
tool used in molecular genetic studies
genes from another organism are spliced
into bacterial or viral DNA and cloned
 DNA BIOTECHNOLOGY
allows the cloning, identifying, sequencing,
and manipulation of the genes.
CELL DIVISION
INTERPHASE
G1
 Materials needed for cell division are
synthesized or acquired.
 The cell is allowed to grow to a proper
size and receives the necessary signals
to proceed to cell division.
 Nucleus and cytoplasm are enlarging
towards mature size
 Chromatin is fully extended and thus
not distinguishable
 Synthesis of enzymes necessary for
DNA synthesis
 Synthesis of proteins that initiate DNA
synthesis and those that trigger nuclear
division
S (SYNTHESIS) PHASE
 Synthesis of DNA takes place at this
stage.
 Replication of DNA and synthesis of
histones
 Maturation of daughter centrioles
 RNA synthesis (about the same rate as
G1 and G2)
 Rapid rise in DNA polymerase
synthesis and RNAs needed for the
degeneration of nuclear membrane
G2
• RNA synthesis (in lesser amounts)
• Centrioles separate in two pairs
• Synthesis of RNA require to direct the
synthesis of proteins necessary for
mitosis.
G0 Phase
 The Go phase is a substage in the
interphase stage entered into by cells
that will differentiate or specialize.
 The cells that enter this stage are
metabolically active but they do not
replicate their DNA anymore
 Examples of such cells are the cells of
our muscles, nerves, brain, heart, and
eyes.
PROPHASE
 Nuclear membrane starts to
disintegrate.
 Nucleolus starts to disappear.
 Chromosomes start to condense.
 Centrosomes start to move on opposite
poles and mitotic spindle begins to form
 Spindle formed from microtubules
 Tubulin proteins
 3 types of microtubules
 Astral – position spindle in cell
 Polar – separate 2 poles
  Kinetochore – attached to
kinetochore bound to centromeres of
each chromosome
 Sister chromatids are separated from
 Spindle fibers not attached to
 Cytokinesis starts with the arrival of the
PROMETAPHASE
 Chromosomes continue to coil and
supercoil.
 Mitotic spindle is completely formed
during this phase
 Chromosomes start to move towards
the metaphase plate (The midline
region of the cell; plane that lies
perpendicular to the axis established by
the spindle)
 Spindle fibers interact with sister
chromatids
 Two kinetochores (a constricted portion
of the chromosome where the spindle
fibers attach during cell division) on
each pair of sister chromatids attach to
kinetochore microtubules from opposite
poles
METAPHASE
 Chromosomes are at their thickest and
shortest.
 Chromosomes are aligned at the
metaphase plate at random.
ANAPHASE
 Spindle fibers shorten and pull the
chromosomes towards the opposite
pole of the cell.
each other.
chromosomes interact and lengthen to
push the poles of the cell apart, forcing
the cell into an oval shape. This is the
start of cytokinesis.
chromosomes on opposite poles. This
is evidenced by the presence of a
cleavage furrow.
 In cytokinesis, microfilaments attach
to the plasma membrane and form a
ring around the equator of the cell.
 The ring contracts and constricts the
cell’s equator.
 Eventually, it is constricted and the
cell is divided into new daughter
cells.
 In plants, cell plate forms a cell wall
between the two daughter cells; an
additional structure called cell wall is
found. This makes it impossible to
divide the cell into 2 by just pinching
the cell at the middle part.
 Instead, a carbohydrate-filled
vesicles, which bud off the golgi
complex, line up along the cell’s
equator between the two nuclei. The
vesicles then fuse producing a cell
plate.
TELOPHASE
 Reorganization stage of cell division.
 Spindle fibers disintegrate.
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
reappear.
 Chromosomes revert back to their
extended state.
 Diakinesis
 Progressive shortening
 the chiasmata move along the length of
each structure until they reach the ends
of the chromosomes (terminalization).
 the nucleoli and nuclear membrane
break down so that the cell can enter
the next stages of meiosis I.

PROMETAPHASE I
 The nuclear membrane disappears.
One kinetochore forms per
PROPHASE I chromosome rather than one per
Leptotene chromatid, and the chromosomes
 Condensation: threads of DNA wrapped attached to spindle fibers begin to move
in nuclear proteins and histones towards the metaphase plate.
gradually become visible because they  Note: the chromosomes are still in their
start to coil. bivalent form.
Zygotene
 Polarity METAPHASE I
 Chromosomes start to pair up with their  Bivalents, each composed of two
homologous partner (synapsis) chromosomes (four chromatids) align at
 Formation of bivalents/tetrad (Bivalents the metaphase plate. The orientation is
consist of two chromosomes (each one random, with either parental homologue
consisting of two chromatids) bound on a side. This means that there is a
together at certain points; each 50-50 chance for the daughter cells to
chromosome comes from a different get either the mother's or father's
parent) homologue for each chromosome.
 Formation of synaptonemal complex.
This complex extends the length of the ANAPHASE I
chromosome pair and is attached to the  Chiasmata separate. Chromosomes,
nuclear envelope. each with two chromatids, move to
Pachytene separate poles. Each of the daughter
 one of the longest stages of Prophase I cells is now haploid (half the
 biological information is exchanged chromosome number), but each
between chromosome pairs (crossing- chromosome has two chromatids. (This
over). is the reason why a 2nd division has to
Diplotene take place.)
 dissolving and breaking down of the
synaptonemal complex occurs at this TELOPHASE I
stage  Unlike in mitosis where the telophase
 The homologous chromosomes move stage reverts the cell back to its original
apart but they do not separate entirely. appearance, in telophase of the 1st
 meiotic division, the cell immediately
proceeds to the next division.
PROPHASE II
 Prophase II is a fast stage because the
cellular contents has just come from a
preceding division and therefore are
prepared already.
 Remember at this point onwards, the
cell is already haploid and that the
events that will take place is the same
as in mitotic division.
METAPHASE II
 Chromosomes align at the metaphase
plate.
 There are no homologues here now so
there are no bivalents anymore.
ANAPHASE II
 The sister chromatids are separated
from each daughter as an effect of the
shortening of the spindle fibers.
 no 2 daughter chromatids are the
same here.
TELOPHASE II
 Telophase II reorganizes the cell and
ends with the formation of 4 daughter
cells, each one different from the other.
THE INTERPHASE NUCLEUS
In eukaryotes:
1. DNA is separated from the
cytoplasm by the nuclear envelop.
2. transcribes RNA separately from
proteins.
3. chromatin can be present in
condensed form (heterochromatin)
and in dispersed form
(euchromatin). Heterochromatin
tends to be attached to the internal
side of the nuclear envelop except at
areas where there are nuclear pores.
4. nucleoplasm contains electron dense
granules, some of which contains
RNA. These granules may be
ribonucleoproteins (RNP) that
probably contain the mRNA
precursors.
5. contains a nuclear matrix or skeleton
that is protein in nature – the nuclear
lamina, which is attached to the
internal side of the nuclear envelop.
The nuclear lamina
1. separates heterochromatin from the
inner nuclear membrane.
2. also called fibrous lamina .
3. has 3 polypeptides called lamins A,
B, C. At the start of prophase they
start to depolymerize. At telophase,
they re-polymerize around the
nuclear periphery.
4. lamin B – associated with membrane
vesicles during mitosis which in turn
might remain as components from
which the nuclear envelop is
assembled.
Lamins A and C – become entirely
soluble during mitosis and at
telophase they become
dephosphorylated again and
polymerize around the chromatin.
The Chromatin
1. contains DNA, RNA, basic proteins
called histones and non-histones.
Histones are small proteins that have a
high content of the amino acids
arginine and lysine. It binds tightly to
DNA.
H2A, H2B, H3, H4 are the main types of
histones. They are very similar in
different species because they are
the most conserved proteins. They
occur 2/200 bp in DNA.
Non-histones are very heterogenous.
They vary in different tissues and
include RNA and DNA polymerase
among other enzymes.
2. has a repeating structure of beads
about 10 nm in diameter connected
by a string of DNA.
Eukaryotes require chromatin because
they contain a large amount of DNA,
which must be tightly packed during
cell division. In prokaryotes, the DNA
divides without changing its
condensation state. They don’t have
histones and they are not neutralized
by basic proteins but by polyamines.
The Nucleosome
1. made up of 4 histones arranged in
octamers.
2. neighboring nucleosomes are
connected by linker DNA.
3. DNA makes 2 complete turns around
its histone octamers which are in
turn sealed by the H1 molecule.
Solenoid – a 30 nm fiber that arises from
the folding of a nucleosome chain
with about 6 nucleosomes per turn.
The Chromosomes
1. Classification according to position of
centromere.
a. Telocentric – centromere is
located on one end.
b. Acrocentric – centromere is
located near the end.
c. Submetacentric - centromere
is located slightly away from
the center.
d. Metacentric - centromere is
located at the center
2. Parts:
a. Centromere – holds the two
sister chromatids together.
- they contain specific
sequence of DNA and
lies within the thinner
segment of the
chromosome, the
primary constriction.
- The regions flanking it
contain highly repetitive
DNA.
b. Kinetochore - provides a
center of assembly for
microtubules. About 4-40
microtubules become attached
to it and provide the force for
chromosomal movement
during mitosis.
3. Classification according to number of
kinetochore:
a. monocentric – with one
kinetochore
b. holocentric – have diffuse
kinetochores. Microtubules are
attached along the length of
the chromosomes.
c. Acentric – no kinetochore. It
happens when chromosomes
beak and fuse with another
one.
 d. Dicentric – with 2 kinetochores. 3. it has an 8-fold symmetry: 2 rings
Due also to chromosomal (annuli), a central plug, and 8 radial
breakage. spokes that extend from the plug to
4. Telomeres – tip of the chromosome. the ring.
They are the ends of the linear DNA
and they have an unusual DNA NOTE: The number of pores in the nuclear
structure. membrane correlates with the
transcriptional activity of the cell in a
NOTE: When chromosomes are broken, directly proportional manner.
the free ends without telomeres
become sticky and fuse with other 4. Exchange of materials is very
broken chromosomes. They do not, selective.
however, fuse with a normal 5. Prevents ribosomes from entering to
telomere. ensure that no immature mRNA will
be translated.
5. Secondary constrictions – useful in 6. Prevents heterogenous RNA from
identifying particular chromosomes leaving the nucleus
in a set. They are distinguished from
the primary constriction by the
absence of marked angular
deviations of the chromosomal
segments during anaphase.
6. nucleolar organizers – these are
secondary constrictions that contain
the genes coding for 18S and 28S
rRNA and that induce the formation
of nucleoli. In man, these are located
in chromosomes 13-15, and 21-22,
all of which are acrocentrics with
satellites.

The Nuclear Envelope

1. with an inner and outer membrane
enclosing a lumen and traversed by
pores.
2. membrane is made up of bilipid layer
with ribosomes on the outer surface.
Direct continuity with RER is
possible because of similarity in lipid
constitution.

The Nuclear Pore

1. 80 nm in diameter (inside diameter)
2. not a wide open channel