Unit I/MC/CA5013 1

1. Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction

Mobile computing is a generic term describing one's ability to use technology

while moving, as opposed to portable computers, which are only practical for use while
deployed in a stationary configuration.

Example for portable computers as portable ticket machine by Czech Railways in 1990s.

Many types of mobile computers have been introduced since the 1990s, including the:

 Wearable computer
 Personal digital assistant/Enterprise digital assistant
 Smartphone
 Carputer
 Ultra Mobile PC

Personal digital assistant

A Personal digital assistant (PDA) is a small, usually pocket-sized, computer with limited
functionality. It is intended to supplement and to synchronize with a desktop computer,
giving access to contacts, address book, notes, e-mail and other features.

Ultra Mobile PC

An Ultra Mobile PC is a full-featured, PDA-sized computer running a general-purpose

operating system.

Smart phone

A Smart phone is a PDA with an integrated cellphone functionality. Current smartphones

have a wide range of features and installable applications.

Carputer

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A Carputer is a computing device installed in an automobile. It operates as a wireless

computer, sound system, GPS, and DVD player. Also contains word processing software
and it's Bluetooth compatible.

1.1.1 Limitations of mobile computing:

 Insufficient bandwidth

Mobile internet access is generally slower than direct cable connections, using
technologies such as GPRS and EDGE, and more recently 3G networks. These networks
are usually available within range of commercial cell phone towers. Higher speed
wireless LANs are inexpensive, but have very limited range.

 Security standards

When working mobile one is dependent on public networks, requiring careful use of
VPNs.

 Power consumption

When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely
entirely on battery power. Combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this
often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery
life.

 Transmission interferences

Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all interfere with signal
reception. Reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is often poor.

 Potential health hazards

More car accidents are related to drivers who were talking through a mobile device. Cell
phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices. There are allegations that cell phone
signals may cause health problems.

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 Human interface with device

Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which may make them harder to use. Alternate
input methods such as speech or handwriting recognition require training.

1.1.2 Existing Cellular Network Architecture

 Introduction of cellular technology which allowed the efficient utilization of
frequencies enabling the connection of a large number of users.
 During the 1980's analogue technology was used.
 In the 1990's the digital cellular technology was introduced with
 GSM (Global System Mobile) being the most widely accepted system around
the world.
 DCS1800 (Digital Communication System) and
 PCS1900 (Personal Communication System).

A cellular network consists of mobile units linked together to switching equipment,

which interconnect the different parts of the network and allow access to the fixed Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). The technology is hidden from view; it's
incorporated in a number of tranceivers called Base Stations (BS). Every BS is located at
a strategically selected place and covers a given area or cell - hence the name cellular
communications. A number of adjacent cells grouped together form an area and the
corresponding BSs communicate through a so called Mobile Switching Centre (MSC).
The MSC is the heart of a cellular radio system. It is responsible for routing, or
switching, calls from the originator to the destinator. It can be thought of managing the
cell, being responsible for set-up, routing control and termination of the call, for
management of inter-MSC hand over and supplementary services, and for collecting
charging and accounting information. The MSC may be connected to other MSCs on the
same network or to the PSTN.

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Mobile Switching Centre

The frequencies used vary according to the cellular network technology implemented.
For GSM, 890 - 915 MHz range is used for transmission and 935 -960 MHz for
reception. The DCS techology uses frequencies in the 1800MHz range while PCS in the
1900MHz range.

Each cell has a number of channels associated with it. These are assigned to subscribers
on demand. When a Mobile Station (MS) becomes 'active' it registers with the nearest
BS. The corresponding MSC stores the information about that MS and its position. This
information is used to direct incoming calls to the MS.

If during a call the MS moves to an adjacent cell then a change of frequency will
necessarily occur - since adjacent cells never use the same channels. This procedure is
called hand over and is the key to Mobile communications. As the MS is approaching
the edge of a cell, the BS monitors the decrease in signal power. The strength of the
signal is compared with adjacent cells and the call is handed over to the cell with the
strongest signal.

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During the switch, the line is lost for about 400ms. When the MS is going from one area
to another it registers itself to the new MSC. Its location information is updated, thus
allowing MSs to be used outside their 'home' areas.

1.1.3 Data Communications

Data Communications is the exchange of data using existing communication networks.
The term data covers a wide range of applications including File Transfer (FT),
interconnection between Wide-Area-Networks (WAN), facsimile (fax), electronic mail,
access to the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW).

Mobile Communications Overview

Data Communications have been achieved using a variety of networks such as PSTN,
leased-lines and more recently ISDN (Integrated Services Data Network) and ATM

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(Asynchronous Transfer Mode)/Frame Relay. These networks are partly or totally

analogue or digital using technologies such as circuit - switching, packet - switching e.t.c.

Circuit switching

Circuit switching implies that data from one user (sender) to another (receiver)
has to follow a prespecified path. If a link to be used is busy , the message can not be
redirected , a property which causes many delays.

Packet switching

Packet switching is an attempt to make better utilization of the existing network by

splitting the message to be sent into packets. Each packet contains information about the
sender, the receiver, the position of the packet in the message as well as part of the actual
message. There are many protocols defining the way packets can be send from the sender
to the receiver.

 The most widely used are the Virtual Circuit-Switching system, which implies
that packets have to be sent through the same path, and
 The Datagram system which allows packets to be sent at various paths depending
on the network availability.

1.1.4 Application Servers

To define "Mobile Computing Application Server (MCAS or simple MAS)" as a software program
which runs in a server and provides the following functionality:

 Application level logic that handles business functions involved in a particular

organization (e.g. how to handle information requests from sales personnel in the field)
and its integration with backend database or business application systems such as
mainframe financial accounting systems, manufacturing systems, inventory, ERP
(Enterprise Resource Planning) and emerging CRM (Customer Resource Management)
systems
 Presentation services for the Mobile client device (handheld computers, notebook, PDA,
etc) i.e. application server takes raw data from database applications/queries and

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transforms the data on a specific thin client (or a thick client like a PC) considering its
presentation space characteristics and limitations. This is also called GUI (Graphical
User Interface) in some cases though some handheld are more like older text terminals
than PC. It includes breaking the messages into smaller chunks, filtering redundant
information, and even logically compressing the data , etc.

 Transaction services, in some cases - including multi-threading for heavy volumes and
persistency i.e. recovery across session failures

 Application programming level interfaces (APIs) with specialized communications

protocols

An application server may be considered as part of a multi-tier (mostly three tier) architecture.
Conventional tiers are:

1. First tier - A thin client based on handheld devices or a thick client on a PC - typically a
browser-based interface in the Web context

2. Middle tier consists of business applications on a set of servers - communications and

business applications

3. Third Tier - backend legacy data base systems and mission-critical ERP systems on a
large server or mainframe

1.2 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL

Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks?

Example of CSMA/CD

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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

 send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a collision occurs
(original method in IEEE 802.3)

Problems in wireless networks

 a radio can usually not transmit and receive at the same time
 signal strength decreases proportionally to the square of the distance or even more
 the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver
 it might be the case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not
work
 furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is “hidden”

1.2.1 Hidden and exposed terminals

Hidden terminals

 A sends to B, C cannot receive A

 C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
 collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
 A is “hidden” for C

A B C

Exposed terminals

 B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)

 C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use

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 but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary

 C is “exposed” to B

1.2.2 Motivation - near and far terminals

Terminals A and B send, C receives

 signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance

 the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out A’s signal
 C cannot receive A

A B C

If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B would drown out terminal
A already on the physical layer

Also severe problem for CDMA-networks - precise power control needed!

1.2.3 Access methods SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA

SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)

 segment space into sectors, use directed antennas

 cell structure

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

 assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between a sender

and a receiver for a certain amount of time

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

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 assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a sender and a

receiver
 permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast hopping (FHSS,
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

 assign an appropriate code to each transmission channel (DSSS, Direct Sequency

Spread Spectrum)
 frequency hopping over separate channels (FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum)

Some medium access control mechanisms for wireless

SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA

Fixed FHSS DSSS

Used in GSM Used in Bluetooth Used in UMTS

Fixed Aloha CSMA Reservations Multiple Polling

DAMA Access with
Collision
Pure Slotted
Avoidance

Copes with hidden

Non-persistent p-persistent CSMA/CA and exposed
terminal
Used in 802.11 RTS/CTS
(mandatory) Used in 802.11
(optional)

MACAW MACA-BI FAMA

CARMA

TDMA/TDD – example: DECT

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417 µs
1 1 1 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 1 2
downlin uplin t
k k

DECT: Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications

TDD: Time Division Duplex

FDMA/FDD – example: GSM

f downlin
960 MHz k
124

935.2 MHz 1 200 kHz

20 MHz
915 MHz 124

1
890.2 MHz
t
uplin
k

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Aloha/slotted aloha

Mechanism

 random, distributed (no central arbiter), time-multiplex

 Slotted Aloha additionally uses time-slots, sending must always start at slot
boundaries

Aloha

collision

sender A
sender B
sender C

Slotted Aloha

collision

sender A
sender B
sender C
t
1.2.4 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

 Goal: reduce the wastage of bandwidth due to packet collisions

 Principle: sensing the channel before transmitting (never transmit when the
channel is busy)
 Many variants:
 Collision detection (CSMA/CD) or collision avoidance(CSMA/CA)
 Persistency (in sensing and transmitting)

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1-Persistent CSMA
 Stations having a packet to send sense the channel continuously, waiting until the
channel becomes idle.
 As soon as the channel is sensed idle, they transmit their packet.
 If more than one station is waiting, a collision occurs.
 Stations involved in a collision perform a the backoff algorithm to schedule a
future time for resensing the channel
 Optional backoff algorithm may be used in addition for fairness

Non-Persistent CSMA
 Attempts to reduce the incidence of collisions
 Stations with a packet to transmit sense the channel
 If the channel is busy, the station immediately runs the back-off algorithm and
reschedules a future sensing time
 If the channel is idle, then the station transmits

1.2.5 Demand Assigned Multiple Accesses (DAMA):

Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted Aloha
Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
 a sender reserves a future time-slot
 sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision
 reservation also causes higher delays
 typical scheme for satellite links
Examples for reservation algorithms:
 Explicit Reservation (Reservation-ALOHA)
 Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
 Reservation-TDMA
DAMA / Explicit Reservation

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Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha):

 two modes:
 ALOHA mode for reservation:
competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible
 reserved mode for data transmission within successful reserved
slots (no collisions possible)
 it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list consistent at any point in
time and, therefore, all stations have to synchronize from time to time

collision

t
Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha
DAMA / Packet reservation (PRMA)

Implicit reservation
 based on slotted Aloha
 a certain number of slots form a frame, frames are repeated
 stations compete for empty slots according to the slotted aloha principle
 once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is automatically assigned to
this station in all following frames as long as the station has data to send
 competition for a slot starts again as soon as the slot was empty in the last frame

reservation
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 time-lot
ACDABA-F
frame1 A C D A B A F
ACDABA-F
frame2 A C A B A
AC-ABAF-
frame3 A B A F
A---BAFD
frame4 A B A F
D
ACEEBAFD
frame5 A C E E B A F D

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DAMA / Reservation-TDMA
Reservation Time Division Multiple Access
 every frame consists of N mini-slots and x data-slots
 every station has its own mini-slot and can reserve up to k data-slots using this
mini-slot (i.e. x = N * k).
 other stations can send data in unused data-slots according to a round-robin
sending scheme (best-effort traffic)
e.g. N=6,
N * k data- k=2
N mini-
slots slots

reservations other stations can use free data-

for data- slots
slots based on a round-robin scheme
1.2.6 Polling mechanisms
If one terminal can be heard by all others, this “central” terminal (e.g., base station) can
poll all other terminals according to a certain scheme
 all schemes known from fixed networks can be used (typical mainframe - terminal
scenario)
Example: Randomly Addressed Polling
 base station signals readiness to all mobile terminals
 terminals ready to send can now transmit a random number without collision with
the help of CDMA or FDMA (the random number can be seen as a dynamic
address)
 the base station now chooses one address for polling from the list of all random
numbers (collision if two terminals choose the same address)
 the base station acknowledges correct packets and continues polling the next
terminal
 this cycle starts again after polling all terminals of the list
1.2.7 Inhibit Sense Multiple Access (ISMA)
Current state of the medium is signaled via a “busy tone”

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 the base station signals on the downlink (base station to terminals) if the medium
is free or not
 terminals must not send if the medium is busy
 terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone stops
 the base station signals collisions and successful transmissions via the busy tone
and acknowledgements, respectively (media access is not coordinated within this
approach)
 mechanism used, e.g., for CDPD (Cellular Digital Packet Data)
 Similar approach was proposed
for Packet Radio Networks
(Kleinrock + Tobagi, 1975)

1.2.8.Code Division Multiple Access

Principles
 all terminals send on the same frequency and can use the whole bandwidth of the
transmission channel
 each sender has a unique code
 The sender XORs the signal with this code
 the receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows the code of the sender
 tuning is done via a correlation function
Disadvantages:
 higher complexity of the receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and
start receiving if there is a signal)
 all signals should have approximately the same strength at the receiver

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Advantages:
 all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
 huge code space (e.g., 232) compared to frequency space
 more robust to eavesdropping and jamming (military applications…)
 forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
Principle (very simplified)

Spreading Despreading

Ak
Ak

Ad X As X Ad
C+
D

As + Bs
Bk Bk

Bd X Bs X Bd
C+
D
Example:
Sender A
 sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
 sending signal As = Ad * Ak = (-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, +1)
Sender B
 sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: „0“= -1, „1“= +1)
 sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = (-1, -1, +1, -1, +1, -1)
Both signals superimpose in space
 interference neglected (noise etc.)
 As + Bs = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)

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Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A

 apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)
 Ae = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)  Ak = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6
 result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was „1“
 receiving B
 Be = (-2, 0, 0, -2, +2, 0)  Bk = -2 + 0 + 0 - 2 - 2 + 0 = -6, i.e. „0“
SAMA (Spread Aloha Multiple Access)
Aloha has only a very low efficiency, CDMA needs complex receivers to be able to
eceive different senders with individual codes at the same time.
Idea: use spread spectrum with only one single code (chipping sequence) for spreading
for all senders accessing according to aloha

sender 1 0 1 narro
A
sender w
0 1 1
B band
send for a
shorter period
with higher
power
spread the signal e.g. using the chipping sequence 110101 („CDMA without
CD“)

t
Problem: find a chipping sequence with good
characteristics

1.2.9 Comparison SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA

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1.3 TELE COMMUNICATIONS:

1.3.1 Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM):

Rapid increase in the demand for data services, is the primary thrust for the
mobile industry to advance. However the radio access platforms that are different by
different service provides has been the inhibitor for the growth as there are a number of
different access 2 G technologies. International Telecommunications Union (ITU ) has
specified the International Mobile Telecommunication 2000 (IMT 2000). IMT 2000 is
the Radio and Network access specifications defining several methods or technology
platforms that meet the overall goals of the final specifications. It is meant to be unifying
specifications enabling mobile and fixed high speed data services to use one or several
radio channels with fixed network platforms for delivering the services envisioned. Some
IMT specifications are:
 Global standard.
 Compatibility of service within IMT 2000 and other fixed networks.
 High quality
 Worldwide common frequency band

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 Small terminals for worldwide use

 Worldwide roaming capability
 Multimedia application services and terminals
 Improved spectrum efficiency
 Flexibility for evolution to the next generation of wireless systems.
 High speed data rates.
 2 Mbps for fixed environments
 384 kbps for pedestrian
 144 kbps for vehicular traffic
IN order to provide transition to 3 G technology different technology provider
were moving following different path so as to cater to the current 2G infrastructure and
the changes that need to be incorporated gradually to reach 3 G technology. Most of
these technologists have introduced a middle technology called 2. 5 G technology. These
are shown in the following diagram

GSM GPRS WCDMA

(800,1900) (800,1900)

TD-SCDMA
(CHINA)
EDGE
(800,1900) TD-CDMA
(JAPAN)

CDMA 2000 CDMA 2000

IS 95 CDMA 1x RTT DO/DV

MIGRATION
WiDEN
PATH i DEN

1.3.2 General Packet Radio Service:

 Provides higher data rate service
 Same air interface as that of GSM is used.

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 GPRS defines a number of channel coding scheme

Coding Air Interface Data Rate Usable data rate

scheme Kbps
CS 1 9.05 6.8
CS – 2 13.4 10.4
CS-3 15.6 11.7
CS – 4 21.4 16.0

 If a single user access a multiple time slots, then speeds such as 40.2 , 53.6
kbps becomes available. To the user
 CS-2 has robust error correction over the air interface. CS - , 4 may have
higher data output rate, but have no error correction schemes which may
require retransmission leading wastage of transmission.
 Biggest advantage of GPRS is not that it provides higher data rate, but it
facilitates packet switching wherein the network is connected as per
requirement rather than like in circuit switched for the full call duration.
When no data is transferred, channel is used by the other users.

GPRS User devices:

The devices can transreceive both voice and data transmission. User may need such
service either separately or in combination. Accordingly, user can be grouped into
following classes.
a) Class A :
Supports simultaneous use of voice and data services. That is while holding
voice conversation, can download data at the same time.
b) Class B :
Supports simultaneous GPRS attach and GSM attach but not the
simultaneous use of both services. That is while downloading data, if a call a
received, the data download is put on hold and the voice call is attended.
Later down is resumed.
c) Class C :

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Can attach eith GSM or GPRS but cannot attach both simultaneously. That is
at a given instant a class C device is either a GSM device or a GPRS device.

Other aspects of device are multislot capability of the device which directly
affects the supported data rate. Some device support three slot, others only two. As
the data down load requirement is asymmetric – high data rate in the down link and
lower data rate in the uplink, some devices may have different slot for both up and
down link.

GPRS Air Interface:

Air interface is similar to GSM air interface. It is 200 KHz RF carrier and the
same eight slots per carrier. This allows both GSM and
GPRS to share the same RF resources. That is some slot may be carrying voice while
some slot may be carrying data.
Although GPRS makes use of the same basic infrastructure as GSM, it introduces
a number of logical channel types and new channel coding scheme. When the GPRS
related data traffic is handled, then it is known as Packet Data Channel (PDCH)
which has 52 frames per multiframe.

GPRS offers a point to point (PTP) packet service known as PTP CONS (Point to
Point Connection Oriented Network Service.) This is the ability of GPRS to maintain
the virtual circuit upon change of the cell with the GSM network. This type or
service corresponds to X.25 The other service PTP – CLNS – is the point to point
connection less network service that supports applications based on the internet
protocol IP.

GPRS Network Architecture:

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Details regarding various subsystems are given below:

PACKET CONTROL UNIT (PCF):
Responsible for a number of GPRS related functions such as air interface access
control, packet scheduling on the air interface and packet assembly and re assembly.
Located at BTS /BSC / SGSN
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) :
Analogues to MSC / VLR of GSM. Performs MSC equivalent function in
packet switched domain – mobility management, security and access control etc.
Service area is divided into routing area – similar to location area. A SGSN may serve
multiple BSC, but each BSC will have only one SGSN. Various interfaces are shown
in the above diagram.
Gb interface SGSN ----- PCU :
Frame relay based interface that uses Base Station System GPRS Protocol
(BSSGP) – used to pass signaling, control information and data packet to and fro
from SGSN.

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Gr interface between SGSN HLR :

It uses Mobile Application Part (MAP) protocol. (similar to D interface between
a VLR and HLR). It is used to provide equipment identification, user authentication
and roaming and location updates to the HLR for GPRS subscribers. SGSN may also
retrieve the same information from HLR.

Gs interface between SGSN HLR :

SS7 based interface that used signaling, connection control part (SCCP).
Supports both circuit and packet switched services. This enables the coordination
between SGSN and MSC/VLR for subscribers of GPRS.
Gd interface between SGSN ----- SMSC:
Enables tran reception of SMS over GPRS. Uses SS 7 MAP protocol
Gn interface between SGSN ---- GGSN / SGSN:
It is internet protocol based interface carries signal and user data. This uses the
GPRS Tunneling Protocol GTP, which enables user data through the IP backbone
network between the SGSN and the GGSN.
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) :
It is a point of interface with external packet data network (such as internet).
Entry into and out of PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network) is through GGSN via Gn
interface. Gn is internet protocol based interface carries signaling and user data. Gn
interface uses GPRSs Tunneling Protocol (GTP), which tunnels the data through IP
backbone.

Gc interface between GGSN HLR :

It uses MAP (Mobile Application Part ) over SS7.It is used when GGSN wants to
know the serving SGSN for any subscriber.

GPRS Transmission Plane Protocol Reference Model:

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At the MS, there is RF interface, above which are Radio Link Control and
Medium Access Control functions. Above these are Logical Link Control (LLC) which
provides a logical link and framing structure for communication between the MS and the
SGSN. Any data between MS and SGSN is sent as Logical Link – Protocol Data Units
(LLPDU ). LLC supports management of this transfer, including mechanism for the
detection and recovery from, lost or corrupted LL-PDU, ciphering and flow control.
Above LLC, is Sub Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) which
resides between LLC and the network layer (such as IP and X.25) . The purpose of
SNDCP is to enable support for multiple network protocols without having to change
the lower layers such as LLC. It also help to multiplex several packet streams into a
single logical channel between MS and SGSN.
At the BSS, a relay function relays LL_PDU from Gb interface to the air interface
( the Um interface). Similarly, at SSGN, a relay function relays PDP PDUs between the
Gb interface and the Gn interface.
GTP- GPRS Tunneling Protocol: All data within GPRS backbone is transferred GTP.
It can use different transport protocols either the reliable TCP (needed for reliable
transfer of X.25 packets) or the non reliable UDP – used for packet IP. Tunneling is the
procedure of wrapping up the connection and its associated packets in a wrapper for

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transmission through the IP network between GGSN and SGSN. In this case, the IP
network nodes (routers) between the SGSN and GGSN consider the GTP packets to be
application and those routers do not examine the contents of the GTP layer. At the
SGSN, the wrapper is removed and the packet is passed to the MS using SNDCP, LLC
and the lower layers. For the packets from MS to external network- such as internet, the
GGSN removes the wrapper and forwards the IP packets.

1.3.3 Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunication (DECT)

It is specified by ETSI in 1998 -99. DECT is mainly used in offices, on campus, at
trade centers, or at home. Further access points to PSTN can be established within eg at
railway station, large government buildings and hospitals offering much cheaper
telephone services compared to a GSM
DECT may also provide last mile connectivity:
A big difference between the DECT and GSM is in terms of Cell diameter and
cell Capacity. While GSM can be used upto 70 KM, DECT is limited to 300 Meters
from the base station. DECT along with mobile station are cheap compared to that of
GSM.
The frequency range of DECT is 1880 – 1990 MHz offering 120 full duplex
channels. TDD is applied using 10 ms frames. The frequency range is divided into 10
carrier frequencies using FDMA each frame being divided into 24 slots using TDMA.
For the TDD mechanism, 12 slots are used for up link and 12 for down link. The digital
modulation technique used to GMSK. Each station has an average power of only 10 mw
with a maximum of 250 mw.

System Architecture:

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Different DECT entities can be integrated into one physical unit or entities can
be distribute, replicated etc. However, the basic reference model is shown above. In
this a global network connects the local communication network to the outside world
and offers its services via a interface D. Global network could be ISDN, PSTN, PLMN
eg GSM or Packet Switched Public Data Network (PSPDN). The service offered by the
networks include transportation of data on one hand and the transition of address and
routing of data between the local networks on the other.
Local networks provides simple service to everything such as switching to call
forwarding, address translation etc. HDB – Home Data Base and VDB visitor data base
are also located at the local network.
The DECT core network consists of the fixed radio termination (FT) and the portable
Radio Termination PT and basically only provides multiplexing service.

Protocol Architecture:
DECT protocol reference architecture follows the OSI reference mode.
Following figures shows the layers covered by this standard.

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Physical Layer
The physical layer, medium access control, and data link control for both the control
place (C – Plane) and the user plane (U-Plane). Only for the C place, an additional
network layer has been specified so that the user data from layer two is directly
forwarded top the U plane. A management plane covers all lower layers of a DECT
system.
Physical layer comprises all functions for modulation / demodulation, incoming
signal detection,, sender / receiver synchronization, and collection of status information
for the management plane. On request from MAC layer, the physical layer assigns a
channel for data transmission.
Following diagram shows the TDMA frame structure used in DECT:

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Each frame has a duration of 10 ms and contains 12 slots for down link and 12 slots
for uplink. In basic connection mode. If a mobile receives data in slot n, it returns data in
n+ 12 slot. After leaving for sync bits and guard space, 388 bits are used for network
control (A field) and user data(B field).
With a data rate of 6.4 kbps, (64 bits per 10 ms) , the user data rate depends on
additional error correction mechanism. Simplex bearer provides a data rate of 32 kbps in
unprotected mode while using 16 bit CRC checksum for data block of 64 bits in the
protected mode. This reduces the data rate to 25.6 kbps.

Medium Access Control Layer:

It is intended to establish, maintain and release channels for higher layers by
activating and deactivating physical channels. It multiplexes several logical channels
onto physical channels. Logical channel exists for signalling network control, user data
transmission, paging or sending broadcast messages. Additional services offered include
segmentation / re assembly of packets and error control / error correction.

Data Link Control Layer:

The purpose of the DLC is to create and maintain reliable connections between the
mobile and the base station. There are two services called C Plane (control plane)and
U plane (user plane).
C Plane:
It has Connectionless broadcast service for paging called Lb and point to point
protocol similar to LAPD (Link Access Procedure for D Channel) in ISDN but
adopted to the underlying MAC as LAPC +Lc

U plane:
In case of User plane, several services exists. Transparent unprotected service.
As forward error correction service, rate adaptation service, services for future
enhancement.

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Network Layer:
Network layer exist only in C plane. This layer provides services to
request, check, reserve control and release resources at the fixed station and the mobile
terminal
Mobility Management:
Mobility Management within the network layer is responsible for identity
management, authentication and management of the location data bases.

Call Control (CC):

Handles connection set up, release, and negotiation. Two message services,
connection oriented message service and connectionless message service transfers data to
and from the internetworking unit that connects the DECT system with the outside world.
Connection Oriented

Connection Oriented
Message Service

Message Service

Message Service

Message Service
Connectionless

Connectionless
Supplementary

Supplementary
Management

Management
Call control

Call control
Mobility

Mobility
Services

Services
DECT

message
Data Link control
Data Link control
Medium Access Control
Medium Access Control
Physical link
Physical
control
frames

radio link

Mobile Unit Base Station.

Time Division Multiple Access:

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TDMA radio access, with its low radio interference characteristics, provides high
system capacity to handle up to 100'000 users per km² floor space in an office
environment.
Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation:
ADPCM (Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation) speech encoding ensures a
DECT cordless phone very high speech quality, comparable to wire line telephony.

1.3.4 IMT 2000:

 IMT 2000 , initially known as FPLMTS (Future Public Land Mobile
Telecommunication System), is a program launched by International Mobile
Telecommunication Union to establish a worldwide communication system
that allows for a terminal and user mobility.
 ITU created several recommendation on networking architecture, , radio
interface, systems and subsystems, services supported etc.
 IMT 2000 indicates the start year of the system, and 2000 MHz spectrum
recommended for use.
 It includes specifications for different environment such as indoor use,
vehicular use, pedestrians use and satellite use.
 The frequency range identified are 1885 – 2025 MHz and 2100 – 2200 MHz

The proposals came mainly from three standards developing organization (SDO)such as
a. ETSI – European Telecommunication Standard Institute
b. ARIB (Association of Radio Industries and Broadcasting )and TTC
(Telecommunication Technology Council) of Japan) and
c. ANSI – American National Standard Institute.
1.3.5 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
The European proposal is called Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
(UMTS)
The proposal for the Radio Transmission Technology (RTT) specified by the
UMTS is known as UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA). AS UMTS is evolved
from the GSM technology, Many solution to UTRA were smooth transition from 2G

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GSM to 3Generation systems. .EDGE is one such enhancement wherein the data rates
went upto 384 kbps. ETSI developed Global Multimedia Network GMM which
provides architecture to integrate mobile and fixed terminals, many different access
networks, (GSM BSS, DECT, ISDN, UMTS, LAN, WAN, CATV etc) . With these basic
requirements, ETSI developed basic requirements for UMT and for UTRA, the radio
interface. The key requirements are minimum data rates of 144 kbps on a high speed
vehicle, 384 kbps for a pedestrian and 2 mbps data rate access for fixed indoor facility.

In addition, UMTS was supposed to be providing other bearer services such as, rela
time and non real time services (multimedia), circuit and packet switched services.
Smooth handover must be possible, between, WLAN, DECT, GMS, Satellite networks.
UMTS should provide variable link data rates. For down link and uplink. ETSI adopted
paired band technology based on W-CDMA(using FDD Duplex mechanism) and TD –
CDMA for unpaired band (Using TDD CDMA).

UMTS Basic Architecture. Simplified UMTS architecture is shown below:

UE UTRAN CN

Uu Iu
UTRA Network handles cell level mobility and comprises several Radio Network
Subsystem (RNS). The function of RNS include radio channel ciphering and
deciphering, handover control, radio resource management etc. UTRN is connected to
user equipment via Uu interface and via Iu to the core network CN. CN contains system
for intersystem handover, gateways to other networks etc.

UMTS separates signaling data and user data by introducing C-Plane and U-Plane.
The three lower layers of architectures includes,

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physical layer comprising, radio interface, functions for FEC, signal level
mechanism, multiplexing, de multiplexing, modulation, spreading
synchronization and power control, priority handling.
MAC Layer (Layer Two) consists of MAC connections, medium access control,
priority handling contention resolution, and scheduling of data packets.
Layer three contains function for connection set up, etc.

UTRA FDD mode:

The FDD mode for UTRA uses wideband CDMA (W-CDMA) with direct
sequence spreading. Uplink and downlink use different frequencies. With a uplink carrier
uses between1920 and 1980 MHZ and the base station uses 2110 to 2170 MHz for down
link. The mode roughly provides 250 channel for user traffic. Each physical channel
corresponds to a carrier frequency, a certain spreading code and a relative phase (uplink
only) and carries up to a 2 Mbps data.

Similar to GSM, there are several physical and logical channel are defined. On the
uplink, user data is transported over the uplink dedicated physical data channel
(uplink DPDCH) and layer one control data (power control) is transported via the
uplink dedicated physical control channel (Uplink DPCCH). For the both channels,
different spreading factors are possible..

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Both channels are transmitted in parallel with uplink DPCCH on the Q ranch and
uplink DPCCH on the I branch. The Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH)
carries random access control information from mobile station. It uses slotted ALOHA
with 1.25 ms slot.

On the Down link , the downlink dedicated physical channel (down DPCH)
carries user data and control data from layer one in a time multiplexed fashion. In
addition, UTRA defines additional physical channel for radio control.
Above figures shows the URTA in FDD mode and selected channels. A superframe
with a duration of 720 ms consists of 72 frames. A frame contains 16 slots and has a
duration of 10 ms. The example shows three different channels that can use a slot. The
uplink DPCCH contains a pilot to support channel estimation, the Transmit Power
Control (TPC), and the optional Transport Format Identifier (TFI) The uplink
DPCH which is transmitted at the same time, contains the user data. The down link
DPCH contain the fields – pilot, TPC, TFI and data.

QPSK modulation is used. Due to use of CDMA, soft handover is possible.

However, it requires a accurate power control as in the case of IS 95.

UTRA TDD Mode:

The TDD mode of UTRA uses wideband TDMA / CDMA for medium access and
this mode uplink and downlink use the same frequency. This mode offers 2mbps for
approximately 120 orthogonal channels for user traffic. The physical channels are
represented by slot and spreading code (direct sequence). Typically, the system can
transmit eight bursts from different channels within single slot. This burst contains user
data, a midample for channel estimation and a guard period to avoid interference between
different slots (23.4 micro sec). Each slot has a duration of 625 micro sec. 16 slots make
a frame with a duration of 10 ms. To reflect the use needs, the frame can be symmetrical
or asymmetrical. That is the frame can contain arbitrary number of uplink and downlink
slots. Further, a frame can have only one switching point or several switching points.

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Both Schemes FDD and TDD can coexists. Handover between the schemes is
feasible due to frame structure and the duration of 10 ms. Furthermore, the
multiframe structure for the UTRA modes allows for a seamless handover to GSM
system.

1.4 SATELLITE SYSTEMS

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1.5 BROADCAST SYSTEMS

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Question & Answers

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Two Mark Questions:

1. What is Network and Switching subsystem?
The heart of the GSM is formed by the Network and Switching System (NSS). NSS
consists of the following switches and databases:
 Mobile Services switching center(MSC)
 Home Location register (HLR)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
2. What is authentication centre?
As the radio interface and mobile stations are particularly vulnerable a separate
AuC has been defined to protect user identity and data transmission. The AuC contains
the algorithms for authentication as well as the keys for encryption and generates the
values needed for user authentication in the HLR. The AuC may, in fact, be situated in a
special protected part of the HLR.
3. What is called burst and normal burst?
Data is transmitted in small portions called bursts, normal burst are used for data
transmission inside a slot (user and signaling data).
4. What are the basic groups of logical channels?
GSM specifies 2 basic groups of logical channels,
 Traffic channels
 Control channels
5. Define traffic multiframe and control multiframe?
 The periodic pattern of 26 slots occurs in all TDMA frames with a TCH.
 The combination of these frames is called traffic multiframe.
 TDMA frames containing data for the other logical channels are combined to a
control multiframe.
6. What is OVSF?
 Using orthogonal codes separates the different data streams of a sender
 UMTS uses so-called Orthogonal Variable Spreading factor codes (OVSF).
7. Specify the steps perform during the search for a cell after power on?
 Primary synchronization
 Secondary synchronization
 Identification of the scrambling code
8. Explain about transparent mode?
The transparent mode transfer simply forwards MAC data without any further
processing. The system then has to rely on the FEC which is always used in the radio
layer.
9. What are the basic classes of handovers in UMTS?
UMTS has 2 basic classes of handovers,
 Hard handover
 Soft handover
10. Specify the security services offered by GSM.
There are three security services offered by GSM.They are:
 Bearer Services.
 Tele Services.
 Supplementary Services.
11. What is the frequency range of uplink and downlink in GSM network?

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 The frequency range of uplink in GSM network is 890-960 MHz.

 The frequency range of downlink in GSM network is 935-960 MHz.
12. What are the two basic groups of logical channels in GSM?
The two basics groups of logical channels in GSM are:
 Traffic channels (TCH).
 Control Channels (CCH).
13. What are the control channel groups in GSM?
The control channel groups in GSM are:
 Broadcast control channel (BCCH).
 Common control channel (CCCH).
 Dedicated control channel (DCCH).
14. List out the numbers needed to locate an MS and to address the MS.
The numbers needed to locate an MS and to address the MS are:
 Mobile station international ISDN number (MSISDN).
 International mobile subscriber identity (IMSI).
 Temporary mobile subscriber identity (TMSI).
 Mobile station roaming number (MSRN).
15. What are the four possible handover scenarios in GSM?
The four possible handover scenarios in GSM are:
 Intra-cell handover.
 Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover.
 Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover.
 Inter MSC handover.
16. What are the security services offered by GSM?
The security services offered by GSM are:
 Access control and authentication.
 Confidentiality.
 Anonymity.
17. What is meant by GGSN?
GGSN is Gateway GPRS Support Node. It is the inter-working unit between the
GPRS network and external packet data networks. The GGSN is connected to external
networks via the Gi interface and transfers packets to the SGSN via an IP-based GPRS
backbone network.
18. What is meant by SGSN?
SGSN is Serving GPRS Support Node. It supports the MS via the Gb interface.
The SGSN is connected to a BSC via frame relay.
19. What is meant by BSSGP?
BSSGP is Base Station Subsystem GPRS Protocol. It is used to convey routing
and QoS-related information between the BSS and SGSN.BSSGP does not perform error
correction and works on top of a frame relay network.
20. Define the protocol architecture of DECT.
The protocol architecture of DECT consists of three layers. Theyare:
 Physical Layer.
 Medium Access Layer.
 Data Link Control Layer.
 Network Layer.

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The first three layers are common for both Control Plane (C-Plane) and User Plane
(U-Plane). The network layer has been specified only for U-Plane, so that user data from
layer two is directly forwarded to the U-Plane.
21. Specify the standards offered by TETRA.
TETRA offers two standards. They are:
 Voice+Data (V+D).
 Packet Data Optimized (PDO).
22. How many ITU standardized groups of 3G radio access technologies are there in
IMT-2000?
There are five groups. They are:
 IMT-DS
 IMT-TC
 IMT-MC
 IMT-SC
 IMT-FT
23. What are the steps perform during the search for a cell after power on?
The steps perform during the search for a cell after power on is:
 Primary Synchronization.
 Secondary Synchronization.
 Identification of the scrambling code.
24. What are the two basic classes of handover?
The two basic classes of handover are:
 Hard Handover.
 Soft Handover.
25. What are the two basic transport mechanisms used by DAB?
The two basic transport mechanisms used by DAB are:
 Main Service Channel (MSC).
 Fast Information Channel (FIC).
26. What are the two transport modes defined for MSC?
The two transport modes defined for MSC are:
 Stream Mode
 Packet Mode.
27. Define the terms:
i. Earth Station.
ii. Uplink.
iii. Downlink.
Earth Station:-
The antenna systems on or near the earth are referred to as Earth Station.
Uplink:-
A transmission from an earth station to the satellite is referred to as Uplink.
Downlink:-
A transmission from the satellite to the earth station is referred to as Downlink.
28. Define Elevation Angle.
The Elevation angle is the angle from the horizontal to the point on the center of
the main beam of the antenna when the antenna is pointed directlyat the satellite.

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29. What are the factors limited the number of sub channels provided within the
satellite channel?
There are three factors limited the number of sub channels provided
within the satellite channel. They are:-
 Thermal Noise.
 Intermodulation Noise.
 Crosstalk.

Sixteen Mark Questions:

1. Explain GSM architecture?
 Mobile services
 Bearer services
 Tele services
 Supplementary services
 System architecture
 Radio subsystem
 Network and switching subsystem
 Operation subsystem
2. Explain Protocol architecture?
Protocol architecture
 Physical Layer
 Medium access control Layer
 Data link control layer
3. Explain briefly about TETRA?
The 2 standards are,
Voice Data
Packet data optimized (PDO)
The system architecture of TETRA is similar to GSM.
TETRA offers 2 channels similar to GSM as,
 Traffic channels
 control channels
4.Write brief about UMTS and IMT-2000?
 UMTS releases and standardization
 UMTS system architecture
 UMTS radio interface
5.Explain about UTRAN?
 Radio network controller
 User equipment
 Core network
 Hand over
6. Explain Satellite networks in detail.
 Basic concepts
 Parameters and configurations
 Capacity Allocation-FDMA,TDMA
 FAMA
 DAMA

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7. Write short notes on DAB.

 MSC
 FIC
 DAB Frame Structure
 Components of DAB sender
 Multimedia Object Transfer Protocol
8. Write short notes on DVB.
 DVB data broadcasting
 DVB for high-speed internet access
9. Explain DECT.
 DECT definition
 System architecture
 Protocol architecture
10. Explain about GSM

ASSIGNMENT

1. Write an Assignment on Tele Communications.

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