Introduction to Shell Structures

Assoc. Prof. Adrian Dogariu

Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
General
• Metalic shells
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
General
• Natural shells
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
General
• Natural shells
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
General
• Definition:
• A shell is a thin structure composed of curved sheets of material,
so that the curvature plays an important role in the structural
behavior, realizing a spatial form
• Motivation:
• A shell is the most efficient way of using the material, and can be
very useful in case o storage of fluids and solids (uniform loads)
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Difficulties

• The curved form may lead to different failure modes and often
unexpected behavior occurs
• The analytical formulas are very complex and complicated in
comparison with all the other structural forms

• Shell structures are very attractive light weight structures which are
especially suited to building as well as industrial applications.
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Range of application

• The shell structure is typically found

• in nature
• as well as in classical architecture.

• There are two principal uses of shells in civil engineering:

• industrial structures:
– silos, tanks, cooling towers, reactor vessels etc.
• aesthetic and architectural special structures
 Main documents

• Eurocode on strength and stability of Steel Shell

Structures – EN1993 Part 1.6 (2007)
• Generic normative standard on shells for
chimneys, towers, masts, silos, tanks, pipelines
• Buckling of Steel Shells European Design
Recommendations 5th Edition (ECCS – 2008)

8
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
General
• Built structural shells
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
General
• Built structural shells

Reinforced concrete
Steel
Aluminium alloys
Plastics
Glass
Timber
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Structural typologies

Eliptic paraboloid Hyperbolic paraboloid

Circular cylinder/cone
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Structural typologies
Shells are the most difficult form of structure to analyse and the form with
the most complex behaviour. As a result, all but the simplest conditions
must be analysed using computers.
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Examples – Steel reticulated dome
US pavilion Expo 67 Montreal
Architect: Buckminster Fuller & Shoji Sadao

The 250ft diameter by 200ft high dome roughly

presents a three-quarter sphere, while geodesic
domes before 1967 were hemispherical. The dome
consists of steel pipes and 1,900 acrylic panels. To
keep the indoor temperature acceptable, the design
included mobile triangular panels that would move
over the inner surface following the sun. Although
brilliant on paper, this feature was too advanced for
its time and never worked.
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Examples – Aluminium alloy reticulated dome
Spruce Goose dome, Long Beach, USA
Architect: R. Duell and Associates
Engineer/builder: Temcor

A - Aluminum cover plate with silicone seal

B - Aluminum gusset plates, bolted to struts
C - Aluminum batten secure silicone gaskets
D - Triangular aluminum panels
E - Wide-flange aluminum struts
F - Stainless steel bolts
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Examples – Timber-steel free form grid shell
Multi-hall, Mainz, Germany
Architect: Mutschler, Frei Otto, consultant
Engineer: Ove Arup

The multi-purpose dome for the 1975 garden

show spans max. 60m with 50x50mm twin
wood slats of 50cm squares that deformed into
rhomboids.

1 - Form-finding model
2 - Interior
3 - Mesh detail (steel bands resist shear)
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Examples – Timber-steel free form grid shell
Architect: Thomas Herzog
Engineer: Julius Natterer

Wood grid shell with PTFE membrane

The theme pavilion advanced the philosophy:
• Wood is the only renewable material
• Requires the least energy for production
• Use of wood maintains healthy forests
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Shell Analysis

Curved
shapes Bending stress state
Continuous
Membrane stress state
Plated
Shell structures
Reticulated (bar structures)

• Continuous (or reticulated) shells

• Linear behaviour
• Non-linear behaviour
• Elastic
• Elastic-plastic
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Shell Design
• Resistance
• Stability
• Highly sensitive to imperfections
• Buckling is a process by which a structure cannot withstand loads with its original
shape, so that it changes this shape in order to find a new equilibrium
configuration. This is an undesired process (from the point of view of the
engineer), and occurs for a well–defined value of the load.
• The consequences of buckling are basically geometric:
• The are large displacements in the structure
• There may also be consequences for the material, in the sense that
deflections may induce plasticity in the walls of the structure

Local buckling Global buckling

of a tank of a wind
turbine tower
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Steel Shell Design: Codification

Conceptual design
Design for strength and buckling
Detailing
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Behavioural phenomenology of shells
• Behavior of a given structure (slender!) can be controlled by design if
the three characteristic ranges of load-deformation curve are correctly
defined
• Pre-critical range P
• Critical point (or range)
• Post-critical range
Pcr Post-critical
Critical point range

Pre-critical range

P(0, Pcr]  Structural stability

D
P > Pcr  Structural instability
elastic
Buckling: plastic
dynamic
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Behavioural phenomenology of shells
• Instability phenomenon e.g. bifurcation instability of cylinders

N xsup
,cr

N xinf
,cr

L
L
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Behavioural phenomenology of shells
• Instability phenomenon – Jump of Equilibrium or Snap Through Instability
• Affects shallow arches and shells, reticulated shells

EREN Exhibition hall,

Bucharest, 1963
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Critical and post-critical behaviour of elastic structures
P

u length
w Perfect bar (unloaded) P

(unloaded)
w

length
P
u Perfect
length w
cylinder Perfect
(unloaded) P plate
u

P
P Perfect plate
P Perfect P
bar Perfect cylindrical
Pcr Pcr shell
Pcr
A
Imperfect
Imperfect plate
bar Imperfect cylindrical
shell

w0
w w0
w
w0 w

Columns Cylinders Plates

indifferent post-critical path unstable post-critical path stable post-critical path
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Favourable and unfavourable effects of spatiality
• Curvature effect in axial compression

 2E  t 
2

 cr , p   
31   2   b 
 2E  t 
2 2
E b
 cr ,c  2  
 2 
31     b  4  r 

Stable Unstable
component component

increase in sensitivity to
increase in critical load
geometrical imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Favourable and unfavourable effects of spatiality
• Curvature effect in axi-symetrical compression

increase in sensitivity to
increase in critical load
geometrical imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Coupled instabilities for plate and shell elements

W – weak interaction
M – moderate interaction
S – strong interaction
VS – very strong interaction
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Coupled instabilities for plate and shell elements
• Erosion of Theoretical Critical Buckling Load
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Instability phenomena: Influence of imperfections
• Agreement of theoretical and experimental values

bars

shells
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Instability phenomena: basic types and models
• Dynamic propagation of instability or progressive instability
• Domino effect
(double layer grids)
• Instability propagation
(single layer reticulated shells)
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Models and Methods of Analysis
• Pre-Critical, Critical and Post-Critical Analysis

• Generic classification of structures in terms of characteristic instability

types and sensitivity to imperfections
• Linear, nonlinear, elastic, plastic models
• Linear buckling analysis (eigen-buckling) – LBA
• Geometrical nonlinear imperfection analysis – GNIA
• Geometrical material nonlinear imperfection analysis – GMNIA
• Pre-critical solver methods (Newton – Raphson) or
• Post-critical solver methods (Arc-length); Designed load checking or
load-deformation curve
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Models and Methods of Analysis
• Design flowchart for the Design of Shells according to EN 1993-1-6
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Methods of Analysis – Global Frame Analysis
• Finite Elements Methods for Analysis and Design

Load-displacement curves found using different

analyses of the same structure (Rotter, 2011)
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Basic modes for behaviour
a) Membrane
b) Bending shell
c) Shell like a member

a)

c)
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Basic Equations
• Simplified Linear Shell Theory
• The Love-Kirchhoff assumptions (simplified model)
• The shell thickness is negligibly small in comparison with the least radius of
curvature of the shell middle surface (shell is thin)
• Strains and displacements that arise within the shell are small (products of
deformations quantities that occur in the derivation of the theory may be
neglected, ensuring that the system is described by a set of geometrically
linear equations)
• Straight lines that are normal to the middle surface prior to deformation
remain straight and normal to the middle surface during deformation and
experience no change in length (analogue to hypothesis for beams – plane
sections before bending remain plane after bending)
• The direct stress actin in the direction normal to the shell middle surface is
negligible (not valid in the vicinity of concentrated transverse loads)
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Model of an axi-symmetrical Loaded Shell

Model of an axisymetrically
loaded shell

Geometrical parameter of the

spherical shell
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• General Rotation Shell
• Membrane Theory: Equilibrium Equations for Unsymmetrical Actions

 N


N r0 

r1  N r1 cos   Yr1r0  0

 N

 
r0 N   r1  N r1 cos  Xr0r1  0


N N
 z0
r1 r2
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Cylindrical Shells
• Bending Theory Axisymmetric Loading

dN x
a  dx  d  0
dx
dQx
a  dx  d  N dx  d  Z  a  dx  d  0
dx
dM x
a  dx  d  Qx  a  dx  d  0
dx

d 4w Eh Eh3
 wZ D
;
 
D
dx 4
a 2 12 1   3
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Shells
• General Bending Theory

N x N x
a  0
x 
N N x
a  Q  0
 x
Q N x N x
Q a  0
a x  N  q  a  0 x 
x 
N N x M x 1 M
M x M  a   0
a   aQ  0  x x a 
x 
 2 M x  2M x  2M x
1  M
2
M x M x N  a    qa  0
a  aQx  0 x x2 x a  2
 x
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Basic Equations

Aspect Equation Unknown

1. Equilibrium equations 5 8
(static)
2. Deformability 9 12
compatibility (geometric)
3. Physical aspect 6 ---

TOTAL 20 20
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Buckling of Cylindrical Shells in Compression
• General Case
Equilibrium equations for elastic buckling:
N x N yz
a  0
x 
x, u
N y N x  2 v M xy M x
l a  aN x 2   0
z, w  x x x a
2w  2 M x  M yx  M y  M xy
 2 2 2

aN x 2  N y  a    0
y, v
x x 2 x a 2 x

with solutions:
2a mx
u  A sin n cos
l
mx
v  B cos n sin
l
mx
w  C sin n sin
l

v0
n0  u, w  f x  axial  symetrical buckling
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Cylindrical Shells
• Membrane Theory Application for Wind Action

q 2
N  cos
r0

N  2q sin 

N  qr0 cos
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae (Cylindrical shells)
• Two possible approaches
• Overall column buckling if l/r ratio is large
• Shell buckling which involves the cross section deformation and can
be, in general, either:
• Axisymmetric, when the displacement are constant around
circumferential section
• Asymmetric (chessboard shape), when waves are formed in
both axial circumferential directions

r=a

l
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Axial-symmetric buckling of cylindrical shell in compression
d 4v d 2w w
D 4
 Nx 2
 Eh 2
0
dx dx a
Eh3
D

12 1   2 
Radial displacement:
m x
w   A sin
l
N
Elastic critical axial stress (  cr  cr )
h
 cr 
Eh m Eh
; 4 2
a 3 1  2  l a D
l
For =0.3   1.72 ah
m
• In case of axial-symmetrical buckling, the critical shear does not depend of cylinder length!
• If one of the cylinder ends is free (w0), cr drops to 38% compared to simple supported case.
• Cylinder is highly sensitive to tangential displacements at the boundaries. If v  0, critical
stress drops to 50%!
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Axial-symmetric buckling of cylindrical shell in compression


 Post-elastic critical buckling
h EEt
 cr 
fy E  tg  0 
a 3 1  2 
fp
Et  tg  l Et
 1.72 ah
m E
0


Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Axial-symmetric buckling of cylindrical shell in compression
• Post-critical buckling: stable and unstable components

Ncr  m2 2 E l2 
 cr   D  2 
h  hl 2 2 2

2 a D m 
 m 2  Eh  h 
2
Ncr  D     
 l  a2  m 
 

Stable component Unstable component

(inextensional bending (extensionally circumferential
deformation – x direction) deformation – y direction
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Axial-symmetric buckling of cylindrical shell in compression
• Post-critical buckling equation
2
N 1 3 Eh  l  2
 1  m2  m
Ncr 8 8 Ncr a 2  m 

Stable component Unstable component

• The effect of circumferential extensional deformations increases the value of

critical load, but change the type of instability from stable to unstable!
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Axial-symmetric buckling of cylindrical shell in compression
• Examples: medium length cylinder
• (i,j) i = no. of longitudinal half-length waves;
j = no. of circumferential half-length waves
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Axial-symmetric buckling of cylindrical shell in compression
• Examples: long cylinder
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Axial-symmetric buckling of cylindrical shell in compression
• Examples: short cylinder
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Axial-symmetric buckling of cylindrical shell in compression
• Principle of ECCS approach (ECCS Recommendations 1998)
• Real cylinders are highly sensitive to imperfections
• “Knock-down” factor  is introduced to account for
imperfections and for plastic effects
 d   cr
•  depends on:
• Shell geometry Test data and design
• Loading conditions curve (typical) for
cylinders subject to
• Initial imperfections
axial compression
• Material properties
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Axial-symmetric buckling of cylindrical shell in compression
• Principle of ECCS approach ECCS design formulae for
• For unstiffened cylinders, unstiffened cylinders
is similar to the one for
column in axial compression

 2   cr  0.5 f y
n  1  1
 2 
f y     M1
Graphical presentation of
 2   cr  0.5 f y ECCS “knock-down” factor
n
 1  0.41231.2
fy
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Buckling of cylindrical shells under external pressure
• Membrane (hoop) stress in practical range
external
pa
y  ; x  0 uniform
h pressure
pa
y  ;  x  0.5 
h
• Von Misses formula for critical pressure, cr
  
Eh  1 h2  2 2n 2  1   “hydrostatic”
 cr    n 1 
 
a  n2  1 32 12a 2  3 
  type pressure
2
a  n
1  ; 3  1    Simplified formulae for long cylinders
 1 
 
l
1 Eh3 n 2  1
h2 2 2   1  1 
2
Eh  1 pcr 
12a 1   
pcr   2 2  n 3  1     3 2

a  n 3 12a 2  2  2  
 
n  min pcr
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Buckling of cylindrical shells under external pressure
• Principle of ECCS approach
pu 1
0   1 
py 1   2
pu 
 1  2 ;   0.5
py 
 py 
   
 cr 
p

h
Pcr  E    min
a
1.5 ECCS design strength for
0.855 a  h 
 min  unstiffened cylinder
for l/a0.5 
   
1  2 l  a  under uniform pressure
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Buckling of cylindrical shells under external pressure
• Principle of ECCS approach
• Wind action is more complex than simply an external pressure
• It is needed to check the cylinder stability separately for:
• Wind radial pressure
• Wind axial effects
• Wind tangent effects
• Interaction of the three
• Approximately, wind critical pressure can be taken as 1.6 times critical
external pressure (Maderspach, Gaunt, Sword )
• ECCS Design Recommendations (No. 125/2008) offers also a solution
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Buckling of cylindrical shells under compression and external pressure

x p

 x ,cr pcr

Interaction curve
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Buckling of cylindrical shells in bending
• (Flügge) 

 cr , x   
M Nx
 1.33  cr , x

• Long cylinders (Brazier) 

0.99
M cr  Eh 2a
1  
2
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Buckling of cylindrical shells in torsion
• (Swerin and Flügge)  long cylinders
32
E h
 cr  34a

3 2 1  2   

• (Donnel)  short and medium long cylindrical shells

• Fixed end
2 3 2 
12
E h   
 2 l  

 cr       

2  l 
  
4.6 7.8 1.67 1
1     2 ah   
 

• Simple Supported End

  3 2 
12
h   2 
 
2
 cr 
E
      2 l

l    
1  
2.8 2.6 1.4 1
2     
  2 ah   
 
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Methods of Analysis
• Simplified Design Formulae
• Cylindrical shells under interactive buckling
• Bending + torsion • Bending + external pressure
2 2
    M p     p 
2
    1   1 or  x      1
 cr   cr    x,cr 
M cr pcr    0.9 pcr 

• Compression + torsion • Axial compression + external

2 pressure + torsion
    2
    1  p   
 x,cr   cr       1
 x,cr pcr   cr 
• External pressure + torsion • Axial compression + bending +
2 torsion
p    x x   
2
   1     1
pcr   cr 


 x,cr  x,cr   cr 
N M
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis:
• Global analysis
• Membrane theory analysis
• Linear elastic shell analysis
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis
• Materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis with imperfections included
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis: approximate treatments of certain parts of

• Global analysis the structure
• Membrane theory analysis
• Linear elastic shell analysis
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis
• Materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis with imperfections included
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis: Conditions of use:

• Global analysis - the boundary conditions are appropriate for
• Membrane theory analysis transfer of the stresses in the shell into support
reactions without causing bending effects;
• Linear elastic shell analysis
- the shell geometry varies smoothly in shape
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis
(without discontinuities);
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis
- the loads have a smooth distribution (without
• Materially nonlinear analysis locally concentrated or point loads).
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis with imperfections included
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis:
• Global analysis
-linear elastic material law
• Membrane theory analysis
- linear small deflection theory (undeformed
• Linear elastic shell analysis
geometry)
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis
• Materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis with imperfections included
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis:
• Global analysis
• Membrane theory analysis LBA
• Linear elastic shell analysis - linear elastic material law
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis - linear small deflection theory
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis- imperfections of all kinds are ignored
- the basis of the critical buckling resistance
• Materially nonlinear analysis
evaluation
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis with imperfections included
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis:
• Global analysis
• Membrane theory analysis
GNA
• Linear elastic shell analysis -change in the geometry of the structure
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis - the elastic buckling load of the perfect
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis structure
• Materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis with imperfections included
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis:
• Global analysis
• Membrane theory analysis
• Linear elastic shell analysis
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis MNA
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis- gives the plastic limit load and the plastic
• Materially nonlinear analysis strain increment Δε
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis with imperfections included
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis:
• Global analysis
• Membrane theory analysis
• Linear elastic shell analysis
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis
GMNA
• Materially nonlinear analysis - gives the geometrically nonlinear plastic limit
• Geometrically and materially nonlinearload
analysis
and the plastic strain increment
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis with imperfections included
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis:
• Global analysis
• Membrane theory analysis
• Linear elastic shell analysis
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis
• Materially nonlinear analysis GNIA
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
- where compression or shear stresses
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis with imperfections
dominate in the shell included
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis
- elastic with imperfections
buckling loads of the "real" imperfect
structure
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular, to satisfy the following
requirements:
• Overall equilibrium
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
• Limitation of cracks due to cyclic plastification
• Limitation of cracks due to fatigue

• Types of analysis:
• Global analysis
• Membrane theory analysis
• Linear elastic shell analysis
• Linear elastic bifurcation analysis
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis
• Materially nonlinear analysis
• Geometrically and materially nonlinearGMNIA
analysis
GNIA
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis- gives
withthe
imperfections
elasto-plasticincluded
buckling loads for the
- where
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear"real" compression
analysis with or shear stresses
imperfections
imperfect structure
dominate in the shell
- elastic buckling loads of the "real" imperfect
structure
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Basis of design and modelling
• Shells shall be designed in acc. with EN1990 and, in particular,
Material to satisfy the following
Shell
Type of analysis Shell theory
requirements: law geometry
• Overall equilibrium membrane not
Membrane theory of shells perfect
equilibrium applicable
• Equilibrium between actions and internal forces and moments
Linear elastic shell linear bending
• Limitation of
analysis (LA) cracks due to cyclic
and plastification
stretching
linear perfect
• Limitation
Linear of cracks due to fatigue
elastic bifurcation linear bending
linear perfect
analysis (LBA) and stretching
• Geometrically
Types of analysis:
non-linear
non-linearapproximatelinear treatments of perfect
certain parts of
• Global
elastic analysis (GNA)
analysis
the structure
Conditions of use:
•Materially
Membranenon-linear
theory analysis linear non-linear perfect
analysis (MNA) --linear
the boundary
elastic conditions
material laware appropriate for
• Linear elastic shell analysis
Geometrically and materially transfer
- linear
LBA smallof thedeflection
stresses in theory
the shell(undeformed
into support
• Linear elastic bifurcation
non-linear analysis (GMNA)
non-linear
analysis reactions
non-linear
without causinglaw
perfect
bending effects;
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysis geometry)
GNA - linear elastic material
Geometrically non-linear -MNAthe shell geometry varies smoothly in shape
-change- linear insmall
the deflection
geometry theory
of the structure
• elastic
Materially nonlinear
analysis with analysis non-linear linear imperfect
-(without
the
GMNA
- gives the
discontinuities);
- imperfections
elasticplastic of
buckling all
load
limit kinds
load arethe
ofand
the ignored
perfectplastic
• Geometrically and materially nonlinearGMNIA
imperfections (GNIA) analysis
- the loads have a smooth distribution (without
-
structure
- the
gives
GNIA basis
the of the critical
geometrically buckling
nonlinear resistance
plastic limit
Geometrically and materially
• Geometrically nonlinear elastic analysislocally strain
-load
gives increment
withconcentrated
imperfections
the
evaluation
Δε
or included
elasto-plastic point loads).
buckling loads for the
non-linear analysis with non-linear - whereandcompression
the plastic strain
non-linear increment
or shear stresses
imperfect
• Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis with imperfections
"real" imperfect structure
imperfections (GMNIA) dominate in the shell
- elastic buckling loads of the "real" imperfect
structure
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Materials and geometry
• The rules in EN 1993-1-6 are not limited to steel shell structures
• The standard is valid for isotropic shells and shell segments made from any materials
that may be represented as ideal elastic-plastic
• For materials with no well defined yield point, 0.2% proof stress can be taken
• The material properties apply to temperatures not exceeding 150 ºC (otherwise see EN
13084-7, 2005)
• Where materials has a significant different stress strain curve, there are alternative
ways of representation of the material behaviour
• Bauschinger effect
• For austenitic steels (and aluminium alloys) at higher plastic strains, Rasmussen (2003)
curve is more appropriate than Ramberg-Osgood
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Materials and geometry
• The rules in EN 1993-1-6 are not limited to steel shell structures
• The standard is valid for isotropic shells and shell segments made from any materials
that may be represented as ideal elastic-plastic
• For materials with no well defined yield point, 0.2% proof stress can be taken
• The material properties apply to temperatures not exceeding 150 ºC (otherwise see EN
13084-7, 2005)
• Where materials has a significant different stress strain curve, there are alternative
ways of representation of the material behaviour
• Bauschinger effect
• For austenitic steels (and aluminium alloys) at higher plastic strains, Rasmussen (2003)
curve is more appropriate than Ramberg-Osgood
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Geometrical tolerances and imperfections
• Relevant tolerances due to the requirements of serviceability:
• out-of-roundness (deviation from circularity)
• eccentricities (deviations from a continuous middle surface in the direction
normal to the shell along junctions of plates)
• local dimples (local normal deviations from the nominal middle surface)
• Other forms of geometric imperfections:
• deviations from nominal thickness
• lack of evenness of supports
• Material imperfections:
• residual stresses caused by rolling, pressing, welding, straightening etc.
• inhomogeneities and anisotropies
• Wear and corrosion
• Non-uniformities of loading
• Residual stresses
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Geometrical tolerances and imperfections
• Relevant tolerances due to the requirements of serviceability:
• out-of-roundness (deviation from circularity)
• eccentricities (deviations from a continuous middle surface in the direction
normal to the shell along junctions of plates)
• local dimples (local normal deviations from the nominal middle surface)
• Other forms of geometric imperfections:
• deviations from nominal thickness
• lack of evenness of supports
• Material imperfections:
• residual stresses caused by rolling, pressing, welding, straightening etc.
• inhomogeneities and anisotropies
• Wear and corrosion
• Non-uniformities of loading
• Residual stresses
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Ultimate limit states in steel shells
• LS1: Plastic limit
• Identifies the strength of the structure when stability plays no significant
role.
• Covers two conditions:
• tensile rupture or compressive yield through the full thickness
• development of a plastic collapse mechanism involving bending
• The plastic limit load is also relevant to a buckling strength assessment
Rpl - the plastic limit load
Rcr - the elastic critical load

• The plastic limit load does not represent the real strength (even for
stocky structures): strain hardening of material, stabilizing or
destabilizing effects due to change in geometry
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Ultimate limit states in steel shells
• LS1: Plastic limit
• Types of analysis:
• MNA: often underestimates the strength very considerably

• Membrane theory calculations:

• If the stress state is entirely axisymmetric, it gives a close
approximation to the true condition at plastic collapse

• if the stresses are significantly unsymmetrical, this criterion

often provides a very conservative estimate of the plastic limit
load
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Ultimate limit states in steel shells
• LS1: Plastic limit
• Types of analysis:
• Linear elastic shell bending theory: This is commonly more
conservative than membrane theory calculation (is based on
the first yield on the surface)
• Geometrically nonlinear calculation (GMNA): problems arise
over whether the structure displays geometric hardening or
geometric softening
• The plastic limit load should be seen only as the ideal value of
the plastic reference resistance
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Ultimate limit states in steel shells
• LS2: Cyclic plasticity:
• Repeated cycles of loading and unloading, eventually leading to local
cracking by exhaustion of the energy absorption capacity of the material
• Low cycle fatigue failure may be assumed to be prevented if the
procedures set out in the standard are adopted
• Methods of analysis:
• expressions in Annex C
• elastic analysis (LA or GNA)
• MNA or GMNA and find plastic strains

• LS4: Fatigue:
• Repeated cycles of increasing and decreasing stress lead to the
development of a fatigue crack
• Methods of analysis:
• expressions in Annex C (using stress concentration factors)
• elastic analysis (LA or GNA), using stress concentration factors
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Ultimate limit states in steel shells
• LS3: Buckling:
• Caused by loss of stability under compressive membrane or shear
membrane stresses in the shell wall, leading to inability to sustain any
increase in the stress resultants, possibly causing catastrophic failure
• Three approaches used in the assessment of buckling resistance:
• GMNIA analysis
• MNA/LBA analysis
• Buckling stresses
• The strength under LS3 depends strongly on the quality of construction
• For this purpose, three fabrication quality classes are set out
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Design concepts for the limit states design of shells
• The limit state verification should be carried out using one of the following:
• Stress design:
• primary In general,
may beprimary
replacedstress statesresultants
by stress control LS1, whereas
where
• secondary secondary stress states affect LS2 and LS3 and local
appropriate
• Local stresses govern LS4.

• Direct design by application of standard expressions:

• the limit states may be represented by standard expressions that have been
derived from either membrane theory, plastic mechanism theory or linear elastic
analysis
• The membrane theory (Annex A) - primary stresses needed for assessing LS1 and
LS3.
• The plastic design (Annex B) - plastic limit loads for assessing LS1
• The linear elastic analysis (Annex C) - stresses of the primary plus secondary
stress type for assessing LS2 and LS4. An LS3 assessment may be based on the
membrane part of these expressions.

• Design by global numerical analysis

Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Stress resultants and stresses in shells
• Stresses:
• There are eight stress resultants in the shell
• However, the shear stresses xn, θn due to the transverse shear forces qxn, qθn are
insignificant and they may usually be neglected in design
• For most design purposes, the evaluation of the limit states may be made using
only the six stress resultants in the shell wall nx, nθ, nxθ, mx, mθ, mxθ
• Where the structure is axisymmetric and subject only to axisymmetric loading and
support, only nx, nθ, mx and mθ need be used

• Modelling:
• Represention by its middle surface
• Nominal radius of curvature, imperfections neglected (excepting LS3)
• Eccentricities and steps if they induce significant effects
• Eccentricity at junctions between shell segments
• Stringers, corrugations, holes, depending on the conditions

• Boundary conditions
 Boundary Simple Description Normal Vertical Meridional
condition term displacements displacements rotation
code
radially restrained meridionally
Introduction
BC1r to Design of Shell Structuresw = 0
Clamped restrained rotation restrained u=0 βφ = 0

Design ofradially
Steel Structures:
restrained meridionally Strength and Stability of Shells
BC1f w=0 u=0 βφ ≠ 0
• Stress resultants
restrained rotation free
and stresses in shells
• Stresses:radially restrained meridionally free
BC2r w=0 u≠0 βφ = 0
• Thererotation restrained
are eight stress resultants in the shell
• However, the shear stresses xn, θn due to the transverse shear forces qxn, qθn are
radially restrained meridionally free
BC2f Pinned insignificant
rotation freeand they may usually be neglected w = 0 in designu ≠ 0 βφ ≠ 0
• For most design purposes, the evaluation of the limit states may be made using
BC3
Free edgeonlyradially
the six stress
free resultants
meridionally in the shell wall
free rotation n , n , n , m , m , mxθ βφ ≠ 0
w ≠ 0 x θ xθ ux≠ 0 θ
free
• Where the structure is axisymmetric and subject only to axisymmetric loading and
NOTE: The circumferentialsupport,
displacement
only v isnclosely linked to the displacement w normal to the surface so separate
x, nθ, mx and mθ need be used
boundary conditions are not identified in paragraph (3) for these two parameters.

• Modelling:
• Represention by its middle surface
• Nominal radius of curvature, imperfections neglected (excepting LS3)
• Eccentricities and steps if they induce significant effects
• Eccentricity at junctions between shell segments
• Stringers, corrugations, holes, depending on the conditions

• Boundary conditions
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Plastic limit state (LS1)
• The plastic reference resistance Rpl
• Where it is not possible to undertake a materially non-linear analysis (MNA),
the plastic reference resistance Rpl may be conservatively estimated from
linear shell analysis (LA) conducted using the design values of the applied
combination of actions using the following procedure.

• The three points where

obtain maximum
values for stresses

t f y ,k
Rpl 
nx2, Ed  nx, Ed n , Ed  n2, Ed  3nx2 , Ed
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Buckling limit state (LS3)
• To find out the design buckling resistance
• Defined as a load factor R applied to the design values of the combination of
actions for the relevant load case
• Different approaches have been proposed, difficult to generalise
• In EN 1993-1-6, a considerable effort to produce general procedures
applicable to all geometries, all loading conditions and all material conditions

• Buckling-relevant boundary conditions

Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Buckling-relevant geometrical tolerances
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Stress design
• Design values of stresses σx,Ed, σθ,Ed and xθ,Ed: taken as the key values of
compressive and shear membrane stresses obtained from linear shell analysis
(LA).
• Design resistance (buckling strength):

λ0 - squash limit relative

slenderness
x  f y,k  x, Rcr
   f y,k   ,Rcr

  f y,k 
3  x ,Rcr

γM1 = min 1,1

Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Stress limitation (buckling strength verification)
• The influence of bending stresses may be neglected provided they arise as a
result of boundary compatibility effects.
• In the case of bending stresses from local loads or from thermal gradients,
special consideration should be given.
• Following checks for the key values of single membrane stress components
should be carried out:
σx,Ed ≤ σx,Rd, σθ,Ed ≤ σθ,Rd, xθ,Ed ≤  xθ,Rd

• For more than one buckling-relevant membrane stress components,

interaction check for the combined membrane stress state should be carried
out:
kx k k
  x,Ed    ,Ed    x,Ed   ,Ed    x, ,Ed 
     ki     1
  x,Rd    ,Rd    x,Rd   ,Rd    x, ,Rd 
        
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Buckling design
• EN 1993-1-6 specifies three approaches that are approved for use in the
assessment of buckling resistance:
• Design by means of a global numerical MNA/LBA analysis
• Design by means of a global numerical GMNIA analysis
• Design by means of buckling stresses
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Buckling design by global numerical MNA/LBA analysis
• It is recommended for many applications
• It has the same basis as the traditional stress design buckling approach
• All relevant combinations of actions causing compressive membrane stresses
or shear membrane stresses in the shell wall shall be taken into account
• It involves the following steps, see left hand side figure


ov  f  ov ,  ov,0 ,  ov , ov ,  ov 
ov is the overall elastic imperfection factor,
ov is the plastic range factor,
ov is the interaction exponent and
ov,0 is the squash limit relative slenderness
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Buckling design by global numerical MNA/LBA analysis
• It is recommended for many applications
• It has the same basis as the traditional stress design buckling approach
• All relevant combinations of actions causing compressive membrane stresses
or shear membrane stresses in the shell wall shall be taken into account
• It involves the following steps, see left hand side figure

The lowest eigenvalue

(bifurcation load factor)
should be taken as the critical
buckling resistance Rcr


ov  f  ov ,  ov,0 ,  ov , ov ,  ov 
ov is the overall elastic imperfection factor,
ov is the plastic range factor,
ov is the interaction exponent and
ov,0 is the squash limit relative slenderness
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Design by global numerical GMNIA analysis
• Developed to exploit the full power of modern numerical
C1: The analysis
maximum load factor on the
load-deformation-curve (limit load);
• Application is more complex than for frame or platedC2:structures
The bifurcation load factor, where
this occurs during the loading path
• Several sequence of analysis: before reaching the limit point of the
• LA followed by a LBA to evaluate elastic critical load-deformation-curve
buckling resistance
C3: The largest tolerable deformation,
• GMNA to identify the elastic-plastic buckling resistance of the
where this occurs perfect
during the loading
structure path before reaching the bifurcation
load or the limit load
• GMNIA with different imperfection modes (the lowest value is selected)
C4: The load factor at which the
• Check the precision of the GMNIA by comparison with test
equivalent oratother
stress the most highly
relevant data stressed point on the shell surface
reaches the design value of the
• Methodology yield stress
• Action combinations causing compressive membrane stresses or shear
membrane stresses
• Rk should be found from the imperfect elastic-plastic critical buckling
resistance RGMNIA, adjusted by the calibration factor kGMNIA.
• The design buckling resistance Rd should then be found using the partial
factor γM1.
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Design by global numerical GMNIA analysis
• Developed to exploit the full power of modern numericalC1: The analysis
maximum load factor on the
load-deformation-curve (limit load);
• Application is more complex than for frame or platedC2:structures
The bifurcation load factor, where
this occurs during the loading path
• Several sequence of analysis: before reaching the limit point of the
• LA followed by a LBA to evaluate elastic critical load-deformation-curve
buckling resistance
C3: The largest tolerable deformation,
• GMNA to identify the elastic-plastic buckling resistance of the
where this occurs perfect
during the loading
structure path before reaching the bifurcation
load or the limit load
• GMNIA with different imperfection modes (the lowest value is selected)
C4: The load factor at which the
• Check the precision of the GMNIA by comparison with test
equivalent oratother
stress the most highly
relevant data stressed point on the shell surface
reaches the design value of the
• Methodology yield stress
• Action combinations causing compressive membrane stresses or shear
membrane stresses
• Rk should be found from the imperfect elastic-plastic critical buckling
resistance RGMNIA, adjusted by the calibration factor kGMNIA.
• The design buckling resistance Rd should
A conservative then be found
assessment using
of RGMNIA maythe partial
be obtained
factor γM1. using a GNIA analysis and C4 criterion to determine
the lowest load factor R
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• GMNIA analysis
• Allowances for imperfections:
• geometric imperfections: pre-deformations, out of-roundness, irregularities at
and near welds, thickness deviation, etc.
• material imperfections: residual stresses, inhomogeneities, anisotropies
• EN 1993-1-6 requires that imperfections are explicitly modelled numerically,
not just treated as small perturbations in geometry
• They are introduced by means of equivalent geometric imperfections in the
form of initial shape deviations perpendicular to the middle surface of the
perfect shell
• The form of the imperfections with the most unfavorable effect should be
considered (the most unfavorable effect on the buckling resistance RGMNIA
of the shell); if practicable, they must reflect the constructional detailing and
the boundary conditions
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• GMNIA analysis
• The analysis should be carried out for a sufficient number of different
imperfection patterns, and the worst case (lowest value of RGMNIA) should be
identified.
• The eigen-mode-affine pattern should be used (the critical buckling mode
associated with the elastic critical buckling resistance Rcr based on an LBA
analysis of the perfect shell)
• The amplitude of the imperfection form - dependent on the fabrication
tolerance quality class
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• Imperfections
• The maximum deviation of the geometry of the equivalent imperfection from
the perfect shape ∆w0,eff = max (∆w0,eff,1; ∆w0,eff,2), where:

lg relevant gauge lengths

w0,eff ,1  lg U n1 lgx  4 rt t local shell wall thickness
w0,eff ,2  ni tU n 2   ni multiplier to achieve an appropriate tolerance level
0.25
lg ,  2,3 l rt
2
r Un1, Un2 dimple imperfection

• ni = 25 is a multiplier to achieve
an appropriate tolerance level
• t is the local shell wall thickness
• lg is all relevant gauge lengths
(see Dimple tolerances)
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• GMNIA validation
• For each calculated value of the buckling resistance RGMNIA, the ratio of the
imperfect to perfect resistance (RGMNIA / RGMNA) should be determined and
compared with values of  found using the procedures of 8.5 and Annex D.
• The reliability of the numerically determined critical buckling resistance RGMNIA
should be checked by one of the following methods:
• by using the same program to calculate values RGMNIA, check for other shell buckling
cases for which characteristic buckling resistance values Rk,known,check are known;
• by comparison of calculated values (RGMNIA,check) against test results
(Rtest,known,check).

Rk ,know,check Rtest ,know,check

kGMNIA  kGMNIA 
RGMNIA,check RGMNIA,check
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• GMNIA validation
• Where a known characteristic value based on existing established theory is
used to determine kGMNIA, and the calculated value of kGMNIA lies outside the
range 0,8 < kGMNIA < 1,2, this procedure should not be used.
• The characteristic buckling resistance should be obtained from:
Rk  kGMNIA RGMNIA
• RGMNIA is the calculated imperfect elastic-plastic critical buckling resistance;
• kGMNIA is the calibration factor.
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• ANNEX A - Membrane theory stresses in shells

Uniform axial Axial load from Uniform shear

load bending from torsion
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• ANNEX B - Additional expressions for plastic collapse resistances
Cylinder: Cylinder:
Radial line load Radial line load and axial load

A = +/- sx − 1,50
P
sx  x
fyt

PnR - plastic resistance (force per unit circumference)

Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• ANNEX C - Expressions for linear elastic membrane and bending stresses
Cylinder, clamped: Cylinder, pinned:
axial loading axial loading
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Design of Steel Structures: Strength and Stability of Shells
• ANNEX D - Expressions for buckling stress design
• Unstiffened cylindrical shells of constant wall thickness
• Meridional (axial) compression
• Critical meridional buckling stresses
• Meridional buckling parameters
• Circumferential (hoop) compression
• Critical circumferential buckling stresses
• Circumferential buckling parameters
• Shear
Cylinder geometry, membrane • Critical shear buckling stresses
stress resistances and stress • Shear buckling parameters
resultant resistances

• Combinations of meridional
(axial) compression,
circumferential (hoop)
compression and shear
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Principles, simplified and advanced models, concentration of stresses,
stiffening

Hand calculation Simple computer Complete computer

calculations calculations

Formulas for: Computational evaluations: Computational evaluations:

Bifurcation load Bifurcation load Bifurcation load

Plastic limit Plastic limit Plastic limit
Imperfection sensitivity Interaction between different stress Perfect structure strength
Elastic plastic interaction components Imperfect structure strength
Interaction between different
stress components
Formulas for: LA GNIA
LBA GMNIA
Imperfection sensitivity GNA
Elastic plastic interaction MNA
GMNA
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Simplified FEM model
• Global analysis
• A simplified bar model using 1D beam finite elements, with or without
the account of global imperfection, using an elastic material law.
• Aim of analysis – find-out the internal forces needed for:
• The global check of the tower capacity;
• Refined local analysis of the relevant tower segments (between two
consecutive flange that assure the appropriate boundary condition, radial
restrained)
• Local analysis of a tower segment
• The 3D shell model should be build using 2D finite elements (plane), that
can be: either Homogeneous shell, either Membranes
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Simplified FEM model
• Local analysis of a tower segment
• The 3D shell model should be build using 2D finite elements (plane), that
can be: either Homogeneous shell, either Membranes
• The geometry can be perfect / ideal or taking into account of the
prescribed relevant geometrical imperfection:
• out-of-roundness (deviation from circularity),
• eccentricities (deviations from a continuous middle surface in the direction
normal to the shell along junctions of plates),
• local dimples (local normal deviations from the nominal middle surface).
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Advanced FEM Model
• Modelling the entire structure with 2D finite elements with a special
attention of details (connection flanges, welds connection, etc);
• Material behavior:
• Elastic
• Plastic
• Geometry:
• Ideal
• Imperfect
• Finite elements types:
• Homogenous shell
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Geometry and state of stress
• Homogeneous shell with bending stiffness, sections consist of a shell
thickness, material name, section Poisson's ratio.
• Membranes represent thin surfaces in space that offer strength in the
plane of the surface but have no bending stiffness. Membrane
sections consist of a material name, membrane thickness, section
Poisson's ratio.
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Material behavior law
• Elastic
• Elastic – Plastic

• Linear
• Multi-linear

• Continuous
• Powell,
• Ramberg-Osgood
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Load cases
• The load cases shall be determined from the combination of operational
modes or other design situations, such as specific assembly, erection or
maintenance conditions, with the external conditions.

• All relevant load cases with a reasonable probability of occurrence

shall be considered, together with the behavior of the control and
protection system.

• The design load cases used (IEC 61400-1:2005) to verify the structural integrity
of a wind turbine shall be calculated by combining:
• normal design situations and appropriate normal or extreme external
conditions;
• fault design situations and appropriate external conditions;
• transportation, installation and maintenance design situations and
appropriate external conditions.
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Load cases and design situations
• Load cases and assumptions for global analysis
• IEC 61400-1:2005
• Dead loads - Self-weight: tower head; tower body, installation etc.
• Wind action (EN1991-1-4)
• Seismic loads
• Temperature
• Ice
• Design situations
• Power production
• Power production plus occurrence of fault or loss of electrical network
connection
• Start up
• Normal shut down
• Emergency shut down
• Parked (standstill or idling)
• Parked plus fault conditions
• Transport, assembly, maintenance and repair
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Wind action using different load situation:
• Global analysis to find-out the internal forces
• Load of wind on tower (hub)
• Simplified distribution (a2)
• Surface distribution (a1)
• Load from turbine’s machinery
• Concentrated force and moment

• Equivalent load for buckling verification

• Axisymmetric pressure distribution
a1

a2
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Solver technique
• Pre-critical analysis and point results (Newton-Raphson)
• Post-critical analysis with deformation–to-failure (displacement
control, arc-length, modal analysis)
• The Static Riks step (based on arc-length solver) is able to find solution
during unstable loading response, when Static General step (based on N-R
solver) stops at limit load.

Plim
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Results: Stability of steel shell structure General Report – Herbert Schmidt
(JCSR 55(2000) 159-181)
Eigenvalue results pure bending
Eigenvalue results axial compression different discretization levels
different discretization levels

Eigenvalue results axial compression

different boundary conditions
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application
• Stress concentrations
• Modelling stress concentration (door opening)
• Around door opening appear elevated values of the membrane
stresses. This stresses that develop within a band of width of 2 √rt
adjacent to a restrained edge need not be consider in buckling
calculations
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case
• General geometrical data
• Total height: 96.15 m
• Shape: cylinder (conic last segment)
stepwise variable wall thickness
• Base diameter: 4300 mm (t=39 mm)
• Top diameter: 2955 mm (t=12 mm)
• Divided in 5 segments of ~ 20m length
• Detailing
• Flange bolted connection (M48 - M27)
between segments and welded connection
between shells of different thickness
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case
• Door opening details
• Ventilation opening
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case
• Numerical models
• Simplified bar model
• Refined local segment model
• Relevant segments
• Door opening segment
• Entire model

• Verification procedures
• Analytical determination of moment capacity (LA) →MRd
• Characteristic buckling resistance (LBA + MNA)
• The plastic reference resistance → Rpl
• The elastic critical buckling resistance → Rcr
• The overall buckling reduction factor Rk  ov Rpl
• Characteristic buckling resistance (GMNIA)
• Calibration factor Rk  kGMNIA RGMNIA
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case
• Expressions for buckling stress design
• Unstiffened cylindrical shells
• Critical meridional buckling stresses
l r l 20000
    119
r t rt 2150 13,14
t 12 N
 x , Rcr  0, 605  E  cx   0, 605  2,1105  0,943   669
r 2150 mm 2
r 2150 0, 2  t
  164  cx  cx , N  1   1  2 
t 13,14 cxb  r
0, 2  12 
cx , N  1  1  2 119   0,9434  0, 6
1  2150 
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case
• Expressions for buckling stress design (hand calculation)
• Unstiffened cylindrical shells
• Meridional buckling parameters
0, 62 0, 62
x    0, 25999
 w 
1,44 1,44
 10,51 
1  1,91 k  1  1,91 
 t   13,14 
1 r 1 2150
wk  t  13,14  10,51
Q t 16 13,14
 x 0  0, 20

   0, 60   p  0,806  x  0, 728  0,806
  1, 0

 0, 728  0, 2  N
  1  0, 60     0, 477   x , Rk  0, 477  355  169
 0,806  0, 2  mm 2
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case
• Expressions for buckling stress design (hand calculation)
• Unstiffened cylindrical shells
• Meridional stresses

Fx 1770 103 N
 x , Ed  
N
  10,92
2 rt 2  2150 12 mm 2
M 17702 106 N
 x , Ed   2 
M
 102
 r t   21502 12 mm2
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case
• Expressions for buckling stress design (hand calculation)
• Unstiffened cylindrical shells
• Critical circumferential buckling stresses
l r l 20000
    119
r t rt 2150 13,14
c t 1 12 N
  , Rcr  0,92  E    0,92  2,1105    9, 06
 r 119 2150 mm 2
r
1, 63   267,32
t
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case
• Expressions for buckling stress design (hand calculation)
• Unstiffened cylindrical shells
• Circumferential buckling parameters
  0,5 (Class C )
  0  0, 40

   0, 60   p  1,12    6, 26  1,12
  1, 0

 0,5 N
   0, 0128    , Rk  0, 0128  355  4,53
 2 6, 26
2
mm 2

r 2150 N
  , Ed  pn  1,5 1,102 103  0, 296
t 12 mm 2
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case – Complete Model
• Imperfection amplitude
lgx  4 rt  4  4300 12  908,63 mm
w0,eff ,1  lg U n1

Fabrication tolerance Geometric tolerance

Value
Description normal to the
quality class of Un1
shell surface
Class A Excellent 0,010 9,086
Class B High 0,016 14,538
Class C Normal 0,025 22,7158
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case – Complete Model
• LA / MNA at reference load results
• Local plastic zones around
connecting flanges

• LBA results Rcr = 5,877

Axial Shear Bending

Bottom
force force moment
section
[kN] [kN] [kNm]
LA 4323 1260 80088
MNA 4323 1260 80088
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case – Complete Model
• MNA Rpl = 3,07
• GMNA Rpl = 1,77
• GMNIA Rpl = 1,49

3.5

2.5
Load factor R

1.5

1
GMNA
MNA
0.5
GMNIA
Reactions Axial Shear Bending
0 at force force moment
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
[kN] [kN] [kNm]
Displacem ent [m ]

R=1 4323 1260 80088

Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case – Complete Model
• Description of the complete shell model
• LBA - Linear elastic bifurcation analysis
• The elastic critical buckling load factor Rcr = 5,8772
• Imperfection shape

• MNA – Material nonlinear analysis

• The plastic reference load factor Rpl = 3,07

• The overall relative slenderness ov for the complete shell

3, 07
ov   0,522
5,877

• The overall buckling reduction factor

• Annex D EN1993-1-6 gives values for:
• ov is the overall elastic imperfection factor
• ov is the plastic range factor = 0,60
• ov is the interaction exponent = 1,0
 Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case – Refined door opening segment
• Numerical model LBA results Rcr = 12.248

Axial force Shear force Bending moment

Section
[kN] [kN] [kNm]
Upper section 4413 1231 73988
Bottom section 4413 1231 88514
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case – Refined door opening segment
• LA Results

• GMNA Results
Bottom segment

2.5

2
Load factor

1.5

0.5
GMNA

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Displacement [mm]
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case – Refined door opening segment
• Numerical model
Section Axial force Shear force Bending moment
[kN] [kN] [kNm]
Upper section 1586 409 13055
Bottom section 2015 666 23897

• LA Rpl = (126/355)=2,82
• Transformation of typical wind pressure load distribution
 c r   1 2150 
kw  0, 46 1  0,1   0, 46 1  0,1    0,514
  t   119 13,14 
l r l 20000
    119
r t rt 2150 13,14
N
qeq  kw qmax  0,5411430 1,5  1102
m2
Introduction to Design of Shell Structures
Finite Element Application and Case Study
• Study Case – Refined door opening segment
• LBA Results • GMNIA results
• Imperfection afine first buckling mode
• Amplitude of imperfection 23mm and 17mm
corresponding to normal and high tolerance

Relevant segment

2
kGMNIA
1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2
Section Rcr
Load factor

Without EWL 6,8006 0.8

With EWL 6,8003 0.6

0.4

Quality class kGMNIA

0.2 GMNIA normal
GMNIA high

High (~17 mm) 1,79 0

0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016

Rotation [rad]
Normal (~23 mm) 1,72