Heat Transfer in Boreholes

Alexander Heger
Bakkalaurea Thesis
Heat transfer in boreholes
Supervised by: Prof. Herbert Hofstätter

Approval date: 25th January 2008
Date: 11/08/2008
Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 6
Introducing the topic .................................................................................................................... 7
Temperature distribution in boreholes ............................................................................................................ 7
Thermometry .......................................................................................................................................................................7
Temperature surveys ..........................................................................................................................................................7
Focus on drilling ......................................................................................................................... 10

High temperature cementing composition ................................................................................................... 10
Cement testing...................................................................................................................................................................10
Discussion of data .............................................................................................................................................................11
Temperature distribution in a drilling fluid ..................................................................................................... 13
Temperature behavior during circulation .........................................................................................................................13
Unsteady state solution .....................................................................................................................................................15
Pseudo steady state solution ............................................................................................................................................17
Temperature behavior during trip .....................................................................................................................................18
Parameters affecting bottom-hole fluid temperatures during circulation ........................................................................19
Predicting bottom-hole fluid temperatures during circulation ..........................................................................................20
Relevant conclusions ........................................................................................................................................................21
Drilling mud.................................................................................................................................................... 22
Development of water-based mud ...................................................................................................................................22
The low-molecular-weight copolymer SSMA...................................................................................................................23
Focus on production .................................................................................................................. 24

Stimulation design ......................................................................................................................................... 24
Temperature study ............................................................................................................................................................24
Temperature effects on fracture dimension .....................................................................................................................26
Temperature effects on fracture fluid properties ..............................................................................................................26
Temperature effect on acid spending times.....................................................................................................................27
Steam injection .............................................................................................................................................. 28
Definition of the two steam injection processes ...............................................................................................................28
Heat content of steam .......................................................................................................................................................29
Flood zones .......................................................................................................................................................................29
Effects ................................................................................................................................................................................30
Subsurface equipment in steam injection systems...................................................................................... 30
Effects of steam injection on casing and tubing...............................................................................................................30
Casing temperature...........................................................................................................................................................30
Elastic and plastic behavior of the casing ........................................................................................................................32
Reducing casing stresses .................................................................................................................................................35
Tubing design ....................................................................................................................................................................36
Paraffins and hydrates .................................................................................................................................. 36
Paraffin prevention ............................................................................................................................................................37
Hydrates .............................................................................................................................................................................39
Geothermal energy ....................................................................................................................................... 39
An outlook on the future ....................................................................................................................................................39
Paraffin and hydrate prevention by the use of geothermal energy .....................................................................39
Heat transfer coefficient, thermal diffusivity and thermal conduction ..................................................................40
Heat transfer coefficient..............................................................................................................................40
Thermal conductivity...................................................................................................................................40
Thermal diffusivity .......................................................................................................................................40
Fiberglass tubular...................................................................................................................................................41
The idea of vacuum ...............................................................................................................................................41
Efficient use of energy ...........................................................................................................................................41
Burning gas .................................................................................................................................................41
A constant spark..............................................................................................................................42
An additional use of the flash gas compressor..............................................................................42
Use of geothermal energy for surface facilities ....................................................................................................42
Use of wells for geothermal power plants.............................................................................................................42
References ................................................................................................................................... 43

Appendix ...................................................................................................................................... 44
Temperature distribution in a circulating drilling fluid .......................................................................................................44
Stimulation design .............................................................................................................................................................50
List of Figures
Fig. 1 Average heat conductivity of common sediments (Btu/hr-sq ft-°F) ....................................... 7
Fig. 2 (a) Example gradient gas flow. (b) Example gradient fluid flow ............................................. 8
Fig. 3 Ideal-temperature curves of a fluid migrating through casing hole ........................................ 8
Fig. 4 Two possible effects of cement behind casing on temperature gradient .............................. 9
Fig. 5 Thickening time....................................................................................................................... 11
Fig. 6 Compressive strength ............................................................................................................ 12
Fig. 7 Per cent weight loss and shrinkage ....................................................................................... 12
Fig. 8 Fluid circulation ....................................................................................................................... 13
Fig. 9 Effect of time on temperature for a simulated well................................................................ 15
Fig. 10 Temperature as a function of depth at 2 hours of circulation time of a simulated well ..... 16
Fig. 11 Drill pipe temperature vs. depth as a function of time for a simulated well ....................... 16
Fig. 12 Comparison of unsteady state and pseudo steady state solutions ................................... 18
Fig. 13 Temperature trace of various depths in a simulated well ................................................... 18
Fig. 14 Difference between bottom-hole fluid and outlet fluid temperatures for10 lb/gal oil-based mud
.................................................................................................................................................... 19
Fig. 15 Difference between bottom-hole fluid and outlet fluid temperatures for10 lb/gal water-based
mud............................................................................................................................................. 19
.................................................................................................................................................... 20
Fig. 17 Difference between bottom-hole fluid and outlet fluid temperatures for18 lb/gal water-based
mud............................................................................................................................................. 20
Fig. 18 Difference between bottom-hole fluid and outlet fluid temperatures vs. geothermal gradient
.................................................................................................................................................... 21
Fig. 19 Effect of SSMA on heat stability of field mud at 500°F (260°C) ......................................... 23
Fig. 20 Fracture transient temperature distribution during stimulation ........................................... 25
Fig. 21 Effect of pumping rate on fracture temperature .................................................................. 25
Fig. 22 Effect of temperature on fracturing ...................................................................................... 26
Fig. 23 Fracture fluid viscosity distribution within the fracture during stimulation .......................... 26
Fig. 24 Variation of sand settling rate within the fracture ................................................................ 27
Fig. 25 Variation of acid spending time within a fracture caused by fluid cooling effects ............. 27
Fig. 26 Schematic diagram of a steam flood7.................................................................................. 28
Fig. 27 Heat content of water vs. temperature ................................................................................ 29
Fig. 28 Idealized steam flood9 .......................................................................................................... 29
Fig. 29 Average casing temperature effected by tubing emissivity ................................................ 32
Fig. 30 Thermal casing elongation vs. injection temperature ......................................................... 33
Fig. 31 End force vs. thermal elongation ......................................................................................... 34
Fig. 32 Geothermal relationship between neutral point, length L, and depth z for a casing or tubing
string ........................................................................................................................................... 34
Fig. 33 Stress distribution due to radial washouts and uniform stress distribution for representative
cases .......................................................................................................................................... 35
Fig. 34 Retrievable and permanent high temperature packers ...................................................... 36
Fig. 35 Phase diagram of a low shrinkage crude oil11 .................................................................... 37
Fig. 36 Paraffin deposition ................................................................................................................ 38
Fig. 37 Illustration of thermal model of fluid in fracture.................................................................... 51
Fig. 38 Transient fracture temperature distribution function ........................................................... 54

Abstract
This bakkalaurea thesis deals with the behavior of heat transfer in boreholes, the effect of heat
on substances and equipment and the efficient use of heat energy with respect to the oil
industry in general.
The normal temperature distribution in a wellbore is explained and how to interpret anomalies
caused by gas expansion, hydration of cement or migration of fluid.
Further on the objectives of cementing are listed and a test of different cementing compositions
for thermal wells as well as their performance under high temperature conditions is presented.
The temperature distribution in a circulating drilling fluid is discussed and for this purpose the
temperature behavior during circulations and during trips is described. Included in this topic are
equations in matters of the thermal model to describe non steady state and pseudo steady state
as well as parameters that are affecting the bottom-hole fluid temperatures during circulation.
The mathematical models are explained in the Appendix.
The goals of drilling mud are listed as well as a short history how high temperature water based
mud developed. A closer look is taken at the SSAM synthetic copolymer which is used to
stabilize the needed properties of the mud at thermal wells.
With respect to recovery methods the effect of temperature on stimulation design, which
includes temperature study, hydraulic fracturing and acid spending times is discussed.
The two main steam injection processes are introduced. Further the focus is on the best
injection temperature of the steam related to heat content of steam, the basic buildup of the
zones that occur when steam is injected into the formation and the effects of steam injection.
According to this subsurface equipment for steam injection systems and appearing problems
are described.
The appearance and prevention of paraffin and hydrates is discussed. According to paraffin four
different techniques which are mechanical displacement, hot oil and water circulation (strongly
not recommended), plastic coated tubular and fiberglass lines, and paraffin inhibition chemicals.
Concerning the appearance of hydrates, critical circumstances and prevention methods are
explained.
The last chapter is about geothermal energy, a possible use of this source for the oil industry in
the future (like paraffin and hydrate prevention), fiberglass tubular and an idea of vacuum
chambers to lower the heat losses of the oil and gas on its way to the surface, and additional
some ideas for a more effective use of energy at gas dehydration facilities.
Author: Alexander Heger Page: 5

Introduction
Temperature is beside pressure one of the two most important parameters in dealing with oil
and gas properties. This thesis is meant to introduce the topic of heat transfer in boreholes and
to give an understanding of the wide range of influence. It is structured in an introduction, drilling
and production part to have a clear overview and the possibility to pick out the issues of interest.
It should always be kept in mind that knowledge of the principle effects of temperature is
required from an engineer at any time.
The thesis is not just focused on proven results but also contains ideas and visions how the
industry could develop in the future with respect to heat transfer and in its wider sense to the
use of thermal energy. Heat is energy and although there are enough sources available at the
moment it is very likely that in the centuries to come the use of energy has to be more efficient
to provide supply for everyone. Concerning to this suggestion, possible improvements of actual
materials and techniques are presented. These reflections should be understood as ideas that
would need research and testing to prove their efficiency.
For this work I tried to use my practical experience at gas dehydration facilities to find better
ways to use energy as well as I picked up ideas and inspiration by lectures and professors.
Because of a limited length of this thesis it was not possible to discuss every point in the very
detail. Further on there are still other subject areas of importance which are not presented here
and if more information is required may the mentioned references can be satisfying.

Introducing the topic
Temperature distribution in boreholes

This chapter should introduce the temperature distribution in boreholes. The focus lies on the
interpretation of anomalies in the temperature distribution.
Thermometry
There are two different types of temperature surveys which are used in oil fields. One deals with
the true temperature at the depth of interest and the second one determines the depth or the
interval of a change in temperature.
Actual Temperature
The geothermal gradient varies strongly in different sedimentary basins, but within one basin the
change from one part to another is gradual. The usual change of the gradient in oil producing
areas is about 1 to 2°F for each 100 ft of depth expecting of 30 ft below the surface because of
the seasonal effect. The rate of change in temperature in some areas is greater with depth,
especially below 10,000 ft and marked increases have been reported below 18,000 ft. To get an
exact geothermal gradient, the hole must have been undisturbed for several months for
temperature equilibrium. In any event, the survey must be done while the well is in operation,
since the passage of the thermometer will alter the static gradient.
Fig. 1 Average heat conductivity of common sediments (Btu/hr-sq ft-°F)
The thermal conductivity of geological strata varies. The average heat conductivity of common
sediments is tabled beside Fig.1. Any effect on the formation will depend on its thermal
conductivity, like the difference in temperature between a moving fluid and the formation.
The actual temperature at depth is very important, because drilling mud is often affected by
temperature, which type of cement and additives to choose are either and the amount of gas in
solution, the bubble point and the viscosity are all related to temperature.
Temperature surveys
There are two ways of making a temperature survey, either by running the thermometer
continuously with slow speed or by stopping in regular intervals. Usually a survey is made by
down and up run to get a better accuracy. Both runs should be done at the same speed which
also includes no change in speed during one run. If the survey is made by an interval run, both
times the same stops should be picked.

The location of a temperature change on a temperature survey is much more important than the
amount of change or the actual temperature. Reasons for a significant uncontinuity of the static
geothermal gradient can be gas expansion, hydration of cement or migration of fluid. Expansion
of liquids and chemical reactions cause a too small change in gradient to be recognized.
Fig. 2 (a) Example gradient gas flow. (b) Example gradient fluid flow
Gas will expand and cool down (Joule-Thompson-effect) when it enters the borehole. For this
reason its temperature will be much lower than the adjacent formation. This behavior results in a
typical temperature survey like shown in Fig.2 (a). When just a small amount or no gas is
produced the temperature survey will look similar to Fig.2 (b).
Normal Temperature Gradient
→Formation from which fluid is migrating
←Formation into which fluid is migrating
(A) Gas migrating upward
(B) Liquid migrating upward
(C) Gas migrating downward
(D) Liquid migrating downward
(E) Gas migrating downward to casing hole, then up
(F) Fluid migrating downward to casing hole, then up
(G) Gas migrating up to casing hole, then down
(H) Liquid migrating up to casing hole, then down
Fig. 3 Ideal-temperature curves of a fluid migrating through casing hole

Fig. 3 shows ideal-temperature curves for various conditions of migration of fluid through a hole
in the casing. Certain assumptions were made in drawing these ideal curves. Where gas is
migrating, some expansions and resulting out of this cooling will take place as the gas leaves
the formation. Also, it is assumed there will be a pressure-drop and caused by this expansion
and cooling at the depth of the casing-hole. If there is no expansion the temperature survey of
the gas would look the same as of a liquid. Casing-leak temperature surveys are run with the
well shut in. The reason is that the temperature gradient of the entire borehole should approach
to be even. A rule of a minimum of 24 hours should be followed.
Usually temperature surveys can be made with an accuracy of about 2°F. If the anomaly is
smaller or so masked that a reliable interpretation is impossible there should be used an
electrical surface recording differential thermometer to get a successful survey.
The exothermal reaction of cement-hydration produces sufficient heat to detect a cement top
behind a string of casing by use of a temperature survey for up to several days after cementing.
The character of the temperature curve is nearly the same in one particular field but varies wide
in different fluids. The anomaly may be a large, sharp increase in some cases 35 to 45°F or it
may be a very slight increase in gradient Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 Two possible effects of cement behind casing on temperature gradient
The main influence on the survey is the time elapsed between placement of the cement and
running the survey. Other factors are fineness of cement, chemical composition, rate of
hydration, mass of cement in place and the thermal conductivity of the adjacent formation. The
maximum temperature appears 4 to 9 hours after cementing, but reliable data can be measured
in most areas after 48 hours.
Wellbore temperature surveys are an inexpensive method to determine problem well conditions.
Often a temperature survey is the only information available and usually accurate. When an
anomaly occurs it has to be an expansion of gas, migration of fluid or some type of chemical
reaction.

Focus on drilling
High temperature cementing composition

The objectives of primary cementing are zonal isolation (seal), anchor and support the casing,
protect casing against corrosion from formation fluids and support wellbore walls in case of
weak and unconsolidated formation.
Through the years thermal oil recovery has been proved as an excellent secondary recovery
method. The high potential of thermal recovery and its frequently use as a secondary recovery
method explains the need of usable cements under high temperature conditions.
The following text will have an eye on the results of tests2 of different cementing materials under
various temperature conditions similar to those found in thermal recovery processes. The
cements used can be handled by ordinary cementing equipment and have sufficient thickening
time to permit placement in wells to at least 6,000 ft in depth. The tests were done at
temperatures of 700°, 1,000°, 1,500° and 2,000°F for different times. The recorded or calculated
properties were physical appearance, weight loss, shrinkage, change of permeability and
compressive strength.
Cement testing
To get accurate results a wide range of temperatures was picked. The average range expected
was 600° to 1,200°F.
To be objective a look at the practical circumstances is necessary. The question arises if the
conditions are more detrimental at the injection well or at the production well. Problems with
heat at the production well can somehow be overcome by cool-water injection. So the drying of
the cement at the injection well will possibly be a bigger handicap than the prolonged heating of
the cement at the production well. So it was decided to fire the cements in a muffle furnance in
dry heat at atmospheric pressure.
Some compositions in use are API Classes A and E, pozzolan-cement blends and a special
refractory cement with granular additives. All of these have been tested in initial studies and
they indicated that refractory cements would be most appropriate to handle this conditions if the
handling time could be increased for safe placement. This has already been a problem at
shallow depth of thermal recovery wells. The short setting time made it necessary to search for
useful retarders or dispersants to solve this problem. During this testings described here a
retarder-dispersant that maintained a low slurry viscosity for sufficient length of time for proper
placement and still permitting the cement to set at low temperatures in a reasonable time was
produced. The six following compositions were picked based on earlier researches because of
having the most desirable properties of pumpability, hardening at low temperatures, stability to
high temperatures during firing and soundness after cooling. They are: (1) calcium-aluminium
cement: calcined clay (1:1); (2) calcium-aluminium cement with 60 per cent silicia flour; (3)
calcium-aluminium cement with 25 per cent Pozzolan Y; (5) Class A cement: Pozzolan X (1:1)
with 40 per cent silicia flour; and (6) Class A cement: Pozzolan Y (1:1) with 40 per cent silicia
flour.
Class A cement with 40 per cent silicia flour was added to the tests for comparison purposes. All
slurries were mixed with a water-solids ratio of 0.40 except where calcined clay was
incorporated; the ratio was 0.30 in this instance.
The mixtures were put into molds and harded out under water at 100°F. Afterwards they were
fired to 700°, 1,000° and 1,500°F for periods of one, three and seven days and to 2,000°F for
one day. The maximum temperature would be reached in approximately six hours and the heat

was turned off 12 hours before time of removal to allow gradual cooling of the fired specimens.
The applied temperatures are probably higher than in most thermal recovery wells, but the data
show the stability of these compositions. Many specimens could stand the test conditions, but
disintegrated during the cooling period.
Discussion of data
Fig. 5 Thickening time
From Fig. 5 it can be seen that it is possible to design slurries for any reasonable depth and still
heaving good compressive strength and “waiting on cement” time, because of the
developments in dispersants and retarders.
Most of the compositions withstood the temperatures they were subjected to, but if the
aggregates added are to coarse they are not suitable. If water was added to get a better
pumpability the slurries became to settling. So the basic cement was used with a fine aggregate
with particle size from 20 mesh to dust added and this treatment resulted a good pumpable
slurry.
The tests pointed out that the temperature itself once it is reached has no big effect on the
cements. Only the mixture 1:1 Class A: Pozzolan Y + 40 per cent silica flour was negative
effected by the prolonged exposure.
The mixture 1:1 Class A: Pozzolan X + 40 per cent silica flour was very soft and chalky in its
structure after firing to 700°F, so no further tests were done. The other two compositions not
containing calcium-aluminate cement were not tested above 1,000°F because they cracked
after cooling from 700°F to room temperature. During the testing it was proved that the problem
is not the temperature itself but much more the change in temperature which causes excessive
cracking.
In initial tests, some compositions have been subjected to 700°F for a continuity of seven days
and afterwards cooled gradually to 200°F and kept at this temperature for another seven days.
All specimens not containing calcium-aluminate cracked very badly after the seven days at
200°F, but none after the seven days at 700°F. Another attempt with keeping the 700°F for 14
days and then cooling gradually to 200°F staying at this level for seven days showed the same
tendency of failure as before.

The physical changes of the specimens at the different temperatures may be seen in the Fig. 6
and 7.
Fig. 6 Compressive strength
Fig. 7 Per cent weight loss and shrinkage
A big problem was the evaluation of the permeability of the cores after firing, because many
cements cracked when getting in contact with water. So it was impossible to obtain accurate
permeability data. It will be noticed that the permeability always decreased, indicating there
were no detrimental effects due to exposure to high temperatures.
It was also impossible to obtain the compressive strength accurately. The procedure was to saw
of a piece of the core after the previous mentioned test. So this was already a problem of
cracking. Some of the specimens were so brittle that they shattered along the edges before
failure of the whole sample happened.
The weight of the cements was measured before and after the firing. The specimens were
allowed to dry two hours at room conditions and then weighted before being fired. After the
temperature tests they were weighed when they have reached room temperature.
The diameter was measured before and after firing at each specific temperature, so that a
percentage of shrinkage could be calculated.
At all temperatures the mixture of calcium-aluminate: calcined caly (1:1) exhibited no change in
size or shape and no cracking appeared. The data indicated a rage of temperature from 80°F to
2,000°F to use this material without destruction.
Very little shrinkage and no cracking occurred in the case of calcium-aluminate cement with 40
and 60 per cent silicia flour when fired to 1,500°F. At 2,000°F these mixtures melted or had an
apparent change in shape. Both can be used in thermal wells where temperatures would not be
higher than 1,500°F.

When contacted by water after having been fired to high temperatures, all cementing
compositions not containing either silicia flour or calcium-aluminate cement disintegrated to
powder.
If cracking of the set cementing materials after having been fired at high temperatures is not a
disadvantage for the thermal recovery process, almost any common cementing composition
can be used to cement the casing through the fired zone. If this factor is of importance, the
calcium-aluminate cement containing either silica flour or some fine, granular refractory additive
is strongly recommended.
Temperature distribution in a drilling fluid

The addiction to deeper and consequently hotter holes causes the need of measurements on
drilling fluids not only at atmospheric temperature. The prediction and control of down-hole mud
properties depends mainly on temperature. So a good understanding of the factors that
influence the temperature during circulation and trips could improve the efficiency of drilling
operations. The following text is based on a study3 directed on calculating the formation
temperature profile during circulation, general techniques to calculate the entire temperature
profile as well as methods for predicting bottom-hole fluid temperatures during circulation.
Temperature behavior during circulation
Circulation of fluid during the drilling operation is shown basically Fig. 8.
Fig. 8 Fluid circulation
The process of circulation has three distinct phases: (1) fluid enters the drill pipe at the surface
and passes done the drill pipe; (2) fluid exits the drill pipe through the bit and enters the annulus
at the bottom; and (3) fluid passes up the annulus and exits the annulus at the surface. For
purposes of simulation the thermal behavior of the fluid in the system it is necessary to describe
every phase mathematically.
In Phase 1, the fluid enters the drill pipe at a specified temperature, TD0. As the fluid passes
down the pipe, its temperature is determined by the rate of heat convection down the drill pipe,
the rate of heat exchanged between the drill pipe and the annulus, and time. Phase 2 of the
circulating process just requires that the fluid temperature at the exit of the drill pipe is the same

as the fluid temperature at the entrance of the annulus; i.e. TD (L, t) = TA (L, t). Thus in Phase 3,
the fluid enters the annulus at TD (L, t). As the fluid flows up the annulus, its temperature is
determined by the rate of heat convection up the annulus, the rate of heat exchange between
the annulus and the drill pipe, the rate of heat exchange between the formation adjacent to the
annulus and the fluid in the annulus, and time. These rates of heat exchange and the time
dependency of mud temperature are described by well known heat-flow equations.
Consequently the temperature profiles in the drill pipe, annulus, and formation can be obtained
by solving Eq. 1 through 3 with additional requirement specified by Eq. 4, once appropriate
initial and boundary conditions are specified.

Unsteady state solution
Explanation of the equations:
In field situation, the mud´s inlet temperature to the drill pipe is generally available through direct
measurement. Hence, the boundary condition for Eq. 1 is TD (Z=0, t) = TD0 (t). From previous
considerations it has already been established that TD (Z=L, t) = TA (Z= L, t), and this will serve
as the boundary condition for Eq. 2.
When circulation is started following a trip, the fluid temperature in the borehole has approached
the geothermal temperature of the adjacent formation. For the here used study, it will always be
assumed that the geothermal temperature is given by a + b*Z, where a is the surface
temperature, and b is the geothermal gradient. The initial distribution of the fluid temperature in
the drill pipe and the annulus is given by the geothermal temperature; that is, TD (Z, t) = TA (Z, t)
= a + b*Z. Similarly, the initial temperature for the formation at a given depth is assumed to be
uniform and the same level as the geothermal temperature.
One boundary condition for Eq. 3 requires that the flux out of the formation be the same as the
flux into the annulus and is given by Eq. 4. Since at large values of r the geothermal
temperature is undisturbed, the second boundary condition is: Tf (r→ ∞, Z, t) = a + b*Z. With
these boundary and initial conditions Eq. 1 through 3 were solved numerically to obtain the
transient temperature profiles for the circulating fluid system. For a better understanding the
solutions are obtained by the procedure described in the Appendix.
The solutions out of these equations are surfaces in the three dimensions time, depth and
temperature. Of cause there are a few ways to present the conclusions. Fig. 9 shows the three
most important temperatures, which are the outlet, the bottom-hole fluid and the bottom-hole
formation temperature. These temperatures are plotted as a function of time. The well according
to this data was 20,000 ft deep, with an 18 lb/gal oil-based mud being circulated with a rate of
200gal/min. The geothermal gradient was 1.6 °F/100 ft and the surface formation temperature
was 80°F. Inlet temperature was held constant at 135°F during the whole 16 hours of
circulation.
Fig. 9 Effect of time on temperature for a simulated well
Fig. 9 shows that the outlet temperature rises very fast from 80 to 147°F and then reaches a
nearly constant level at 148°F. During the last 9 hours of the circulation process the outlet

temperature varied only of 1°F. This change in temperature is negligible for any field situation.
The bottom-hole fluid and bottom-hole formation temperature decreased very rapidly from the
initial level of 400°F, which was the geothermal bottom-hole temperature, when circulation was
started. A constant temperature difference appeared between the bottom-hole fluid and the
bottom-hole rock after a short time of circulation and maintained during the entire process.
Important to mention is the consequent change of the bottom-hole temperature with time, so a
steady state situation was never achieved, although the inlet and outlet temperatures were kept
constant it never remained the same. Hence it is not possible to stabilize the temperatures of
the circulating system by keeping the inlet and outlet temperatures constant.
Fig. 10 Temperature as a function of depth at 2 hours of circulation time of a simulated well
Fig. 10 represents the temperature as a function of depth for the same system at 2 hours of
circulation. It can be seen that through the effect of circulation the formation has to be heated
from the surface to a depth of 12,000 ft and cooled from 12,000 ft to 20,000 ft. Also important to
point out is the intersection of the annular fluid and borehole wall temperature-curve at 10,000 ft.
So until 10,000 ft the annular fluid temperature is cooler than the borehole wall temperature.
Hence the formation is heated to this point of depth and below it is cooled. With respect to the
maximum fluid temperature Fig. 10 shows this point at 17,000 ft and not at the bottom of the
hole. This was expected because usually the maximum temperature is located at approximately
one-fourth to one-third of the way up the annulus. The point has the tendency to move up with
circulation time and is depended on circulation velocity. As velocity increases the point will move
up.
Fig. 11 shows the calculated history of the drill-pipe fluid temperature. The dynamic behavior of
the system is obvious.
Fig. 11 Drill pipe temperature vs. depth as a function of time for a simulated well

Pseudo steady state solution
Analyzing several sets of calculations leaded to the indication that shortly after the fluid which is
initially at the bottom has reached the first time the surface the thermal behavior of a mud
system approaches to a slow, logarithmic decline. This means that diffusion of heat into or out
of the formation is a controlling factor. At this point the unsteady state terms in Eq. 1 and 2
become negligible and the equations describing the system are
The dependence of temperature on time is now only accorded to the formation temperature, for
which the radial diffusion equation is still valid. In the unsteady state case the equations for TD
and TA were solved analytically in the terms for the borehole wall temperature Tf (t, Z) f=fB (see
Appendix). The explicit relationships for TD and TA as functions of Z at a given time t are
The function Tf (t, Z) f=fB is obtained as before (for the unsteady state) by solving the radial
diffusivity equation and matching thermal fluxes between the annulus and the formation.
Solutions for transient profiles are much easier to obtain in the pseudo-steady state case since
no time-step limitations are imposed by the numerical solution of the drill-pipe and annular
temperature equations. The result
The results of the unsteady state and the pseudo-steady state cases are compared in Fig. 12.
Important to mention is the fact that after 4 hours of circulation the both equations are nearly the
same. As a conclusion for long circulation times the pseudo-steady state model is adequate and
if the temperature behavior at the very beginning of a circulating process is desired, the
unsteady state solution should be applied.

Fig. 12 Comparison of unsteady state and pseudo steady state solutions
Temperature behavior during trip
A static fluid in a borehole rapidly approaches the geothermal gradient. Well studies found out
that it only takes 16 hours to be within 10 per cent of the geothermal gradient.
After a circulation process is stopped and a trip is started, there is hardly any movement in the
drilling fluid. Heaving a closer look at the heat transfer at such conditions leads to the realization
that first of all there is no forced convection during a trip, but the main heat transport is free
convection or conduction in the fluid and conduction in the formation. The volume of the fluid is
extremely small compared with the volume of the formation, so the conduction in the fluid is not
relevant and can be neglected. Analysis shows that even convection in the fluid is negligible. So
the temperature behavior during trips is determined by the conduction of heat in the formation
and can be described, assuming that the fluid temperature is equal to the formation temperature
at the borehole wall, by using the radial diffusivity equation, Eq. 3. For this equation an initial
condition is assumed, for which the temperature distribution in the formation at the end of the
circulation is applicable.
Fig. 13 Temperature trace of various depths in a simulated well
In Fig. 13 the curves of borehole temperature vs. time are represented for four different depths
for the same system that has been used previously. At 5,000 ft the formation was slightly
heated during circulation process and when starting the trip the trace shows a strong cooling at
the beginning, as it was expected (the shape of the 5,000 ft curve is similar to the curve of the
surface). At 10,000 ft there is very little change in temperature, because also during the
circulation the temperature was very close to geothermal gradient temperature. At 20,000 ft the
temperature while circulating decreased rapidly to 130°F and then heats up very fast when trip
was started, always approaching to the geothermal gradient temperature.

Parameters affecting bottom-hole fluid temperatures during circulation
To find out which physical parameters in the system are effecting the bottom-hole fluid
temperature, a parametric sensitivity study was done and it was found out, that the most
important variables are circulation rate, mud type (oil or water-based), and depth. The most
sensitive out of this three is the circulation rate
On Figs. 14-17 it can also be seen that the influence of mud weight on ΔT is dependent on the
circulation rate. ΔT for an oil-based mud is greater than for a water-based mud, independent
from depth and circulation rate. A study on hole and drill pipe size resulted that the dimension,
as long as it remains within 30 per cent of 8⅝ inch and 4½ inch doesn´t change ΔT.
Fig. 15 Difference between bottom-hole fluid and outlet fluid temperatures for10 lb/gal water-based mud

Fig. 17 Difference between bottom-hole fluid and outlet fluid temperatures for18 lb/gal water-based mud
Predicting bottom-hole fluid temperatures during circulation
The circulation in over 70 wells was simulated to generate charts of ∆T vs. Q for oil- and water-
based mud. An important practical application of these charts is in predicting bottom-hole fluid
temperature from a measured outlet temperature. Although the charts assume a geothermal
gradient of 1.7 °F/100 ft, 4 ½-in. drill pipe, and a hole-size of 8⅝ in., the results of the sensitivity
study reveal that the charts can be applied to other conditions with reasonable confidence (A
cased hole should be treated like an open hole of like diameter. Geothermal gradient doesn´t
have much effect on predicting temperature for depths to 10,000 ft. For best result below 10,000
ft, the actual geothermal gradient should be known. A correction can then be estimated from
Fig. 18 (depth interpolation is reliable)).

Fig. 18 Difference between bottom-hole fluid and outlet fluid temperatures vs. geothermal gradient
The ∆T plotted in Fig. 18 is for time after enough circulation has taken place and so a pseudo-
steady state exists in the system. The charts (Figs. 14 to 17) can be used with accuracy if the
inlet temperature is within 20 °F of the value used in the calculations.
How to use the charts is explained by an example in the Appendix.
Relevant conclusions
1. During circulation, bottom-hole fluid temperature is much lower than the geothermal rock
temperature.
2. Maximum fluid temperature in the circulating system occurs one-fourth to one-third of the way
up the annulus.
3. All temperatures in the circulating fluid system change with time; a true steady state is never
attained. However, after one or two mud circulations the temperatures do not change
appreciably.
4. During trips, the fluid system tends quite rapidly toward the geothermal gradient. In all the
wells studied, the fluid temperature distribution as a function of depth is within 10 percent of the
geothermal gradient after 16 hours of trip time.
5. Large temperature gradients in the formation adjacent to the lower portion of the wellbore are
established during circulation. The temperature of the formation 10 ft from the wellbore is
essentially undisturbed the drilling process.

Drilling mud
The objectives of drilling mud are carrying the cuttings out of the hole, control the well (maintain
overbalance), stabilize the walls by providing hydrostatic pressure and minimize formation
damage (filter cake, bridging particles), improve bit performance (lubrication, jet impact force),
support the load on drill string (cool and lubricate, particularly in highly deviated wells) and
medium for some logs.
The two types of drilling mud are the water based and the oil based. Temperature has a high
detrimental effect on the flow properties and filtration control of the mud. In the following part
properties of water-based mud with different additives will be discussed.
Development of water-based mud
Heat4 leads indirectly to flocculation of the mud solids by degrading the rheological stabilizer.
During the 1930´s and 1940´s molecular dehydrated phosphate and polyphosphate-type
deflocculates were used as mud thinners for water-based mud. But deeper wells and so
elevated bottom hole temperatures caused the need of high temperature resistant additives.
Lime-treated mud and quebracho became popular during the 1950´s but they had the problem
of sever gelation. This effect was the result of a lime/clay reaction supported by high
temperatures. To eliminate this problem, water-based mud were treated with gypsum and a
ferrochrome lignosulfonate. Although these types of mud had a better temperature stability,
there was still a problem with viscosity in higher-temperature wells. Developed in the early
1960´s and still in use is the lignosulfonate water-based mud. This type of mud contains other
additives such as clays, lignites, etc, but the basic component to stabilize the rheological
properties is lignosulfonate. There are varieties of modifications but the dominant ones are
ferrochrome and chrome-treated modifications. The temperature at which the mud becomes
ineffective is always depending on the circumstances, because also mud density, low-gravity-
solids content, type of solids, and other conterminants play an important role.
In general there are 4 main demands on a high temperature deflocculant:

1. thermal stability at the temperatures subjected
2. effective as a deflocculant in this temperature range
3. economically effective
4. safe and environmentally acceptable
The temperature stability of most natural polymers isn´t adequate and it seems that they can´t
be modified to satisfy the requirements, so the need of synthesized polymers appeared.
Nowadays there are lots of different polymers and the development still goes on rapidly. As a
representative example a sulfonated styrene maleic anhydride copolymer will be shortly
presented.

The low-molecular-weight copolymer SSMA
Laboratory and field test proved, that SSMA is a deflocculant and that it can be used effectively
at high temperatures where ferrochrome lignosulfonate start to fail. It was also found out that a
combination of the lignosulfonate and SSMA is even more effective than the components on
their own.
Fig. 19 Effect of SSMA on heat stability of field mud at 500°F (260°C)
The real test for a high-temperature stabilizer begins at 400°F. Fig. 19 shows a consistometer
run to 500°F of a field lignosulfonate mud. At 400°F the mud starts to thicken and at 500°F it is
out of range of the consistometer. Treatment with 6 lbm/bbl chrome lignosulfonate does not
have a big effect. After treating the mud with 2 lbm/bbl SSMA the viscosity started to rise
noticeable after 8 hours at 500°F and was still in the range of the instrument.
According to the performance in laboratory and field tests, the SSMA copolymer can replace oil
based mud for temperatures up to 500°F, especially where ecological factors must be
considered.

Focus on production
Stimulation design
In many oil and gas wells high temperatures are present and because of the frequent use of
stimulations like hydraulic fracturing or acidizing techniques, the thermal environment and its
effect on treatment fluids, chemicals, and additives has to be understood. Especially the
relationship between the effects of the thermal environment during treatment and fracture fluid
viscosity, fracture proppant settling rates, solid blocking agent performance, acid reaction rates,
and acid retarder requirements are important issues. The focus of this “Stimulation design” part
will be on the results of the calculations, not the based on thermal model itself. The
development of the model is presented in the Appendix.
Temperature study
For5 the thermal model describing this process the following considerations were made. A fluid
with known and assumed constant, thermal properties, is injected into the wellbore at the
surface. The fluid will be slightly heated when flowing down the well and through a vertical
fracture. A behavior of the fluid leak-off similar to the pattern of a wall-building (leak-off prevent)
additive is estimated. The leak-off velocity is also assumed not to be constant but to have its
maximum at the tip of the fracture, where the wall-building additive just starts to effect and at
minimum nearby the wellbore where the most wall-building additives are present.
The thermal properties of the formation are assumed independent on temperature. The
equations presented below are based on energy balances on the fluid in the fracture and on the
fractured formation itself. They describe the temperature distribution of the fluid in the fracture.
The nomenclature as well as the development of the equations is given in the Appendix.
The heating of the fluid proceeding down the borehole is already well described earlier in this
thesis. On field problems it is wise to calculate the heating of the fluid though the wellbore, but to
simplify the following discussion it will be neglected.

At first it is necessary to get an overview of the temperature distribution in a fracture and

following which of the treatment factors has the greatest influence on this distribution.
Fig. 20 Fracture transient temperature distribution during stimulation
Fig. 20 illustrates the temperature distribution of the fluid in a vertical fracture during a fracturing
process.
Fig. 21 Effect of pumping rate on fracture temperature
The traces are the results computed from Eq. A-23. It can be seen, that with increasing fluid
quantity pumped (or time) at a certain point in the formation the temperature decreases
exponentially. This great drop in temperature near the end of the fracture is caused by a strong
cooling effect of a large portion of fluid, which is transpiring at this area. Near the borehole,
where the leak-off rate is at its lowest level, the cooling effect is also at a minimum. In Fig. 20
one can see, that the average temperature of the fluid is not much affected by the quantity of
fluid injected. Fig. 21 shows the great influence of the pumping rate on the temperature at any
given point within the fracture. Another effect of the pumping rate is the increase of fracture
efficiency.

These two figures indicate, that certain aspects of fracture design should be implemented when
using wall-building additives.
Temperature effects on fracture dimension
To get an idea of the effects of temperature on fracture dimension, three temperatures were
picked: 200°F for bottom-hole temperature, 80°F for surface fluid temperature and 145°F for
average fluid temperature in the fracture during stimulation. The results are illustrated in Fig. 22.
Fig. 22 Effect of temperature on fracturing
The fracture width is about 20 per cent greater for 145°F than for 200°F. So if the fluid properties
are evaluated at bottom-hole temperature conditions, the width seems to be smaller than it
actually is. This may would be the reason, not to use higher proppant concentration or larger
proppants that could give higher fracture conductivities and so higher efficiency.
If the fluid properties are calculated at surface conditions the width of the fracture appears to be
much wider than in reality. As a result maybe too large proppants are used or a too high
concentration. This treatment can cause a premature proppant screen-out, which would mean
an unsuccessful stimulation.
According to the calculations fracture area decreases as fluid temperature drops although
fracture volume increases.
Temperature effects on fracture fluid properties
Fig. 23 presents the results of a study of viscosity variation due to temperature. Viscosity is at a
maximum at the wellbore, where the fluid is at its coolest temperature and at a maximum at the
end of the fracture, where the fluid is at formation temperature.
Fig. 23 Fracture fluid viscosity distribution within the fracture during stimulation

An important effect of the viscosity variation is the influence on proppant settling rates. In Fig. 24
one can see, that the low temperature and thus higher viscosity at the wellbore mean a low
proppant settling rate and the high temperature at the end of the fraction, cause a lower
viscosity and so a high proppant settling rate.
Fig. 24 Variation of sand settling rate within the fracture
Temperature effect on acid spending times
Temperature has one of the greatest effects on acid treatment. The reaction rate of acid
increases very fast with temperature. In the past acids were expected to be subjected to the
very high temperatures of the formation and so research was done to create retarders and
inhibitors that will function at 350°F and greater. If one has a look at Fig. 25 it is realised, that
this high temperature ability is not so important to a successful aciding job. Maybe this is the
reason why the best acid fracturing has been performed with what was thought to be marginal
retarders.
Fig. 25 illustrates the effect of increase in acid spending time caused by cooling of the formation.
Except for the very end of the fracture spending time increases especially near the wellbore. For
retarders developed for high temperatures this means, that they often don´t get the desired
penetration for effective behavior.
Fig. 25 Variation of acid spending time within a fracture caused by fluid cooling effects

For purposes of protecting the pipe a pad of fluid is pumped ahead of the initial acid to cool the
pipe and so dropping the reaction rate. This is important for retarders rated at temperatures less
than undisturbed formation temperature. These retarders and inhibitors provide sufficient
retardations in the fracture itself, allowing the acid to travel deeper into the fracture before
spending.
It was found out, that the fluid temperature is a fracture is much lower than the undisturbed
formation temperature and so the fractures produced are wider than expected. According to this
the fractures are capable of accepting larger proppants and higher proppant concentrations. A
result out of this possibility is higher conductivities effecting greater folds.
Acid reaction rates are lower than had been thought, even more when a pad of cooling fluid is
pumped ahead of the acid. This behavior is caused by lower dynamic fracture temperatures
than assumed. It was also seen that retarders for lower temperatures help to gain greater
penetration of the acid along the fracture and in this case the cooling effect by ahead pumped
fluid will provide acceptable protection of the pipe.
Steam injection
Steam injection is often used as a secondary recovery method. Steam is injected in order to
heat up the reservoir and thus to lower the viscosity of the oil. The two methods of steam
injection are cyclic steam injection and steam flooding.
Definition of the two steam injection processes
A cyclic6 steam injection is a thermal recovery process in which steam is injected in an well for
a period of time and afterwards production is continued. A cyclic steam injection process has
three stages. The first stage is injection of steam into the reservoir. The second stage requires
the shut in of the well for uniforming the temperature distribution to thin the oil, and the third
stage contains the production of the oil through the same well. This cycle is repeated as long it
is economically useful.
It is recommended to apply this process for high-viscosity, high permeability, low temperatured
reservoirs, which has a low production.
The other steam injection method is steam flooding. Steam flooding requires an injection well
through which steam is injected into the formation to heat it up and a production well where the
warmed up oil is produced. The two main two main stages of this process are the time before
and after the steam breakthrough appears at the production well.
Fig. 26 Schematic diagram of a steam flood7

In order8 to the conditions one of the two methods will be more economical. It appears that there
are a number of economical cycles for each well and maybe subsequent the operator will
convert to a steam flooding process.
The great advantages of these methods are the low initial costs, high heat capacity and the
available equipment for this purpose. Steam has very convenient properties for thermal
treatment, because of its high heat content.
Heat content of steam
Fig. 27 Heat content of water vs. temperature
Fig. 27 shows the behavior of water heat content according to temperature, pressure and
BTU/Pound (1 Btus = 10055.05585 Joule). If water should be converted to steam at bubble
point temperature, one has to introduce further energy from the appearance of the first bubble
until the whole water has vaporized. During this period the temperature remains the same and
the energy introduced is somehow stored in the vapor. Thus the most Btus are transferred to
the reservoir during the condensation of the steam. On Fig. 27 it also can be seen that a higher
pressure and so a higher bubble point temperature does not result in higher heat content.
Flood zones
Looking at the steam flow process itself, there are several zones of the flood front built up in the
reservoir.
Fig. 28 Idealized steam flood9
The first is the cold, viscous oil, followed by warmer oil and hot water, and finally steam.
Laboratory tests and experiences predict an early breakthrough of the water bank in the

production well. So at first there will be a peak in water cut and then a drop off as steam breaks
through. The steam will bring more oil with it and the production becomes more economical.
Effects
Steam has not just the effect to lower the viscosity but also to remove the wellbore damage.
Asphaltic crudes have the tendency to deposit asphalts around the wellbore, causing a lowering
in reservoir pressure. The heat of the steam dissolves these solids by heating them.
Problems9 that occur are the heat losses over a period of time while pumping the steam down
the borehole as well as the heat losses vertically to areas above and below the sweep zone.
Another difficulty can be the forming of emulsion caused by water condensates. This emulsion
damages the reservoir in most of the cases. To prevent this reaction temperature resistant
surfactants are injected ahead of the steam or with it.
Subsurface equipment in steam injection systems

In steam injection processes varied operating techniques are in use. The sub-surface
equipment is subjected to extreme temperatures, which cause serious effects. Any mechanical
problems arise due to completion and production and the best way to overcome these, is to
have knowledge of the down-hole environment.
In the following part the effects10 of steam injection or production on tubing, casing and
associated equipment will be discussed. Out of various heat-transfer models described, one will
be picked for calculation of an average-casing temperature after injection or production periods.
Furthermore analysis of the elastic and plastic behavior of the casing string as well as some
schemes for stress reduction will be presented.
Effects of steam injection on casing and tubing
Through steam injection a rapid and high temperature increase appears. The linear expansion
of the tubular is proportional to the rate of change in average temperature. If elongations are
prevented, a change in stress level will result. Mathematical models are used to approximate
the magnitude to have no plastic failures.
For an injection medium flowing through tubing at temperatures above the vaporization level of
the annulus completion fluid, it was suggested that the best model to describe heat transmission
in the vapor-filled annulus may be based on radiation only. The method is transient line-source
heat-flow. It is important to mention, that many limitations have to be used for mathematical
models and so the solution should be regarded as an approximation.
Casing temperature
The average casing temperature is important for choosing completion techniques and
evaluation of elastic and plastic behavior. Based on the heat-transfer model mentioned before
and heat balance, an approximate average casing temperature for an injection period of three
months and longer can be predicted. The development of the equations is presented in the
Appendix of SPE paper 1006, Kurt Leutwyler and H. L. Bigelow: “Temperature Effects on
Subsurface Equipment In Steam Injection Systems” (1963) which is not part of this thesis
because of limited length.

tcav is the average casing temperature (°F), and l is the following constant
P is an artificial mathematical parameter linear proportional to tcav but has no physical meaning.
where tt is tubing temperature (°F). In this mathematical model injection temperature is equal to
injection temperature (°F).
Tgav is the average geothermal temperature (°F) and
Where Dt = tubing OD, in.

dc = casing ID, in.
L = casing length, ft
εt = tubing emissivity
ε0 = casing emissivity
Eq. 3 gives a graphical solution. For this purpose two parameters are picked.
By plotting U and U´ a simultaneously solution for P is found.

It was found out, that the average casing temperature is practically independent of depth.

Fig. 29 Average casing temperature effected by tubing emissivity
Fig. 29 was done for injection temperature of 600 °F and six months of injection time. It can be
seen, that the casing can be very effectively protected from temperature by lowering the
emissivity of the tubing.
Elastic and plastic behavior of the casing
An estimation for elastic and plastic behavior of the casing is important for completion
techniques and equipment design. First of all it is necessary to look at the magnitude of thermal
elongation.

Fig. 30 Thermal casing elongation vs. injection temperature
Fig. 30 shows the magnitude of thermal elongation vs. tubing or injection temperature. The ΔL
can be used to calculate the elastic and plastic stability of the casing string.
It is assumed that the string is suspended at the surface and in tension under its own weight
over the entire length. The string is fixed at both ends and it can move lateral of 1 in. and free
longitudinal between the constrained ends. A temperature increase will cause an elongation
which will reason a force F at the bottom end. Elastic and plastic behavior will be dependent on
this force F. Eq. 8 and 9 describe the relationship between ΔL and F.
E = E-module

Fig. 31 End force vs. thermal elongation
Fig. 31 illustrates that F can reach very large magnitudes although relatively underestimated
properties were used.
Fig. 32 Geothermal relationship between neutral point, length L, and depth z for a casing or tubing string

With respect to Fig. 32
Pz is the pitch helix at any depth z, n is F/w
According to the shear energy theory, stress distribution can be evaluated with
It gives an approximation of fiber stresses at the outer wall at any point in the string.
Fig. 33 represents the stress distribution.
Fig. 33 Stress distribution due to radial washouts and uniform stress distribution for representative cases
Reducing casing stresses
Already the radiation-heating of the tubing can cause a critical stress condition for the casing. In
order to reduce the stress level a pack off system to isolate the annulus from the physical
contact with the injection fluid was suggested.

Fig. 34 Retrievable and permanent high temperature packers
This device is often used when old wells are part of the injection system, because these casings
are more in danger to fail under stress conditions.
Another possibility is to place heat barriers around the tubing to insulate it. This has the effect to
lower the emitter temperature and so less stresses in the casing (see fiberglass tubular).
Tubing design
The hot injection fluid pumped through the tubing produces an elongation, which can be
calculated by Eq. 7. Because of excessive fiber stresses, tubing expansion joints are required. If
installed at surface centralizing guides should be used to avoid friction locks between tubing and
casing. Also flexible connections between surface steam lines and tubing have to be used. The
tubing expansion joint can be installed as an integrated part of a packer or in the string a few
joints above the pack off system.
Paraffins and hydrates
Temperature and pressure have a great effect on the phase behavior of oil and gas. According
to Fig. 35 it is obvious, that through a change in temperature or pressure the two phase area
can be entered and properties become different.
Depending on the composition of a crude, also some sort of solids can appear like asphalts or
paraffins. These substances can deposit at surfaces of equipments and cause a reduction of
the diameter or even plug pipes and valves.

Liquid 1 Undersaturated
Mole % Liq.
100
2 Saturated
Pressure Critical Point
3
e
Lin
Sep.
e
int
75
Lin
Po
t
le-
oin
50
Gas
bb
-P
Bu
ew
25
D
0
Temperature
Fig. 35 Phase diagram of a low shrinkage crude oil11
Paraffin prevention
Paraffin12 is the formation of an organic deposit in oil production equipment (tubings, flow lines,
manifolds etc.). The most troublemaking hydrocarbons are ranging from C18H38 to C38H78.
The oil under reservoir conditions, where pressures are above bubble point is normally under
saturated with paraffins. Also the temperature is high enough to prevent wax precipitation. But
when the oil is pumped up to the surface there is a drop in temperature due to cooling of the
adjacent formation. At a certain point in the well depending on temperature and pressure
behavior the oil will become saturated with wax and with further rising a cloud of wax particles
form.
Factors that can affect the forming of paraffins are:

1. Temperature gradient
Paraffins mostly occur at points of sudden temperature change, how it is present when
gas liberates under the fluids bubble point pressure or when the fluid passes an
abnormally cool formation or under winter weather conditions at the surface, which is
the reason for a rapid heat loss in the equipment.
2. Flow surface roughness

In Fig. 36 it is easy to see how the roughness of the surface effects the forming of
paraffins. The wax has not the tendency to adhere to the pipe but it is held in place by
irregularities in the flow surface.
3. Flow volume
It is also self explaining that a higher flow stream will cause higher shear stresses and
thus it is more difficult for the paraffins to connect to each other and to build up a layer
at the surface.

Fig. 36 Paraffin deposition
4. Gas production
It was found that in gassy wells the deposit of the paraffins is harder and less plastic.
The reason is the gas trapped between the paraffin molecules. If oil is trapped it makes
the deposit softer. Basically this occurs because the trapped fluid tends to dissolve the
paraffin molecules and softens it.
Paraffins problems account for a very significant amount of the operating cost. In the past two
types of treatment were used. Mechanically the removal was done with paraffin knifes, hooks,
corkscrews etc.. The tool had to be moved through the paraffin and loosened paraffins were
burned at the surface. This had to be done frequently otherwise a significant reduce in
production appears.
Another method was to pump heated water or oil down the annulus and up the tubing. The goal
was to heat up the tubing to get the paraffins solved again. This is very risky, because a casing
collapse13 often appears caused by heat expansion of the steel. If the casing bursts, the well
can be lost. It is strongly not recommended to do paraffin prevention using this method.
The big disadvantage of all these processes is the production loss during treatment and
resulting high costs, as well as the burning of the cuttings results in a detrimental environment
problem.
To overcome these problems other paraffin prevention techniques were developed. The use of
plastic coated tubular goods and fiberglass surface lines in addition with paraffin inhibition
chemicals makes it possible.
The main reason for the better performance of plastic coated and fiberglass tubular is the lower
heat transfer coefficient, which causes less heat losses and so a warmer medium with lower
risk of paraffin appearance. In addition the surface of these tubular is smoother in comparison
with steel tubular with the result that paraffins can´t deposit that easy.
A sever paraffin problem only arises when there is sufficient attraction of the paraffin molecules.
Paraffin inhibition molecules basically reduce the cohesive strength of the paraffin molecules.
Through the use of these prevention methods the costs for paraffin displacement could be
reduced drastically.

Hydrates
Hydrates14 can be grained or solid substances, which can be formed by hydrocarbon-gas in

addition of free water under special pressure and temperature conditions. Through these solids
severe production problems can appear similar to them caused by paraffins according to oil. In
both cases it is possible that the tubing string or flow line gets totally plugged.
The presence of free water is the most needed circumstance for the building of gas hydrates,
thus gas is dehydrated before it is injected into the pipeline system. Every gas composition has
a specific line in the p, T diagram above which hydrates appear. As a rule of thumb it can be
predicted, that the higher the pressure and the lower the temperature of the flowing gas, the
higher the danger of hydrates. A way to lower the hydrate appearance temperature is to inject
methanol or glycol.
If the gas gets cooled too much especially when a gas dehydration facility is started and the
flow lines are cold, a heater is needed to warm up the gas to prevent hydrate appearance after
going from high pressure to facility pressure (Joule-Thompson-effect). Once hydrates appear
they lower the cross section area of a pipe and so an additional pressure drop is present which
causes even more cooling of the gas by expansion and more hydrates. It should be mentioned
at this point, that the build-up of a gas dehydration facility is not part of this thesis.
Geothermal energy
Oil companies have already realized that they need renewable energies, because the oil and
gas reserves are declining and although no one can predict exactly when they end, it is fact that
they will. Hence it can be seen, that the oil industry also works on energy sources like wind
energy etc..
Geothermal energy is with no dough the largest energy reserve we have on this planet. It is
very likely that this source will sooner or later become the main energy supply for our economy
simply for logical reasons. The energy in form of heat is almost there and doesn´t need to be
produced, it is generally available anywhere in the world and its amount is so big that it would
last for millions of years. It15 has been stated that the heat stored to a depth of 6 miles under the
surface of just the United States is equivalent to the energy derived from burning 900 trillion
barrels of oil. Again theoretically, if the Earth´s center could be cooled only one degree
Fahrenheit it would release enough heat energy to run existing power plants for 20 million
years.
An outlook on the future
So far geothermal energy is not very much in use, maybe because the focus of energy supply is
very strong on resources like coal, oil and gas, nuclear power, wood, water and wind. According
to the oil industry there exist ideas that can have a big effect on the whole business.
Paraffin and hydrate prevention by the use of geothermal energy
Paraffin and hydrate prevention is a big issue in the oil and gas industry. The causes of paraffin
and hydrate appearance are presented above. We could use the heat that´s already there in
the subsurface.
One14 possibility would be to install the choke valve near bottom-hole in the tubing (or casing)
where the surrounding temperature is higher and nearly constant compared with the surface
and so the appearance of paraffin and hydrates is less probable. In the case of gas it is usual to

regulate the amount of flux at the heater and by-pass valve at the surface. Temperatures
around 0°C which can also appear in deserts during the night, minus degrees in European
winters and very low temperatures in the northern countries like Norway or Siberia in Russia
can cause a severe problem with hydrates. Through this subsurface installation it could be
possible to avoid the use of a heater and additional energy. The efficiency would be even better
if special tubings are used (see following points).
At the moment according to gas dehydration facilities in northern Germany every facility has a
heater for hydrate prevention (see hydrates). Energy is used to heat up the gas and a cooler is
used to lower the temperature for glycol dehydration because depending on which glycol is
used, the most efficient temperature for dehydration is 25°C to 30°C. To stay objective it has to
be mentioned, that the heater is manly in use for starting the gas dehydration facility and that
the heater and the cooler don´t work against each other if the facility is adjusted the right way,
but still money and energy is used that could be avoided.
Another idea to use the heat of mother earth would be the following. If the oil and gas wells
would be drilled deeper than the layers to be perforated and the flow of the fluid would be forced
to go down to warmer regions before it flows up to the surface, it would be heated up by the
geothermal warmth and no extra energy would be needed. This could also avoid the use of a
heater at the surface. Here it has to be mentioned, that it is necessary to use special tubings for
this purpose, what leads to the next point.
Heat transfer coefficient, thermal diffusivity and thermal conduction
It is not enough to heat up the oil or gas, because the warmth is needed at the surface. To
transport the fluid up ways the usual steal tubings and casings are the wrong choice. The
problem is the heat transfer according to the material in use.
Heat transfer coefficient
The heat transfer coefficient is the amount of energy that flows through a cross section area of 1
m² per second when a ∆T of one Kelvin (stationary air temperature) is present between the one
and the other side. Its unit is [W/K*m²] or [J/K*m²*s] and the sign for the heat transfer coefficient
is U (former k). The heat transfer coefficient is known as some sort of insulation number. The
lower the heat transfer coefficient the better the insulation.
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity is similar to the heat transfer coefficient. It is the potential of a material to
transfer heat energy by conduction. λ = (Q*l) / (A*t*∆T) thus its unit is [J*m/m2*s*K] → [J/m*s*K]
or [W/m*K]. λ (also in use are k and κ) is a constant of a material for a defined surrounding
temperature and humidity. Here are some values to get e feeling for different materials: (at 0°C,
unit [W/m*K]) iron (λ = 79.5), steel (λ = 48-58), water (λ = 0.58), oil (λ = 0.13-0.15], fiberglass (λ
= 0.04), air (λ = 0.0261), xenon (λ = 0.0051), vacuum (λ = 0).
Thermal diffusivity
Thermal diffusivity is another variable that deals with heat transfer. It is the temporary change of
a three-dimensional distribution of a temperature by heat transfer. It describes a dynamic
process, the change of temperature with time, while the heat transfer coefficient and the thermal
conductivity represent a static condition. The thermal diffusivity is a = λ/ρ*cp where λ is the
thermal conductivity, ρ is the density and cp is the specific heat capacity.

Fiberglass tubular
For16 logical reasons a material with a minimum heat transfer is wanted, to provide that a
minimum of heat energy gets lost when the oil or gas flows up to the surface. Already in use are
fiberglass tubular which have a thermal conduction (λ, [W/m*K]) of about 0.04, which is much
less in comparison with steel (λ, [W/m*K]) of 48-58. Fiber glass tubular have even more
advantages because of their corrosion resistance especially when subjected to H2S or CO2 in
combination with salt water. This effect reduces the maintenance costs, the costs for internal
and external coatings, cathodic protection and chemical inhibitors. Of cause fiberglass tubular
are also lighter than normal steel tubular what makes them easier to handle. But to be objective
there are also problems with fiberglass tubular like their visco elastic behavior which means that
a string will lengthen with time, there appears easier a handling damage compared with steel
tubular and resulting out of that special tongs are needed to avoid damage at the surface of the
pipes.
The idea of vacuum
Looking at the heat transfer coefficients of different materials it is recognized that 0 is reached
just by vacuum, because conduction needs a medium to transport the energy. The idea behind
is the same as for acoustic insulation, because even there a medium is needed to transport the
acoustic waves. If there would be the possibility to create chambers with vacuum and even if
they would have a thickness of just a tenth of a millimeter this would be sufficient that no heat
could trespass this barrier in terms of conduction. This would mean that heat transfer could just
appear though the walls of the chambers. The problem of electro-magnetic radiation which
transports also a great amount of heat could be avoided as good as possible with a high
reflective surface of the chambers following the same principle like for a thermos flask.
An alternative to vacuum would be xenon, which has a very low thermal conduction (λ = 0.0051
[W/m*K] at 0°C), because down hole the chambers are subjected to very high pressures and
vacuum would not act against this force when the chamber is under compression, so this could
be a problem. In this case if the chambers would be filled with Xenon the compressed gas
would work against the incoming pressure and maybe another positive effect would be the
warming of the gas under pressure. Maybe such a chamber-system could work as insulation for
steel tubular or also in combination with fiberglass tubular. But to see if this idea could work and
to have accurate predictions, research and testing is necessary.
Efficient use of energy
The examples given above are possible ways to reduce the consumption of additional energy.
With focus on geothermal energy and use of heat there are still other issues that should be
discussed.
Burning gas
The following suggestions concerning to point of “Burning gas” don´t strictly belong to “Heat
transfer in boreholes” but are mentioned additional for completeness in the sense of efficient
energy use.
In the later past hydrocarbon gas was burned, because there was just interest in oil and gas
was just a “useless” by-product. Nowadays the gas energy supply is an important part of the oil
industry. But still a lot of gas is burned inefficiently.

A constant spark
Normally the torch at a gas dehydration facility is burning all the time for safety reasons.
There for a lot of gas is burned and the produced heat is lost. Maybe it is possible to
install a device at the torch that produces electrically a constant spark, which provides
an inflammation at any weather condition and constant burning could be avoided. This
would reduce emissions and costs.
An additional use of the flash gas compressor
It is usual to burn the flash gases from the formation water tank at a gas dehydration
facility. Because of emission limitations and economical reasons there have been
already been installed flash gas compressors that pressure up the gas and inject it into
the pipeline system, but the main part of facilities is not upgraded with this unit. Every
gas burned at the torch is lost energy and the produced heat has no use as well as
emissions appear.
When repair work or a pressure build up has to be done at a gas dehydration facility
the gas in the specific part or in the whole facility pipe system has to be replaced
(nitrogen injection). Normally the gas is burned because it can´t be injected into the
pipeline system for the reason of no pressure available to overcome the pressure of
the pipeline system. In this case a flash gas compressor unit could be used to provide
the needed pressure and the gas could be used instead of burning it.
If the compressor unit can´t pressure up the gas in sufficient time, it could be stored in
the formation water tank. For this purpose the tank should be designed for certain
pressures, which is not generally done because normally no pressures higher than in
the range of mbar should appear.
Use of geothermal energy for surface facilities
When the fluid is heated up down hole and the tubing would avoid as good as possible heat
losses on the way to the surface, it could be possible to use this energy for surface facilities. A
heat exchanger would be an option to transfer energy from the fluid. With respect to gas
dehydration facilities a heat exchanger could replace the cooler, where actually the hot air is just
blown away.
Use of wells for geothermal power plants
A well is an artificial connection to geothermal regions of our earth. Maybe the oil industry
should think of geothermal use of wells before they are plugged at the end of their production
phase or even while they are drilled because to do additional drilling afterwards could be very
money and time consuming. This would also fit with the mentioned idea of drilling deeper than
the depth of the layers of interest for heating up the fluid.
A possible future vision could be that most of the wells after production are used for geothermal
power plants. In fact the oil industry has lots of wells and so connections to geothermal zones
as well as the equipment and the knowledge to drill new geothermal wells. This potential could
open a new door to the energy supply business, which is no longer dependent on a strictly
limited resource.

References
1. Howard B. Bradley: “Petroleum Engineering Handbook” (1987)
2. SPE paper 131, Wayne A. Walker: “Well Completions-Cementing Composition for Thermal Recovery Wells”
(1962)
3. SPE paper 2320, L.R. Raymond: “Temperature Distribution in a Circulating Drilling Fluid” (1969)
4. SPE paper 8224, Bill G. Chesser and Dorothy P. Enright: “ High –Temperature Stabilization of Drilling Fluids With
a Low-Molecular-Weight Copolymer” (1980)
5. SPE paper 2497, N. F. Whitsitt and G. R. Dysart: “The Effect of Temperature On Stimulation Design” (1970)
6. www.slb.com
7. SPE paper 1950, Abdus Satter: “A Prediction Method for Conduction heating of Reservoirs by Steam Injection”
(1967)
8. SPE paper 1666, C. H. Holland, Jr.: “The Basic Effects of Steam in a Reservoir” (1966)
9. SPE paper 1142, J. V. Howard: “Status of Thermal Recovery”
10. SPE paper 1006, Kurt Leutwyler and H. L. Bigelow: “Temperature Effects on Subsurface Equipment In Steam
Injection Systems” (1963)
11. Zoltan E. Heinemann and Brigitte E. Weinhardt: “Textbook Series (Volume 2) Reservoir Fluids” (2005)
12. SPE paper 3352, Bruce L. Bummer: “Impoved Paraffin Prevention Techniques Reduce Operating Costs, Powder
River Basin, Wyoming” (1971)
13.Waldvogel, Gas.DOC, “Deutsche Bohrmeisterschule Celle, Aufbereitung von Erdgas“
14. lecture “Erdöl- und Erdgasproduktionstechnik”, Prof. Herbert Hofstätter
15. SPE paper 4176, B. P. Bayliss: “ Introduction to Geothermal Energy”
16. SPE paper 19728, G. G. Huntoon and J. D. Alkire: “Design and Performance of Oilfield Fiberglass Tublulars”
* the picture shows the rotating fluid flow down a pipe in a velocity vector field

Appendix
Temperature distribution in a circulating drilling fluid
Mathematical model and treatment

Discussion of mathematical model
The circulation of fluid during the drilling operation has been represented schematically in Fig. 8,
and the process of circulation has been separated into three district phases: (1) fluid enters the
drill pipe at the surface and passes down the drill pipe; (2) fluid exits the drill pipe through the bit
and enters the annulus at the bottom; and (3 fluid passes up the annulus and exits the annulus
at the surface.
The following assumptions are made to obtain the desired differential equations.
1. Axial conduction of heat in the fluid is negligible compared with axial convection. This is an
excellent assumption for the circulating rates normally encountered in the circulation of drilling
mud.
2. There are no radial gradients in the fluid in either the drill pipe or the annulus. Since the fluid
is in turbulent flow in the drill pipe and well mixed every 90 ft in the annulus because of tool
joints and drill collars, this also is an excellent assumption.
3. The fluid´s properties (heat capacity, density, and thermal conductivity) do not change
significantly with temperature.
4. Heat generation by viscous dissipation in the fluid is negligible.
In the first phase, the fluid enters the drill pipe at a specified temperature, TD0. As the fluid
passes down the pipe, its temperature is determined by the rates at which (1) heat is convected
down the drill pipe, (2) heat is exchanged between the drill pipe and the annulus, and (3) the
temperature of the drill-pipe fluid changes with time. Consequently, the equation that describes
the temperature of the fluid in the drill pipe as a function of time, t, and depth, Z, is
In Eq. 1 it has been assumed that the over-all heat transfer coefficient, U, is independent of
depth and time. Since it has been previously assumed that the fluid properties are independent
of temperature, this is a good assumption. The second phase of the circulating process requires
that the fluid temperature at the exit of the drill pipe be the same as the fluid temperature at the
entrance of the annulus; i.e., TD (L, T) = TA (L, t). Thus, in the third phase the fluid enters the
annulus at TD (L, t). As the fluid flows up the annulus, its temperature is determined by the rates
at which (1) heat is convected up the annulus, (2) heat is exchanged between the annulus and
the drill pipe, (3) heat is exchanged between the formation adjacent to the annulus and the fluid
in the annulus, and (4) the temperature of the annular fluid changes with time. Consequently,
the equation that describes the temperature of the fluid in the annulus as a function of t and Z is

Since the thermal conductivity of the formation adjacent to the wellbore is small, it will be
assumed that there is no transfer of heat by conduction in the vertical direction in the formation.
Hence, the formation temperature Tf(rw, Z, t) is controlled by the radial diffusivity equation,
Eq. 3 is coupled with Eq. 2 through the rate of heat transferred between the fluid in the annulus
and the formation. This requires that the flux of heat out of the formation be the same as the flux
of heat into the annulus; that is, at any depth Z,
Hence, the temperature profiles in the drill pipe, annulus, and formation can be obtained by
solving Eq. 1 through 3, with the additional requirement specified by Eq. 4 once appropriate
initial and boundary conditions are specified.
Numerical method for unsteady state conditions

The transient temperature profiles used here are obtained as follows:
1. Using the specified circulating conditions, physical dimensions of the system, and fluid
properties, calculate the heat transfer coefficients hf and U from the Sieder-Tate correlation
(Sieder, E. N, and Tate, G. E.: “Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop of Liquids in Tubes”, Ind, and
Eng. Chem. (1936) 1429.).
2. Using the initial condition (geothermal temperature) t = 0, calculate the drill-pipe and annular
temperature profiles at t = ∆t by solving Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 by explicit finite differences. The
formation temperature, Tf (rw, t, Z), used in the first step of the calculations is the geothermal
temperature at depth Z.
3. From the calculated annular profile, calculate the flux of heat into the annulus from the
formation.
4. Based on the flux just found, calculate the formation temperature, Tf (rw, ∆t, Z), using the
Hurst-van Everdingen Ptd (van Everdingen, A. F. and Hurst, W.: “The Application of the Laplace
Transformation to Flow Problems in Reservoirs”, Trans., AIME (1949) 186,305-324.
5. Using this value of Tf, calculate the drill-pipe and annular temperature profiles, the flux, and
the formation temperature. This iterative procedure is continued until the flux or the formation
temperature does not change significantly with iteration number.
6. At the next time step, ∆t2, use the previous values of the heat flux between the annulus and
the formation, and the principle of superposition, to predict Tf (rw, ∆t1 + ∆t2, Z). Then the drill.-
pipe and annular temperature profiles are calculated as before, and the iteration is continued
until the calculations converge for t = ∆t1 + ∆t2.

7. This process is continued until the calculations are completed for the total circulation time, tT.
Through this process the profiles are generated for transient drill-pipe temperature, annular
temperature, and borehole wall temperature.
Solution of pseudo steady state condition

Consider the problem given by Eq. 5 and Eq. 6 at any time, t. At this time there is a borehole
wall temperature distribution Tf (Z, t). The boundary conditions are:
Where TD0 is the inlet temperature and is assumed constant only for mathematical convenience.
Take the Laplace transformation of Eq. 5 and 6 to obtain
Where TA0 is the outlet temperature from the annulus, S is the Laplace transformation variable,
and G = ρVAAA = ρVDAA. To meet the boundary condition at Z = L, TA0 must be chosen such
that TD (L, t) = TA (L, t). Eq. A-1 and A-2 are a set of algebraic equations that must be solved for
and . Using Cramer´s rule, one obtains

Note that the denominator in each of Eq. A-3 and A-4 is a quadratic equation in the transform variable,
S. Hence Eq. A-3 and A-4 can be inverted (with the roots of the quadratic) to obtain the temperature
profiles. These roots are
From Eq. A-6 and A-7, TA0 can be chosen such that TA (L, t) = TD (L, t). This requires

Hence, relationships for TA (Z, t) and TD (Z, t) can be obtained in terms of Z, t, and the inlet temperature, .

How to Use Charts

To predict the bottom-hole fluid temperature of a field, record the outlet temperature, circulating rate,
mud weight, and depth after 5 to 6 hours of circulation. Then use the charts in Figs.14 through 17 to
predict the bottom-hole fluid temperature for the proper mud type, as follows:
1. If the mud type is oil, use Figs. 14 and 16 to predict ∆T. If the mud type is water, use Figs. 15 and 17
to predict ∆T.
2. Use the depth of the well and the circulating rate to enter the ∆T vs. Q charts; find the ∆T for 10 lb/gal
and 18 lb/gal mud by linear interpolation for depth on the charts.
3. Interpolate the results from Step 2 for correct mud weight.
4. Add this ∆T to outlet temperature.
Example Problem
Fluid has been circulated at 280gal/min for 6 hours in a 22,400-ft well using a 15lb/gal oil-based mud.
The outlet temperature is 146.5 °F. What is the bottom-hole fluid temperature?
Enter the chart for Q = 280 (Fig. 14) and read
∆T20,000 ft = 94 °F;
∆T25,000 ft = 153 °F.
This is shown by the dotted lines on Fig. 14. Then by interpolation,
Oil-based mud.
Similarly, enter Fig. 16 (see dotted lines) and obtain ∆T22,400 = 129 °F for an 18 lb/gal oil-based
mud. Then, by interpolation again,
Thus the bottom-hole fluid temperature is 126 + 146.5 = 272.5 F. The maximum fluid
temperature (which occurs in the annulus at about 18,000 ft) is approximately 290 °F.

Stimulation design

Derivation of the Fracture Fluid Temperature Distribution Equation

The method and models selected for predicting the temperature distribution of the fracturing fluid
with respect to both time and position within the fracture entails coupling two interrelated models.
The first model is that of a thermal energy balance made on a fluid element heated by heat flow
from the formation rock on either side of the fracture. This is illustrated in Fig. 37 where uh (η, t) is
the heat flux from the formation rock into the fluid element contained within the fracture itself. This
appendix is devoted to developing and solving the energy balance equations on the fluid within the
fracture — the element illustrated in Fig. 37. However, to obtain this solution it is also required that
an expression for the heat flux from the formation into the fluid within the fracture, uh (η, t), be
obtained. This problem is discussed in detail in Appendix B. Appendix B is not contained in this
bakkalaurea thesis because this would even more enlarge the limited size what is not supposed to
be. If regarded it can be found in SPE paper 2497, N. F. Whitsitt and G. R. Dysart: “The Effect of
Temperature on Stimulation Design” (1970).
Fig. 37 Illustration of thermal model of fluid in fracture
The analysis and the thermal model are developed for the vertical fracture only since it is generally
felt that this type of fracturing occurs in wells deep enough to encounter temperature problems. It
is assumed that the heat exchange between the incremental formation elements can be neglected.
This heat flow in the formation is considered to be one-dimensional into the fluid in the fracture. In
this study, the convective heat transfer coefficient is so high compared with the conductance of the
fluid-saturated formation that the temperature of the fluid and the surface of the fracture are taken
as equal. The heat convected into and out of the fluid element is of such proportion that the heat
conducted in the fluid in the direction of flow is negligible.
To maintain as realistic a model as possible, the fluid leadoff rate was taken to be a linear function
of the distance along the fracture. The leadoff was assumed to vary from zero at the wellbore to a
maximum at the end of the growing fracture, a time-dependent function. This leadoff model is
representative of a fracture job that uses additives to minimize fluid leadoff.
The thermal model of the fracture is shown in Fig. 37. Heat transfer from the top and bottom of this
element has been neglected. Also, the change in energy content of an element of fluid in the
fracture is assumed negligible when compared with the energy convected into and out of the
element. An energy balance on this element yields

A mass balance on this same element yields
By introducing Eq. A-2 into Eq. A-1 and reducing, the energy balance can be expressed in
differential form as
The expression for the heat flux from the formation face into the fracture is developed in
Appendix B (see SPE paper 2497, N. F. Whitsitt and G. R. Dysart: “The Effect of Temperature
On Stimulation Design” (1970)) and is given by
where
Substituting Eq. A-4 into Eq. A-3,
where, as defined in Appendix B,
Eq. A-6 shows that both w and ψ (η) are functionally related to the distance from the wellbore, x,
through the variation of w and wL. This is seen from Eq. A-2, which can be reduced to
and the boundary conditions we have chosen to impose on the leadoff into the formation,
namely
and the further restrain that the leadoff rate varies linearly between x = 0 and x = L; i.e.,
After the first boundary condition is applied and Eq. A-8 is inserted,
After integrating and applying the last two boundary conditions,

Then
and
Returning to Eq. A-6, substituting Eq. A-12, and combining Eq. A-13 with Eq. A-7, we have
and
Further generalizing these equations by nondimensionalizing the temperature and distance

from the wellbore as
gives
and
where
Now we can separate η into its parts, which are functionally related to fluid and formation
properties K, time t, and position within the fracture, xD.
Integrating Eq. A-17 gives the nondimensionalized temperature distribution in the fracture at any
time as

The multiplier of this integral can be arranged in terms of K*sqr(t) as
In terms of K*sqr(t) and xD, Eq. A-19 becomes
Where the expression is defined (with the substitution of Eq. A-5 and A-7), by
This integral must be evaluated numerically. This has been done using Simpson´s rule for
nondimensionalized positions, xD, of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 for K*sqr (t) values ranging from 0 to
2.5. These results are given in Fig. 38.
Fig. 38 Transient fracture temperature distribution function
Eq. A-21 is given explicitly below in terms of the temperature of the fracturing fluid by taking its
antilog and recalling the definition of Eq. A-16

Heat Transfer in Boreholes

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Alexander Heger

Heat transfer in boreholes

Supervised by: Prof. Herbert Hofstätter

Focus on drilling ......................................................................................................................... 10

Focus on production .................................................................................................................. 24

References ................................................................................................................................... 43

Fig. 3 Ideal-temperature curves of a fluid migrating through casing hole ........................................ 8

Fig. 5 Thickening time....................................................................................................................... 11

Fig. 6 Compressive strength ............................................................................................................ 12

Fig. 7 Per cent weight loss and shrinkage ....................................................................................... 12

Fig. 8 Fluid circulation ....................................................................................................................... 13

Fig. 9 Effect of time on temperature for a simulated well................................................................ 15

Fig. 13 Temperature trace of various depths in a simulated well ................................................... 18

Fig. 20 Fracture transient temperature distribution during stimulation ........................................... 25

Fig. 21 Effect of pumping rate on fracture temperature .................................................................. 25

Fig. 22 Effect of temperature on fracturing ...................................................................................... 26

Fig. 26 Schematic diagram of a steam flood7.................................................................................. 28

Fig. 27 Heat content of water vs. temperature ................................................................................ 29

Fig. 28 Idealized steam flood9 .......................................................................................................... 29

Fig. 29 Average casing temperature effected by tubing emissivity ................................................ 32

Fig. 30 Thermal casing elongation vs. injection temperature ......................................................... 33

Fig. 31 End force vs. thermal elongation ......................................................................................... 34

Fig. 34 Retrievable and permanent high temperature packers ...................................................... 36

Fig. 35 Phase diagram of a low shrinkage crude oil11 .................................................................... 37

Fig. 36 Paraffin deposition ................................................................................................................ 38

Fig. 37 Illustration of thermal model of fluid in fracture.................................................................... 51

Fig. 38 Transient fracture temperature distribution function ........................................................... 54

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 5

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 6

Introducing the topic

Temperature distribution in boreholes

Fig. 1 Average heat conductivity of common sediments (Btu/hr-sq ft-°F)

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 7

Normal Temperature Gradient

→Formation from which fluid is migrating

←Formation into which fluid is migrating

(A) Gas migrating upward

(B) Liquid migrating upward

(C) Gas migrating downward

(D) Liquid migrating downward

(E) Gas migrating downward to casing hole, then up

(F) Fluid migrating downward to casing hole, then up

(G) Gas migrating up to casing hole, then down

(H) Liquid migrating up to casing hole, then down

Fig. 3 Ideal-temperature curves of a fluid migrating through casing hole

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 8

Fig. 4 Two possible effects of cement behind casing on temperature gradient

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 9

High temperature cementing composition

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 10

Fig. 5 Thickening time

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 11

Fig. 6 Compressive strength

Fig. 7 Per cent weight loss and shrinkage

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 12

Temperature distribution in a drilling fluid

Temperature behavior during circulation

Circulation of fluid during the drilling operation is shown basically Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Fluid circulation

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 13

Author: Alexander Heger Page: 14

Unsteady state solution

Explanation of the equations:

Fig. 9 Effect of time on temperature for a simulated well