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SEWAGE TREATMENT IN SRI LANKA

SUPERVISED PROJECT REPORT

Niroshan Kaluthotage

MASTER OF ENGINEERING
IN
HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES

Division of Information Technology, Engineering and the Environment


School of Natural and Built Environments
University of South Australia, February 2005

OF
SOUTH AUSTRALIA

5 ZQ35
TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXCECUTWE SUMMARY 1

CHAPTER 1.0- INTRODUCTION 2

1.1 Geographical 2
1.2 Climate 2
1.3 Overview of Sewage Treatment in Sri Lanka 4

CHAPTER 2.0 - SEWAGE 7

2.1 Composition of Sewage 7


2.2 Importance of Sewage Treatment 8

CHAPTER 3.0 - SEWAGE DISPOSAL 9

3.1 Septic Tank 9


3.2 Septic Tank Design 10
3.3 Advantages of Septic Tank System 10
3.4 Disadvantages of Septic Tank System 11
3.5 Effects on Ground Water Quality 12

CHAPTER 4.0 - WASTE WATER TREATMENT PROCESS 14

4.1 Primary Treatment 14


4.1.1 Screening
4.1.2 Disposal of Screening 16
4.1.3 Grit and Scum Removal 16
4.1.4 Gas Separation and Collection 17
4.1.5 PH Adjustment 17

4.2 Secondary Treatment 17


4.2.1 Aeration and Mixing 18
4.2.2 Settling
4.2.3 Return of Sludge 20

4.3 Tertiary Treatment 20

I
4.3.1 Pre-Chlorination 20
4.3.2 Balancing Tanks 21
4.3.3 Filtration 21
4.3.4 Post Chlorination 22

4.4 Sludge Processing 22


4.4.1 Sludge Thickening 23
4.4.2 Digestion of Sludge 23
4.4.3 Drying of Sludge 23

CHAPTER 5.0 - SEWAGE TREAThIENT IN SRI LANKA 25

5.1 On-Site Disposal 26


5.2 Basic Types 26
5.3 Performance of on-site System 27
5.4 Problem Area 28
5.4.1 Property Development 29
5.4.2 Overcrowding Adjacent to Industrial Estates 29
5.4.3 Lack of Knowledge in Latrine Construction 30
5.4.4 Weakness in Bylaws 30

CHAPTER 6.0 - SEWAGE NETWORKS IN SRI LANKA 31

6.1 Greater Colombo Waste Water Sanitation System 31


6.1.1 Dehiwala Mt Lavinia Scheme 32
6.1.2 Kollonnawa Scheme 32
6.1.3 Colombo Suburban Centers 33
6.1.4 Water! Sanitation Diseases 33
6.1.5 Water Quality at the Ocean Outfalls 34
6.1.6 Water Quality in Drains & Canals 36

6.2 Hikkaduwa Sewage System 39


6.3 Kataragama Sewage System 41
6.4 Ampara Sewage Treatment System 41
6.4.1 Existing Condition 42

11
CHAPTER 7.0 - INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT 43

7.1 Effluent Discharge Standards 43


7.2 Industrial Export Zones 46
7.2.1 Katunayake Export Processing Zone 46
7.2.2 Biyagama Export Processing Zone 48
7.4 Pugoda Textile Mills 50
7.5 Alternative for Industrial Wastewater Treatment
and Disposal 51

CHAPTER 8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 53

CHAPTER 9.0 -REFRENCES 55

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Map of Sri Lanka

Figure 1.2- Monthly average precipitation at Colombo and Nuwaraeliya

Figure 1.3 Average daily maximum temperatures at Colombo and Nuwaraeliya

Figure 1.4 Percentage of household in occupied housing units with toilet facilities
in Sri Lanka
Figure 1.5- Map of Sri Lanka indicating sewer areas and areas under study for-
Provisions of Sewer

Figure 2.1- Composition of Sewage


Figure 3.1- Typical Cross Section of Septic Tank
Figure 3.2- Percentage of households in occupied housing units using various
sources of drinking water

Figure 4.1 Primary Screen


Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of a typical sewage treatment plant
Figure 4.3 Automated mechanical screen for removal of large solids, debris
Figure 4.3 Primary Clarifiers

111
Figure 4.4 Aeration Tank
Figure 4.5 Secondary Clarifier
Figure 4.6 Final Clarifier
Figure 4.7 Chlorination Tank
Figure 5.1 Percentage of Household in Occupied Housing unit by type of toilet
Figure 6.1- Map of Locations of Surface Water Quality Sampling Locations
Figure 7.1- Map of Major Industrial Areas in Greater Colombo
Figure 7.2- Schematic of Wastewater Treatment process

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Composition of Sewage


Table 6.1 Summary of Dehiwala MtLavinia Scheme
Table 6.2 Summary of Kollonnawa Scheme
Table 6.3 Summary of Sub Urban Centers
Table 6.4 Incidence of Water Sanitation Related Diseases- Greater Colombo
Table 6.5 Effluent Discharge Quality at Colombo Ocean Outfalls
Table 6.6 Water Sampling Locations
Table 6.7 Surface Water Quality at Selected Locations in Greater Colombo
Table 6.8 Design Parameters for the Hikkaduwa Sewage System
Table 7.1 Current Industrial Effluent Discharge Quality Standards in Sri Lanka
Table 7.2 Quality of Wastewater Influent and Effluent at Katunayake Treatment
Plant
Table 7.3 Quality of Wastewater Influent and Effluent at Biyagama Treatment
Plant
Table 7.4 Final Effluent from Reservoir

iv
DECLARATION

I hereby certify that this report, the text and result, is my own work and to the
best of my knowledge, does not contain any material previously published or
written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text. This
report also does not contain, without acknowledgement, any material submitted
for a degree or diploma in any university.

Niroshan Kaluthotage

V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my project supervisor, Prof


Dennis Mulcahy, for giving me an excellent support to complete this project. His
careful reading of this report has been added value for this report and increased
its quality considerably.

Also, I would like to thanks Dr Guna Hewa who always encouraging me with
some valuable comments. In addition to this, My colleague, Mr Dimutu
Pannipitiya who works at Central Engineering Consultancy Bureau, Sri Lanka
helped me with sending some important information.

vi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Sri Lanka, officially Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, formerly Ceylon, is an
island republic in the Indian Ocean. Globally, Asia has the lowest overall figures of safe
water supply coverage and sanitation coverage: almost two-thirds of those without access
to improved water supply and approximately 80% of those without access to improved
sanitation. However, In Sri Lanka, 81% of total population has adequate sanitation facilities
and 78 % are using improved drinking line water sources (UN 2002).

The lack of good sewage treatment is a cause of sickness and disease, a major
environmental threat to any country's water resources, and a fundamental stumbling block
in the advancement of human dignity. The importance of sewage treatment must be
understood by both public and government. Currently there is a positive trend in treating
sewage. Sewage treatment in Sri Lanka has been developing strongly in the last two
decades. Still there are many challenges to be overcome associate with in the sewage
treatment industry. Public awareness is the most important issue. The National Water
Supply and Drainage Board which is under the Ministry of Urban Development and Water
Supply is the main governing agency in Sri Lanka for sewage treatment and has been
actively involved in its improvement. Also, local government authorities, the
Environmental Protection Authority, non governmental organizations and the public are
involved in the drive to achieve world's best practice in this area.

I had been working at Sewerage Section of Central Engineering Consultancy Bureau, Sri
Lanka since graduation, March 2002. At that time, I was really interested to do some work
related to sewerage treatment in Sri Lanka. It motivated me to choose "Sewage Treatment
in Sri Lanka" project as my hydrology and water resources supervised project.

1
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1.0 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 GEOGRAPIIICAL

Sri Lanka, an island in the Indian Ocean and located south of the Indian subcontinent, is
also known as the Island of Serendip.
Sri Lanka lies between 5° 55' and 9° north of the equator and between the eastern
longitudes 79° 42' and 810 52'. From North to South it has a maximum length of 435 km
(270 miles) and at its widest point it measures 225 km. (140 miles), giving it a land area of
65,600 sq.km. (25,000 sq.miles). (Dept of Statics,SL, 2005)

Figure 1.1 Map of Sri Lanka


(Source: National Environment Agency, Singapore 2002)

2
1.2 CLIMATE

Because Sri Lanka is situated near the equator, the climate is generally hot and humid. The
hill and mountain areas, however, are cool, and the humidity is relatively lower in the dry
zone. The average annual temperature is 32.2° C (900 F) in the lowlands and 21.10 C (70° F)
in the higher mountainous regions.

Monthly Average Ramfall at Colombo and Nuwara


Ekya(rn m)

400
350
300

-.- Cok,mbo
Nuwaraetiya

5 12
Month

Figure 1.2- Monthly average precipitation at Colombo and Nuwaraeliya


(Source: National Environment Agency, Singapore, 2002)

Precipitation is characterized by wide seasonal and regional variations. The monsoon


season in the south-west is from May to September, at which time the rainfall is
exceptionally heavy. The hills and the lowlands of the south-western section, which is
known as the wet zone, normally have some rainfall throughout the year, but peaks occur in
May and June and in October and November. In the northern dry zone the main
precipitation of about 1,016 mm (40 in) annually occurs during the monsoon season, which
begins in December and lasts until February. Most crops in the dry zone, however, require
irrigation.

3
Figure 1.3 Average daily maximum temperatures at Colombo and Nuwareliya
(Source: National Environment Agency, Singapore, 2002)

1.3 OVERVIEW OF SEWAGE TREATMENT IN SRI LANKA

The first sewer system in Sri Lanka was built by the British in early nineteen hundreds
(19 16-1920) in the city of Colombo. This system was mainly a piped sewer network, which
covered the populated areas such as Petta, Fort, Slave Island, Bambalapitiya, Kollupitiya
and Borella. It consisted of concrete sewer pipes of the diameter from 200 mm to 500 and
with an arrangement of pumping stations. Previously, the sewerage of Colombo was
discharged to Kelani River and the Wellawatta Canal (NWS & DB, 2002).
Over the years the system has been further developed and pre treatment has been
introduced before discharging to the natural rivers and canals. But, still there are many
illegal connections and discharges to the natural water streams without any preliminary
treatment.

4
Consignment NEL003456051S1
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I II1DI1I liii 11110101110111111001111110] 11111 lOll 01111111111111111
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Thomson Learning Australia CUSTOMER COPY - FOR YOUR RECORDS


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REVIEW COPY 0000000000 10885530
GUNA HEWA
UNI SOUTH AUS - MAWSON LAKES
CIVIL AND WATER ENGINEERING
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Reference No: Customer Package Type No of Weight Length Width Height


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496395 5778609 7876116 Carton 1 2 0.00 0.00 0.00

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DANGEROUS GOODS DECLARATION


Technical Name: UN No: Class! PKg
Division Group
Climate has positive and negative implications for wastewater treatment and sanitation. The
continuous high temperatures and abundant sunlight ensure a high level of biological
activity in natural and man-made facultative waste treatment systems. The long dry periods
have a negative impact, since there is insufficient flow in the urban canals and lakes to
enable these natural systems to assimilate the waste loads imposed on them.

1% o fa

8% D bit

Figure 1.4 Percentage of households in occupied housing units with toilet facilities
in Sri Lanka, 2001
(Sources: Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka, 2001)

At present, the National Water Supply and Drainage Board is carrying out a study to
prioritize the areas, namely Kandy, Negombo, Nuwareliya, Galle, Kalutara and
Jayawardanapura Kotte, which have to be provided with sewerage networks. Also, a
feasibility study is being carried out for the provision of sewerage treatment to Sri
Jayawardanapura Kotte and adjoining areas.

5
I

5000

1130

ADlj WA

o AREA

Figure 1.5- Map of Sri Lanka indicating sewered areas and areas under study for- provision
of sewers
(Source: National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

6
CHAPTER 2

SEWAGE
CHAPTER 2.0 - SEWAGE

2.1 COMPOSITION OF SEWAGE

Sewage is the wastewater of a community. It may be purely domestic in origin or it may


contain some industrial or agricultural wastewater as well. Domestic sewage is composed
of human body wastes ( faeces and urine) and wastewater resulting from personal washing,
laundry, food preparation and the cleaning of kitchen utensils.

Figure 2.1 Composition of Sewage (From T.FLY.Tebbutt, Principles of Water


Quality Control, Oxford, 1970)

Fresh sewage is a grey turbid liquid. It contains large floating or suspended solids, smaller
suspended solids and very small solids in colloidal suspension, as well as pollutants in true
solution. Pathogenic and extremely hazardous organisms may also present( Canter & Knox,
1985). In hot climate countries, like Sri Lanka, sewage can soon lose its content of
dissolved oxygen and so become stale. Septic sewage has a most offensive odour, usually
of hydrogen suiphide.

7
Representative analyses of human faeces and urine are given in Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1 Composition of human faeces and urine

Faeces Urine
Quantity ( wet) per person per day 135-270 g 1.0-1.3 kg
Quantity( dry solids) per person per day 35-70 g 50-70 g
Approximation composition (%)
Moisture 66-80 93-96
Organic Matter 88-97 65-85
Nitrogen 5.0-7.0 15-19
Phosphorus (as P205) 3.0-5.4 2.5-5.0
Potassium (as 1(20) 1.0-2.5 3.0-4.5
Carbon 44-55 11-17
Calcium (as CaO) 4.5 4.5-6.0

(From F1.B.Gotaas, Composting: Sanitary Disposal and Reclamation of Organic wastes,


World Health Organization, 1996.)

2.2 IMPORTANCE OF SEWAGE TREATMENT

Sewage should be treated before its ultimate disposal in a receiving water course in order to
a) Reduce the spread of communicable diseases caused by the pathogenic organisms in
the sewage
b) Prevent the pollution of surface and ground waters

These two reasons are interdependent to the extent that a polluted body of water is
potentially harmful to human health. There is now an increasing awareness that pollution
and contamination of the environment is most undesirable (Mara, 1975). As a developing
country, Sri Lanka, the relative scarcity of funds and the desperate need for sanitary
facilities will ensure that, for many years to come, money will be spent primarily on
measures directly designed to improve the wellbeing of the people.

8
CHAPTER 3

SEWAGE DISPOSAL
CHAPTER 3- SEWAGE DISPOSAL

3.1 SEPTIC TANKS

The first reported use of a septic tank for serving the wastewater disposal needs of a
household was in France about 1870. Septic tank systems have become the most widely
used method of on-site sewage disposal system in Sri Lanka. Statistical data are not
available to cover the whole country but it can be estimated that more than 80 percent of
the population are using septic tank as a sewage disposal method. A septic tank contains a
concrete cylinder block or metal tank where the solids settle and the floatable materials rise.
The partly clarified liquid stream flows from a submerged outlet into subsurface rock-filled
trenches through which the wastewater percolates into the soil where it is oxidized
aerobically. The floating matter and settled solids can be held from six months to several
years, during which time they are decomposed anaerobically( Canter & Knox, 1985).

Vic,w
of

Figure 3.1 Typical Cross Section of a Septic Tank


(Source: Montana State University, 2004)

9
3.2 SEPTIC TANK DESIGN

Septic thanks are buried, watertight receptacles designed and constructed to receive
wastewater from one or multiple housing units or from industrial processes. Design
considerations related to a septic tank include determination of the appropriate volume, a
choice between single and double compartments, selection of the construction material, and
placement on the site. The septic tank must be designed to ensure removal of almost all
settleable solids in the influent wastewater. Key design considerations basic to this
treatment of wastewater from individual housing units include (Henry & Heinke, 1996)

• Liquid volume sufficient for a 24 hour fluid retention time at maximum sludge
depth and scum accumulation.
• Inlet and outlet devices to prevent the discharge of sludge or scum in the effluent.
• Sufficient sludge storage space to prevent the discharge of sludge or scum in the
effluent.
• Venting provisions to allow for the escape of accumulated methane and hydrogen
sulfide gases.

It is important that septic tanks be sized based on the wastewater volume to be handled. A
factor of safety should be provided to allow for variations in wastewater loading and future
changes in the character of household wastes. Oversized tanks will not be cost-effective and
undersized ones will yield effluent discharges which have not received the level of
treatment necessary for optimum usage of the soil absorption system (Canter & Knox,
1985).

3.3 ADVANTAGES OF SEPTIC TANK SYSTEMS

• Minimal maintenance is required for the system, with potential pumpage of sludge
required every three to five years. While there are requirements for removal of

10
sludge, there is less sludge produced per person through use of a septic tank system
than use of a centralized mechanical plant such as an activated sludge plant.

• The cost of individual or community septic tank system is less than the cost of
central wastewater collection facilities and treatment plants.

• The septic tank system is a low technology one, thus the possibility for long term
operation without extensive periods of shutdown is enhanced.

• The energy requirements of septic tank system are low in comparison to those of
centralized wastewater treatment facilities.

3.4 DISADVANTAGES OF SEPTIC TANK SYSTEMS

There are some disadvantages of septic tank systems. Those are listed below.

• Potential for ground water pollution depending upon the soil characteristics and
density of systems in a given geographical area.

• System overflows and pollution of adjacent water wells and surface water courses if
the systems are not properly maintained.

• During wet seasons, ground water may rise into the leach field and force sewage
upward to the ground surface.

• The roots of trees and bushes planted too close to the system can sometimes enter
and block the pipes of the system.

• Cleaners used for maintenance of septic tank systems may create difficulties in
terms of ground water pollution, particularly cleaners that have organic solvent
bases.

11
These advantages and disadvantages of septic tank systems must be considered as general
statements, with the decision to locate a system in a given geographical area based on site
suitability and costs relative to other on-site disposal options and central collection and
treatment systems.

3.5 EFFECTS ON GROUND WATER QUALITY

In Sn Lanka, the majority of people (75.3%) use groundwater sources for drinking
purposes (Figure 3.2) (UN 2002). Also, it can be shown majority of people use a septic tank
as the sewage disposal method. Therefore, it is essential to be concerned about how the use
of septic tanks will effect on the quality of ground water.

One of the key concerns associated with design and usage of septic tank systems is the
potential for polluting groundwater. This concern is increased when consideration system
serving multiple housing units. It is important to identify the mechanisms of groundwater
contamination from septic tank system, including the migration of pollutants through soil
and groundwater systems.

Of concern in terms of ground water pollution is the quality of septic tank effluent and the
efficiency of constituent removal in the soil underlying the soil absorption system. Those
constituents which pass through the septic tank and the unsaturated soil beneath the drain
field are the ones of concern relative to groundwater pollution. Numerous studies have been
made of the treatment efficiencies and effluent qualities from septic tanks, with fewer
reported studies related to soil absorption system efficiencies (Canter & Knox, 1985).

12
o Wtt-in p'enises
40/
a'!0 0 o xtside

o UID!ttectei

o (n-an
15% lire)
o c*Aside penises

o BoAser

o i

11% o

Figure 3.2 Percentage of Households in Occupied Housing Units Using Various Sources of
Drinking Water
(Source: Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka 2001)

13
CHAPTER 4

WASTE WATER
TREATMENT PROCESS
CHAPTER 4- WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESS

4.1 PRIMARY TREATEMENT


The first stage of sewage treatment is usually the removal of large floating objects and
heavy mineral particles such as sand and grit. This is done in order to avoid damage to the
equipment used in the subsequent stages of treatment. This preliminary treatment
comprises screening and grit removal.

4.1.1 Screening
Coarse solids are removed by a series of closely spaced mild steel bars placed across the
flow. There are two types of screens those are automatic bar screens and manual bar
screens. The velocity through the screen should be > 0.3 m/s in order to prevent the
deposition of grit but < I rn/s so that the solids already trapped on the screen are not
dislodged. The spacing between the bars is usually 20-40 mm and the bars are commonly
of rectangular cross-section. At small works screens are raked by hand and in order to
facilitate the screens are inclined, commonly at 60 to the horizontal. A standby hand-raked
screen should be provided for use when the mechanical screen is out of action (NWS & DB,
2002).

Figure 4.2 Primary Screen (View from above)


(Source: Waste Water Treatment Plant, Libertyville, USA, 2004)

14
4

&

-4 1*th

Figure 4.2 Schematic Diagram of a Typical Municipal Sewage Treatment Plant


(Source: Central Engineering Consultancy Bureau, Sri Lanka, 2002)

15
4.1.2 Disposal of Screenings

Screenings are particularly obnoxious in both appearance and content and should be
disposal of as soon as possible. At small works this is readily achieved by burial, a small
area of land being set aside for this purpose. At larger works screenings are dewatered in a
hydraulic press and then possible incinerated. Handling of screenings is a most unpleasant
job.

Figure 4.3 Automated Mechanical Screen for Removal of Large Solids and Debris
(Source: Waste Water Treatment Plant, Libertyville USA, 2004)

16
4.1.3 Grit and Scum Removal

Grit is the heavy inorganic fraction of sewage solids. It includes road grit, sand, eggshells,
ashes, glass and pieces of metal. Grit has an average relative density of about 2.5 and thus
has a much higher settling velocity than organic sewage solids. Scum off the liquid surface
as well as oil and grease are removed by a scraper in each grit chamber. The collected
materials are eventually disposed at off site. The grit is either used for landfill or disposed
by burial.

4.1.4 Gas Separation and Collection

Aerating the wastewater inside the grit chamber results in release the trapped odorous gases
from wastewater. Air containing the stripped odorous gases is collected from the main
building using special exhaust fans, and injected into the aeration tanks and sludge
digesters.

4.1.5 pH Adjustment

The Primary treatment stage also contains a monitoring and injection system for the pH
neutralization adjustment of the waste water. If the measured pH value of the wastewater
indicates that it is becoming more acidic, adjustment is made by injecting an amount of
caustic soda solution.

4.2 SECONDARY TREATMENT

In primary treatment, a portion of the suspended solids and organic matter is removed from
the wastewater. The effluent from primary treatment ordinarily contains considerable
organic matter and will have a relatively high BOD. The principal function of primary
treatment is as a precursor to secondary treatment. Secondary treatment is carried out in
two steps. The first step is in the aeration tanks where primary treated water is mixed with

17
massive quantities of bacteria and microorganisms, and the whole mix is aerated. The
bacteria and other microorganisms then start consuming the organic materials. In the next
step, these bacteria and the microorganisms are settled in the settling tanks. The settled
concentrated micro flora are referred to sludge.

4.2.1. Aeration and Mixing

The primary treated water is mixed with the sludge returned from the settling tanks, then it
flows into aeration tanks. The whole mix is aerated using air blowers that compress the air
into the main headers, and then into an air distribution network located inside the aeration
tanks. Air is injected in to the tanks through fine bubble diffusers fixed in the bottom of
each tank. This compressed air consists of the atmospheric air mixed with the gases
collected from the headwork and the sludge thickeners. Air injection promotes further
mixing of the liquid and prevents the solid particles from settling at the bottom of the
aeration tank. It also activates the existing bacteria and microorganisms to consume the
organic materials in the wastewater.

FIgure 4.3 Primary Clarifiers


(Source: Waste Water Treatment Plant, Libertyville, USA, 2004)

18
Figure 4.4 Aeration Tank
(Source: Waste Water Treatment Plant, Libertyville, USA, 2004)

Figure 4.5 Secondary Clarifier


(Source: Waste Water Treatment Plant, Libertyville, USA, 2004)

19
4.2.2 Settling

The mixed liquor flowing out of the aeration tanks is entered into the secondary settling
tanks. Here the sludge is settled. Part of this settled sludge (return activated sludge) is
returned back to the aeration tanks and mixed with the primary treated wastewater. The
other part (excess sludge) is pumped to the sludge processing stage. The clear water
flowing out of the settling tanks, called the secondary effluent, is collected and discharged
to the terrain stage of further treatment.

4.2.3 Return of Sludge

Part of the settled sludge is returned to the aeration tanks using vertical pumps, in order to
maintain steady concentration of the bacteria and microorganisms in the aeration tanks
throughout a treatment process.

4.3 TERTIARY TREATMENT

Tertiary treatment is the final treatment stage in the process and it is intended to disinfect
the treated water and to remove the remaining solid particles from it. This eventually
improves the quality of the treated water and in many cases makes it suitable for irrigation
purposes. The tertiary treatment stage consists of the following specific steps.

4.3.1 Pre-chlorination

Secondary treated water flows from the settling tanks usually through an open channel, to
the tertiary treatment stage. Chlorine solution is injected for the first time (pre-chlorination)
inside the channel before reaching the balancing tanks. The purpose of chlorination is to
kill the bacteria and other microorganisms in the treated water and prevent their growth in
the filter media.

20
Figure 4.6 Final Clarifier
(Source: Waste Water Treatment Plant, Libertyville, USA, 2004)

4.3.2 Balancing Tanks

After the pre-chiorination, the water is stored in balancing tanks. Balancing tanks provide a
hold-up volume of secondary effluent at times of peak flow in order to maintain constant
flow of secondary effluent to the sand filters. These balancing tanks also work to allow
chlorine to eliminate all pathogens.

4.3.3 Filtration

Using three screw pumps, water is transferred from the balancing tanks to sand filters.
Water passes by gravity though the sand media where the solids particles are trapped on the
sand surface and clear water is then collected from the bottom of the filter. The filters are
regularly backwashed to prevent blockage of the filter media.

21
- - -

Figure 4.7 Chlorination Tank


(Source: Waste Water Treatment Plant, Libertyville, USA, 2004)

4.3.4 Post-Chlorination

After filtration, chlorine is added for the second time (post chlorination) in order to
completely eliminate any remaining bacteria or microorganisms. Treated water is then
passed to the contact tanks to insure completion of this stage of disinfection. Post-
chlorination is considered the final process for treatment of the wastewater before it is
discharged to natural streams or to irrigation locations.

4.4 SLUDGE PROCESSING

Excess sludge produced from the secondary treatment stage is disposed off site to approved
locations. However, sludge has to be properly processed before its disposal in order to
ensure removal of all polluting materials and bacteria. This is mainly achieved by digestion

22
of the sludge. Thickening and drying are also carried out to facilitate handling and
transportation of the sludge.

4.4.1 Sludge Thickening

Using two sludge pumps, the excess sludge is pumped from the secondary treatment tanks
to sludge thickeners. The thickeners have a similar function and structure to the settling
tanks. Sludge settles at the bottom of the thickeners and condenses to up to five times its
initial concentration. This condensed and concentrated settled sludge is called a thickened
sludge. The thickening process reduces the volume of the sludge, which facilitates its
transportation and digestion. The thickeners are covered with aluminum domes to prevent
emission of odors to the atmosphere. The trapped air inside the cover domes is collected
using exhaust fans, in a similar way as in the headwork building, and eventually injected
into the aeration tanks and sludge digesters.

4.4.2 Digestion of sludge

Thickened sludge is pumped into the aerobic digesters. The digesters work in the same way
as the aeration tanks in the secondary treatment stage. The sludge is mixed and aerated in
the digesters with the same air blowers and compressed air as used in the aeration tanks,
except that coarse bubble diffusers are used in the digesters. Aeration in the digesters
eliminates the remaining polluting materials in the sludge, and reduces the numbers of
bacteria and microorganisms as well.

4.4.3 Drying of sludge

Digested sludge is pumped to sludge drying beds. The sludge is spread in the drying beds
and left to dry completely. The drying process depends on the evaporation rate at the
exposed surface of the sludge, and on the drainage of water contained in the sludge. Drain

23
water is conveyed using underground pipe networks and is returned to the secondary
treatment stage. After the sludge is dried, it is transported off site to the approved locations.

Sewage treatment plants should have a fully equipped laboratory for conducting all
necessary tests on water and sludge samples. Tests are carried out on samples collected
from all treatment stages, starting from the inflow of the wastewater up to the tertiary
effluent. There are around thirty tests recognized by the international procedures and
standards that are carried out to determine the characteristics of the water samples. They
include chemical, physical and biological tests. Some of these tests are:
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
> Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn, Hg)
Total and volatile suspended solids (TSS & VSS)
Ammonia
> Number and activity of different microorganisms

24
CHAPTER 5

SEWAGE TREATMENT
IN SRI LANKA
CHAPTER 5- SEWAGE TREATMENT IN SRI LANKA

The term "wastewater" is used generally to include industrial liquid wastes and domestic
wastes which include the excreta and "grey" waters derived from kitchen wastes,
laundering and general household cleansing. "Excreta management" relates to the
collection, treatment and disposal of human wastes plus the water associated with ablution
and flushing the "black water" faction of domestic wastes. The majority of on-site systems
are designed with capacity for black waters; other domestic liquid wastes are disposed
separately on the ground, to soak ways, or to storm drains or water courses( NWS & DB,
2002).

Conventional sewerage systems are defined as systems collecting domestic and industrial
wastes in piped sewers, for treatment and disposal in bulk facilities.
On-site facilities are basically self-contained systems in that they are not connected to a
conventional system. The effluent from them may flow into storm drains or waterways or
may teach into the ground. On-site systems include various types of pit latrine (dry and
water-seal types), cesspits Tholding tanks, and septic tanks.

2Y0

o
DpQxflLsh
o pt
o bucket
D
o rd isingatcilet
D

Figure 5.1 Percentage of Household in Occupied Housing Unit Using Various Types of
Toilet Facilities
(Source: Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka 2001)

25
The largest group, those served by on-site facilities, comprises individual home owners
/occupiers who can afford to install and operate their own facilities, and about 15 percent in
the low-income groups and community gardens whose sanitation facilities are judged as
adequate. The group having no facilities defecates on the sea shore, in canals and
waterways and on available open ground.

5.1 ON-SITE DISPOSAL

On-site waste disposal is a provincial responsibility under the public health services of the
Provincial Ministry of Health. The responsibility is exercised in the municipal council areas
by the Chief Medical Officers of Health, and in the urban councils and rural councils, by
the Medical officers of Health (NWS & DB,2002).

The legal provisions for the promotion of sanitary disposal of on-site waste treatment
derive from several Ordinances and Acts, including the Nuisance Ordinance, Quarantine
and Prevention of Diseases Ordinance, Town and Country Planning Ordinance, the
Housing and Town Improvement Ordinance, and the Urban Development Act.

Several bilateral and international agencies and non governmental organizations (NGO) are
active in the promotion of improved sanitation for the low-income groups( UNICEF, under
its Basic Urban Services Programmes).

5.2 BASIC TYPES

Domestic on-site excreta facilities can be classified into three main types.

1) Those which are "apparently seif-contined" within the boundary of the premises on
which they are situated. They depend on the percolation /adsorption capacity of the
soils to continuously accept the liquid fraction of human wastes and any water used
for ablutions and flushing. The solids collection chamber (earth pit or first

26
compartment of a septic tank) will normally last several years before the residual
products of decomposition require removal. These facilities are only "apparently
self-contained" because, depending on the soil characteristics, partially treated
effluent may reach the groundwater and cause pollution. This category includes pit
latrines (dry and water-seal types), and septic tanks or soakage pits.

2) Those which act as holding tanks for the wastes and have to be emptied frequently.
These may be concrete tanks constructed for the purpose, or excavations in soils
which have little or no percolation capacity.

3) Facilities which fall between the above. These include pit-type systems and septic
tanks which are provided with outlets to convey the liquid fraction away from the
facility. The outlets may be legal connections such as small bore pipes which
connect with sewers or go directly to treatment systems, or illegal connections to
storm drains or Water courses.

About two thirds of the population of the Greater Colombo area use on-site facilities for
exereta disposal( Statics Dept, 2004). According to official classifications on-site facilities
are water-seal latrines, pit latrines, bucket and "other" which generally relates to temporary
toilets. The official data do not distinguish between facilities which depend on soakage for
disposal of the liquid fraction and the holding tanks. Water-seal latrines may discharge
directly to an earth pit or, through some form of offset, to a soakage pit, a cesspit /holding
tank, or a septic tank. The septic tank is usually a two-compartment tank discharging to a
soakage pit, occasionally to a tile bed, and often to a watercourse or drain.

5.3 PERFORMANCE OF ONSITE SYSTEMS

Most of the facilities serving the 1.7 million on-site users in the Greater Colombo area
function adequately most of the time. Problems have occurred where the basic requirements
for successful operation of on-site systems have been ignored.

27
On-site systems, which depend on soils to take care of the liquid part of the wastes, can
provide hygienic treatment and disposal for domestic wastes and some types of industrial
wastes. The system will fail it the percolation capacity is inadequate. Soils vary widely
from sandy soils which are highly porous to tight soils, such as latterites and clasys. In
addition the height of the water table clearly affects the capacity of any leaching system.
Current by-laws do not distinguish between soil types and contain no provisions for on-site
testing.

On-site systems have the same essential requirements cOmmon to all treatment systems, i.e.
1) their design and construction must be appropriate or the conditions under which
they will operate;
2) they must be maintained properly and
3) waste loadings must not exceed the design capacities both with regard to quantity
and type of wastes.

When any of the basic requirements can not be met or are ignored, an insanitary mess
results which can have serious consequences for the health of individuals living in the
vicinity and possibly for the well-being of the entire community.

5.4 PROBLEM AREAS

The major problems in on—site sanitation can be summarized as follows.

• Inadequate facilities for the urban poor, (17 percent with no facilities and 9 percent
with facilities classed as inadequate to grossly inadequate)
• Facilities do not operate properly due to poor design and / or construction,
incompatible soil conditions, high water table, or overloading
• Inadequate maintenance of on-site facilities; this can occur due to age as the
porosity of the soils is reduced over time by blockage by fine particles

28
• When problems are experienced in the last two instances, soakage systems are
bypassed and the partially treated effluent is piped directly to adjacent watercourses
or drains.

In each case the above weakness lead to pollution of the urban environment. The problems
tend to be excoriated by failure to incorporate good sanitation practices in development
planning.

The following are examples.

5.4.1. Property Development

There is no consistency in the minimum lot sizes for housing development; lot sizes vary
according to the local authority. Unplanned subdivision of land contributes to development
on small congested lots where there is insufficient land for soakways to function.
Developers are often unaware of the importance of the layout of infrastructure facilities,
and emphasis is only on roads.

In relocation and upgrading programmes of low income communities, the land requirement
per plot has been reduced to 1.5 perch ( 1 perch =25.3 sq meters), depending on the
availability of land and the number of beneficiaries, under special provision by the Urban
Development Authority in Sri Lanka. This lot size is supposed to be allowed only in areas
where piped water supply and sewerage facilities are available; however, there are areas
where 2 perch blocks have been allocated without piped water supply and sewerage.

5.4.2. Overcrowding Adjacent to Industrial Estates

The Export Promotion Zones attract workers from outside the Greater Colombo area and a
demand is created for housing in the immediate vicinity. To meet this demand, local land
owners have constructed large numbers of small temporary houses with minimum sanitary
facilities.

29
Overcrowding of these temporary dwellings (e.g., 5 persons living in one 4 m x 3 m units,
or 15-20 persons living in two to three bedroomed houses) has resulted in the overuse of
soakage pits. It was observed that most of the offset soakage pits in the Seeduwa
fKatunayake urban council area were overflowing, creating nuisance. Some of urban
councils has no gully to empty the filled pits (NWS & DB, 2002).

5.4.3 Lack of Knowledge in Latrine Construction

Field investigations in the urban council and rural council areas reveal that overloading of
soakage pits is often the result of underestimating the probable number of occupants of the
household who will use the toilet facilities. This situation was particularly evident of the
Seeduwa /Katunayake area.

Those who could afford to construct septic tanks with proper effluent disposal systems have
instead constructed offset soakage pits, probably due to lack of understanding of the greater
benefits of septic tanks.

5.4.4 Weaknesses in Bylaws, Especially in Urban and Rural Council Areas

The most serious omission in current by-laws is that they contain no provisions for on-site
testing of soils as a prerequisite for approval of soakage systems. This results in the
installation of systems which have built-in problems from the start. There are inadequate
legal controls on on-site sanitation facilities.

When illegal actions take place, prosecutions are not instituted because of the long term
delays involved. Also fines imposed on the basis of old ordinances have not been updated
in accordance with ihflation and are now unrealistic in relation to the seriousness of the
infringements.

30
CHAPTER 6

SEWAGE NETWORKS IN
SRI LANKA
CHAPTER 6 -SEWAGE NETWORKS IN SRI LANKA

6.1 GREATER COLOMBO WASTEWATER AND SANITATION SYSTEM

Geographical

Colombo is the capital of Sri Lanka and the Greater Colombo area is the major centre of
employment in the manufacturing, trade, business services and government services sectors.
Agricultural employment is negligible compared with other areas.

Climate

The Greater Colombo area lies in a part of the wet zone of Sri Lanka. The heaviest rains are
associated with the South West Monsoons and usually occur during the period immediately
preceding and following the mid - May to September monsoons. The average precipitation
is 2000-25000 mm per year ( Statics Dept, 2004).

Daily maximum rainfall can be as high as 340 mm, maximum rainfall in two consecutive
days 470 mm, in 3 consecutive days 526 mm, and in 4 consecutive days 588 mm, all with
return periods of 200 years.

The Greater Colombo sewerage system is the largest sewer network in Sri Lanka and it is
controlled by Colombo Municipal Council and National Water Supply & Drainage Board.

31
6.1.1 Dehiwala. Mt.Lavinia Scheme

Table 6.1 Summary of Dehiwala MtLavinia Scheme


(Source: National Water Supply & Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

Land Area Covered (ha) 100


Pumping Station 2
Total Length of Sewers 24 km
Total Connections that can be provided 4000
Discharge to Wellawatta Ocean Outfall
Annual Operating & Maintenance Cost 8 million Rs/year

6.1.2 Kollonnawa Scheme

Table 6.2 Summary of Kollonnawa Scheme


(Source: Nationa! Water Supply & Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

Land Area Covered (ha) 60


Pumping Stations 3

Total Length of Sewers 15 km


Total connection that can be provided 5000
Discharge to Muttuwal Ocean Outfall
Annual Operating & Maintenance Cost 4 millionlyear
6.1.3 Colombo Suburban Centres

Table 6.3 Summary of Sub Urban Centers


(Source: National Water Supply & Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

Scheme Population Sewered Pumping Stations/Pumps


Soysapura 16500 1/2
Mattegoda 6000 2/4

Maligawatta 9600 2/4


Maligawatta Hospital 450 V2

Crow Island 3000 1/3


Stace Road 900 V2

Presidential Secretariat 2000


Parliament Complex 2750 1/3
Sethsiripaya Complex 6000 V2

Isurupaya 1100 1/3


Jayawardanagama 5300 3/5
Sri Jayawardanapura Hospital 2000 3/12
Maddumagewatte 900 2/3
Maligawatta Storm Water '/2

Annual O& M cost 25 million/year

6.1.4 Water/ Sanitation Related Diseases

Table 6.4 indicates the water and sanitation related disease incidence for Greater Colombo
area for three consecutive years 1988, 1989 and 1990 for the three Deputy Provincial
Health Services divisions in the Greater Colombo area. Diseases which have been
classified under the water /sanitation related category exclude cholera and poliomyelitis of
which no case records of admission were available in hospitals for 1988, 89 and 90 (NWS
&DB, 2002).

33
Table 6.4 Incidence of water sanitation related Greater Colombo
(Source: National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

1988 1989 1990


Name of Disease
Typhoid/Para Typhoid 970 604 606
Fever
Shigellosis 4109 3109 3303
Food Poisoning 574 0 857
Amoebiasis 504 281 509
Intestinal Infections 16015 11123 17215
Viral Hepatitis 2137 1122 1559
Dengue Fever 0 16 31
Japanese Encaphalitis 8 45 92
Leptospirosis 108 111 146
Malaria 4793 2185 2596
Filaria 497 412 502

Cholera 0 0 0
Total 29715 19008 27416

6.1.5 Water Quality at Entry Points to the Ocean Outfalls

The two existing ocean outfalls in Greater Colombo, Wellawatta and Mutwal, do not
discharge at the shore nor into confined lagoons, lakes, estuaries, or other poorly mixed
water. The offshore ocean water is generally warm, well mixed, oxygenated, and low in
nutrients. Biotic life is relatively limited by the mobile sands, although fin fisheries may be
good to abundant. Designs and locations of the outfalls and diffusers have focused on
maximizing diffusion and dispersion of discharged sewage and on protecting the nearshore
waters. Therefore, the conditions of wastewater disposal to the sea along the Greater
Colombo coast should be devoid of any major problem.

34
Table 6.5 Effluent discharge quality at Colombo ocean outfalls
(Source: National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

Parameter Wellawatta Modara


Time Value Time Value

BOD(3-day, 30 ° C),mg/L 04:45 10 05:30 20


10:30 110 11:30 150
16:45 120 17:45 130
19:30 130 20:15 131

Total COD(unfiltered), mg/L 04:45 18 05:30 60


10:30 188 11:30 180
16:45 180 17:45 245
19:30 226 20:15 207

Soluble COD (filtered), 04:45 18 05:30 27


mgIL 10:30 63 11:30 42
16:45 20 17:45 66
19:30 122 20:15 37

TSS, mg/L 04:45 38 05:30 35


10:30 92 11:30 180
16:45 217 17:45 229
19:30 138 20:15 256

VSS, mg[L 04:45 34 05:30 28


10:30 90 11:30 166
16:45 204 17:45 223
19:30 124 20:15 240

TDS, mg/L 04:45 243 05:30 298


10:30 277 11:30 328
16:45 75 17:45 167
19:30 156 20:15 276

Conductivity, 04:45 300 05:30 450


10:30 400 11:30 520
16:45 490 17:45 530
19:30 420 20:15 540

Ammonia Nitrogen, mg/L 04:45 25 05:30 10


10:30 45 11:30 35
16:45 17 17:45 20
19:30 15 20:15 29

35
The samples were collected at four separate times during a one-day period at each outfall at
the last accessible manhole on land. The results were shown on Table 6.5. The early
morning values for BOD3 are inconsistent with the range of values reported for the later
samples. A probable explanation is that the main pumps were not operative at those times
and the flow was largely infiltration (NWS & DB, 2002).

6.1.6 Water Quality in Drains and Canals

Figure 6.1 shows the locations of the 12 points where the grab samples were taken and
table 6.7 shows the results of the laboratory analyses. Based on BOD3 and Suspended
Solids parameters, the results show that all the drains and canals sampled are highly
polluted and justify the description as "open sewers". The BOD3 of the samples from the
San Sebastian Canal is about the same as that measured at the discharge manhole to the
Wellawatta outfall and only slightly less than those measured at the Modara outfalls( NWS
&DB,2002).

Table 6.6 Water Sampling Locations


(Source: National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

Location Number Location


1 San Sebastian Canal at Prince of Wales Avenue
2 Dematagoda Canal at Baseline Road
3 San Sebastian Canal at Maradana Road
4 Wanattamulla Ela near Pump Station
5 Kirimanadal Ela at Narahenpita
6 Kirillapona Canal at Galle Road
7 Dehiwala Canal at Galle Road
8 Bolgoda Canal at Pallidora Road
9 Main Drain From Katukurunduwatta and Attidiya Areas
10 East Drain From Lady Catherine
11 North Drain into Lunawa Lagoon

36
Figure 6.1 Map of Locations of Surface Water Quality Sampling Locations
(Source: National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

o 2
I I

QUALITY
SAMPLiNG LOCATIONS

37
Table 6.7 Surface water quality at selected locations in Greater Colombo

(Source: National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

Analytical Parameter Location ( see the Figure 6.1)


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 [2
pH 6.3 6.3 6.5 6.6 6.3 6.4 6.68 6.7 6.9 8.94 6.40 7.06
Alkalinity( Total), mg/L as CaCo3 68 56 96 132 72 48 122 106 195 100 148 200

Conductivity, 400 350 450 550 350 250 600 600 1200 1500 600 1050
Total Dissolved Solids, mg/L 144 106 110 214 82 126 246 206 500 940 200 430
Total Suspended Solids, mg/L 32 8 66 60 34 14 10 110 32 200 34 26
Volatile Suspended Solids, mg/L 26 2 8 14 12 4 2 80 16 106 6 8

BOD (3-day, 30°C), mg/L 125 60 125 75 109 54 44 39 140 165 70 170
Total COD (unfiltered), mg/L 229 100 162 262 221 333 216 291 175 562 329 225
Soluble COD(filtered), mg/L 158 46 117 108 162 117 133 92 121 383 162 108

AmmoniaNitrogen,rng/L 2.6 1.7 4.4 8.6 2.1 ND 3.1 0.7 7.0 13.7 4.1 8.6

Kjeidahl Nitrogen, rng/L 3.2 2.0 5.8 9.4 2.4 0.4 3.2 0.9 9.0 20.4 5.8 16.9
Sulfides, mg/L 3.2 5.6 2.4 3.2 4.0 2.4 4.0 ND ND 1.6 4.0 ND
Oil & Grease, mg/L ND ND ND 0.2 ND ND ND ND ND 2.0 ND ND
Cadmium, mg!L <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Chromium (Total), rng/L <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.02 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Lead, mgIL <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01

38
6.2 H!KKADUWA SEWERAGE SYSTEM

Hikkaduwa is an important and rapidly growing tourist center in the south west of Sri
Lanka with attractions of pleasant beaches, coral reefs and associated tropical fish and
underwater flora. To maintain this attractive environment and related activity, and foreign
exchange generation, it is essential to provide a suitable collection, treatment and disposal
system for sewage from the high density tourist areas. The objectives of the Hikkaduwa
Sewerage Treatment System are to meet the following requirements (Sinclair Knight Mertz,
2004).

• Implement the Special Area Management Plan for Hikkaduwa, with the primary
aim to protect the coral reef (200 m to 300 m offshore for 1.5 km) by reducing the
amount of raw or poorly treated sewage entering the marine sanctuary.
• Reduce the risks to general public health and that of tourists within the Special Area
of Management. That is reduce the risk of disease transmission.
• Reduce unpleasant smells and sights, both on and off the sewage works.
• Comply with the needs and requirements of the National Water Supply & Drainage
Board, Central Environmental Authority, and the Government of Sri Lanka.

The Hikkaduwa sewage system consists of the following components.


• Hikkaduwa Sewage Treatment Plant
• Sewage Pumping Stations
• Sewer Reticulation System

The basic process of treatment at Hikkaduwa Sewerage Treatmeht Plant is rhuch


similar to the conventional sewerage treatment plant which is detailed in Chapter 4. Some
special features are outlined in this chapter.

The following table summarizes design parameters adopted for the Hikkaduwa Sewage
System.

39
Table 6.8 Design parameters for the Hikkaduwa sewage system
(Source: National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka, 2002)

Parameter Adopted Value


Average Dry Weather Flow( ADWF) 870 m3 Id or 10 L/s (Lagoons)
Maximum a 2,400 m3 Id or 28 L/s (Inlet Works)
Peak Dry Weather Flow( PDWF) 1,736 m3 /d or 20 LIs (Lagoons)
Maximum a 2,400 m3 /d or 28 L/s (Inlet Works)
Peak Wet Weather Flow( PWWF) 3,300 m3 /d or 38 L/s (Lagoons & inlet works)
Maximum a
Sewage pumping station capacity 38 L/s
Biological Load
Hotel, residence-high season 115 kg /d
Hotel-residence- low season 64 kg /d
Hotel-residence-ultimate 150 kg /d
Hotel-residence-minimum 50 kg /d
Industrial 10-20 kg /d

Biological loading rates


High season 510 kg/hald
Low season 300 kg/hald
Biological loading rates
High season 510 kg /ha /d
Low season 300 kg /ha /d
SIP process: overall removal 85 %

Design discharge quality to receiving waters


20 mgIL
Filtered BOD
Oil and Greece 10 mg/L

40
6.3 KATARAGAMA SEWERAGE SYSTEM

The present oxidation pond sewage treatment plant was commissioned in the year 1981 by
the National Water Supply & Drainage Board to treat domestic sewerage generated from
number of commercial, government and some of domestic consumers in the major town
area of Kataragama. The treatment plant is located 2 kms from Kataragama town. Effluent
is disposed at to the Menik River after the treatment. The plant comprises of grit chamber
and channel, and primary and secondary ponds having capacities of 14700 m3 and 18750
m3 respectively. The plant was designed to treat 183 commercial, government and domestic
connections of the town of Kataragama. However, it appears that a number of illegal
discharges form various places within the area are also made to this pond without proper
consent from the National Water Supply and Drainage Board( NWS & DB, 2002).

Over the last twenty years the area has developed rapidly and the domestic water
consumption has risen to 4000 m3 /day( NWS & DB, 2002). The number of connections
from domestic, commercial and government consumers also increased to 3500, 500 and
150 m3/day respectively.

For various reasons the present plant has not being managed properly and needs to be
rehabilitated. Further reticulation capacity is also limited to about 100 m3/day at present,
which is grossly inadequate to cater the present demand. Tentative calculation shows that at
least 1500 m3 /day plant is required to cater for the present and proposed demand in the
year 2022( NWS & DB, 2002).

6.4 AMPARA SEWAGE SYSTEM

Ampara is located in the eastern province of Sri Lanka. According to recent surveys, the
sewerage systems have exceeded their design life span in Ampara. The existing sewer
system contains earthenware pipes that have to be replaced completely. The sewer lines
have also been interrupted by illegal settlers and at some places existing sewer lines pass
under the foundations of buildings.

41
The rehabilitation of the sewer should eventually provide upgraded facilities to 21 % of the
population benefited by the scheme. The remaining 79 % of the population is still serviced
by individual septic tank systems. However, the local Urban Council does not have
sufficient resources, capabilities and technical expertise to maintain a sewer scheme. On the
other hand, the National Water Supply and Drainage Board is not ready to take over
operation and maintenance of the sewer system.

6.4.1 Existing Condition

In the Ampara Urban Council area, there are 34 mini sewer schemes most of which are
malfunctioning. Soakage tanks and sewer lines are leaking into drains at 42 places
providing a breeding ground for mosquitoes. The total number of houses connected with
sewer system. Conditions of the public toilets and common toilets of the school are not
tolerable and highly unhygienic. Poor maintenance of public toilets has created
environmental health hazards as the Council has no equipment to undertake cleaning and
emptying of septic tanks. These circumstances indicate vulnerability of the town to
environmental health risks.

The proposed Urban Development Authority makes extensive provisions for development
of Kataragama Township and needs to achieve high standards of sewage and effluent
management. The present studies have shown that the area is characterized by limited
effluent soakage capacity and there is a same evidence of contamination of surface and
ground water systems in the locality.

42
CHAPTER 7

INDUSTRIAL WASTE
WkftR
CHAPTER 7- INDUSTRIAL WASTE WATER TREATMENT

It is a well known fact that only few Sri Lankan industries currently provide any treatment
before discharging their wastewater. Some industries use gravity sedimentation, oil
separation, chemical coagulation and sedimentation and biological treatment to treat their
waste water. Even with good operation and maintenance, fewer than half of these systems
would be capable of consistently meeting the current standards for discharge to inland
waters, because of inappropriate process design and poor construction.

The most common type of treatment currently used by industries consists of alum and br
lime coagulation, flocculation, gravity settling, and sludge drying beds. The perceived
advantage of such systems is they require less space than do biological treatment systems
where giving comparable treatment performance. However, for most of the existing
physico-chemical treatment systems, very high chemical dosages would be required to
consistently meet the standards for discharging to inland surface waters.

Unfortunately, good operation and maintenance practices are not evident at most industrial
wastewater treatment plants. Due to the high cost of chemicals, chemical addition systems
are often not functioning properly. Most sedimentation basins have long since become
ineffective due to an excessive accumulation of sludge, and few mechanical equipment
items such as chemical feed pumps and aerators are operational. Sludge handling and
disposal represent another serious problem, as few industries have identified appropriate
disposal methods for their sludges, many of which should be considered hazardous wastes.

7.1 EFFLUENT DISCHARGE STANDARDS

The proposed standards, developed by the Committee on Environment of the


Industrialization Commission and the National Environmental Steering Committee, for
discharge to inland waters, represent a realistic first step in attempting to clean up the
environment. Enforcement of the proposed standards will be a positive step in eliminating
gross pollution. The present discharge standards (BOD equal to 30 mg/i, SS= 50 mg/i).

43
Table 7.1 Current Industrial Effluent Discharge Quality Standards in Sri Lanka

(Sources: National Environmental (Protection & Quality) Regulations, Greater Colombo


Economic Commission Environmental Norms)

Parameter Units General Tolerance Tolerance


Effluent Limits for Limits For
Standards For Effluents Effluents
Discharged to Discharged to Discharged On
Inland Marine Coastal Land for
Surface Water Areas Irrigation

pH Range( at ambient temperature) - 6.0 to 8.5 6.0 to 8.5 5.5 to 9.0


°
Temperature of Discharge C 40 45 -
Total Suspended Solids(TSS) mg/L 150 -
Particle Size of
(a) Total Suspended Solids 850 - -
(b) Floatable Solids mm - 3 -
(c) Settleable Solids - 850 -
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) mgfL - - 2100
Chloride (as C1) mgfL - - 600
Sulfate (as SO4 mg/L - - 1000
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) - - - 10 to 15
Residual Sodium Carbonate mol/L - 2.5
Percent Sodium - - - -
BOD(5day,20°C) mgIL **3Ø 100 250
COD mg/L **250 250 -
Oil and Grease mg/L 10 20 10.0
Ammoniacal Nitrogen mg/L **5Ø 50 -
Phenolic Compounds mgJL 1 5 -
Colour varies -
Surfactants mg/L - - -
Cyanides (as CN) mg!L 0.2 0.2 -
Sulfides(asS) mg/L 2.0 5.0 -
Fluorides (as F) mgfL 2.0 15 -
Total Residual Chlorine mg/L 1.0 1.0 -
Arsenic mg/L 0.2 0.2 0.2
Boron mg/L - - 2.0
Cadmium, Total mgIL 0.1 2f0 2.0
Chromium, Hexavalent mg/L - - -
Chromimu, Total mg/L 0.1 1.0 1.0
Copper, Total mg/L 3.0 3.0 -
Lead, Total mg/L 0.1 1.0 1.0
Mercury, Total mg/L 0.0005 0.01 0.01

44
Table 7.1 Continued...

Parameter Units General Tolerance Tolerance


Effluent Limits for Limits For
Standards For Effluents Effluents
Discharged to Discharged to Discharged On
Inland Marine Coastal Land for
Surface Water Areas Irrigation
Nickel, Total mg/L 3.0 5.0 -
Selenium, Total mg/L 0.05 0.05 -
Zinc, Total mg/L 5.0 5.0 -
Pesticides - not detectable - -
Organo- Phorphorous Compounds - - 1.0 -
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons(as Cl) mg/L - 0.02 -
Radioactive Materials
(a) Alpha emitters 108
(b) Beta emitters

Unless otherwise noted, all values shown are maximum tolerance limits for effluent
discharges.

* Values shown are based on a minimum 8 to 1 dilution of effluents by clean


receiving waters. It dilution is less than 8 times, permissible limits are determined by
multiplying the values shown by 1/8 times the actual situation
** Higher values are allowed for these parameters under industry-specific limits
established for the Rubber, Textile, and Tanning Industries

Applies only to process wastewaters; for cooling water discharges, maximum 10


percent increase over the influent TSS level is allowed.
** * * All efforts should be made to remove color and unpleasant odour as far as
possible.

45
could be challenged( EPA, 2004). When the quality of the receiving waters was due only to
industrial wastes, there would be justification for a more stringent approach. However, in
many instances, much of the pollution of waterways is due to the discharge of untreated or
partially treated domestic wastes.

7.2 INDUSTRIAL EXPORT ZONES

The major industrial centers in Greater Colombo are listed below. Their locations are
shown in Figure 7.1. These include formal industrial estate developments as well as large,
mixed land-use areas with large numbers of industrial establishments. Three are several
small but important industrial centers located both north and south of the Kelani River.
Katunayake Export Processing Zone
Biyagama Export Processing Zone

7.2.1 Katunayake Export Processing Zone

The Katunayake Export Processing Zone (KEPZ) is located about 30 km north of Colombo,
as shown in Figure 7.1. It was established in 1978 by the Greater Colombo Economic
Commission and the Board of Investment is now responsible for planning, development,
and administration of the area. The area covers about 190 hectares 2002)

A combined industrial and sanitary sewerage system has been provided to collect
wastewater for treatment in a central system. Wastewater from the adjacent airport which is
the International Airport of Sri Lanka is also collected for treatment in this system.
Industries with process wastewaters are required to meet the National Environmental
Protection Regulation.

The combined influent wastewater passes through bar screens and grit removal prior to
biological treatment in aerated/facultative lagoons. Four concrete-lined lagoons, each
having about 6,845 m3 capacities, are operated in parallel.

46
Figure 7.1 Map of Major Industrial Areas in Greater Colombo
(Source National Water Supply and Drainage Board, 2004)

EXPORT
4 1

ZO1iE tOOl)

tNOUSTRIAL ESTATES

El
S——
AREA OF

GREATER COLOM9O STUDY AREA


901 tGCEC) AREA OF AUTHORTY

ItiD!JSTRIAL ESTATE (UDA)

MORATtJWA
.MODARAWILA INDUSTRiAL ESTATE (UOA)

MAJOR AREAS
K ALUTARA IN GREATER COLOMBO

47
Treatment plant influent and effluent quality data were reviewed for a one year period.
Routine sampling and analysis was performed at least biweekly, results of which are
summarized in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2 Quality of Wastewater Influent and Effluent at Katunayake Treatment Plant

Treatment Plant Influent Treatment Plant Effluent


Parameter Range Mean Std Range Mean Std Dev
Dev
pH 5.6-8.0 6.54 0.57 4.3-7.7 6.53 0.76
Conductivity (jtS/cm) 401-1004 630 145 307-657 521 87
BOD (mgIL) 140-528 246 88 16-108 37.5 21
Ammonia (mg/L) 18-36 25.6 5.5 4.5-7.6 4.1 2.5

These data shows that the long-term average effluent concentration of BOD (37.5 mg/L)
exceeds the maximum limit of 30 mg/L under the standards for discharge to inland waters.

7.2.2 Biyagama Export Processing Zone

The Biyagama Export Processing Zone ( BEPZ) was established in 1986 and is located
about 25 kilometers northeast of Colombo, as shown in Figure 7.1. Industrial tenants at
BEPZ are provided with central services and facilities, including roads, electricity, fire
protection, water and sewerage. Individual factory discharges are routinely monitored to
ensure compliance with National Environmental Authority's standards. A combined
sewerage system has been provided to collect sanitary and industrial wastewaters for
treatment in a central system. The treatment plant effluent flows by gravity to an earth-dam
reservoir that provides dilution and polishing treatment prior to off-site discharge. In dry
weather, this reservoir overflows into a nearby stream; in wet weather, it is necessary to
pump water from the reservoir by pipeline to the nearby Kelani River.

48
Table 7.3 Quality of Wastewater Influent and Effluent at Biyagama Treatment Plant

Parameter Treatment Plant Influent Treatment Plant Effluent


Range Mean Std Range Mean Std Dev
Dev
pH 6.3-8.9 7.59 0.61 7.2-8.7 8.07 0.38
Conductivity (pSIcm) 724-2010 1371 339 803- 1445 271
1850
BOD(mg/L) 120-440 253 97 24-80 37 11.7
Ammonia (mg/L) 0.7-24 12.8 6.1 2-16 2-16 4.3

Table 7.4 Final Effluent from Reservoir

Parameter Range Mean Std Dev


pH 6.5-8.5 7.47 0.51
Conductivity 333-1335 845 286
BOD 2-40 22 10
COD 86-96 92 4.2
TSS 12-48 23 9.7
Ammonia 2-9 4.8 2.4

These data show the long-term average BOD in the treatment plant effluent (37 mgIL)
exceeded the maximum limit of 30 mg!L (the standard for discharge to inland surface
waters). While the treatment plant does not meet the effluent standards, it does achieve
significant BOD removal (85 %) and generally good effluent TSS concentrations. This
performance is typical for a single-stage facultative lagoon system, which is how the
existing plant is operated.

49
7.4 PUGODA TEXTILE MILLS

Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) for Pugoda Textile Mills was commissioned in
November 1985. It was reported that the WWTP received a wastewater flow of approximately
450,000 gallons per day. Schematic of the wastewater treatment process is as shown in Figure 7.2.
Judging from the existing facilities, extended aeration type process (activated sludge process
without primary sedimentation) followed by polishing lagoons for colour removal etc. is applied as
wastewater treatment process. Effluent from the lagoons is discharged to nearly canal which reaches
Kelani Ganga( Seawater, 2004).

Figure 7.2: Schematic of Wastewater Treatment Process


(Source Seawater Consultancy Pvt Ltd, 2004)

Textile Mill
Sulphuric acid

Screens
Filtrate

Return
Aeration Tank
P
Clarifier p
Sludge Drying
Polishing Lagoons
Disposal
Discharge to Ela
Jtju±i ]iie
sludge Ithe

Inflow to WWTP is through two pipes, one pipe for alkaline process wastewater inflow to
the neutralization tanks and the other pipe is apparently for domestic wastewater and part of

50
the process wastewater generated within the mill complex. Neutralized wastewater
combined with the latter wastewater inflow is led to the screens.

7.5 ALTERNATIVES FOR INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND


DISPOSAL

Industrial wastewater discharges are already a major source of water pollution in many
areas of Greater Colombo. Most of the existing water pollution problems are simply due to
organic and nutrient overloading. At present, there are relatively few industries in the
Greater Colombo Area which generate toxic or hazardous wastewaters. Those of greatest
concern with respect to toxic wastewater constituents are textile processing mills (printing,
dyeing and finishing), leather tanneries, metal finishing and electroplating operations,
agrochemicals, pharmaceuticals and paint manufacture, petroleum refining, and other
chemical process industries.

Although these industries produce relatively large volumes of high-concentration


wastewaters, their combined mass discharges of toxic materials are probably less than the
total from other sources in the urban areas, such as vehicle maintenance and repair
workshops, bus depots, railroad workshops, print shops, and commercial and household
users of pesticides, solvents, paints, oils, and cleaning compounds. The number of
industries which produce toxic or hazardous effluents is likely to increase in the future,
however, as industrial activities become more diversified. Meanwhile, the natural
assimilative capacity of inland surface waters will at best remain the same, and may even
decrease with greater water use by a growing population (NWS & DB, 2002).

Any alternatives for improving industrial wastewater treatment should be based on careful
consideration of all these factors. Further, industrial wastewater concerns should not be
viewed in isolation, but rather should be considered as one component of the overall
wastewater and sanitation management problem. Several alternatives have been identified

51
for reducing surface water pollution from existing and future industrial wastewater
discharges.

When discharging into public sewers for ocean disposal is not a practical or economical
alternative, consideration should be given to the use of shared or central treatment facilities
that serve several industries in a local area. Economies of scale offer each industry lower
capital and operating costs, while equalization and dilution effects generally result in better
treatment performance, compared with independent treatment systems.

When evaluating the central wastewater treatment alternative it is important to consider the
collection system costs, as these may exceed the treatment system costs. When industries
are not located in close proximity to one another, the collection costs may be enough to
justify the inclusion of adjacent non-industrial wastewater generators in the scheme,
including commercial establishments, institutions, and private residences. Most industries
wastewaters are compatible with domestic wastewater for treatment, and there is even a
potential advantage in terms of the dilution provided to high-strength industrial wastewaters.

52
CHAPTER 8

RE COMMENDATIONS
AND CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER 8- RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

The extension of water-borne sewerage disposal to more areas in Sri Lanka would logically
be made on the basis of priority. The highest priority would be given to the areas where on-
site systems are no longer effective and present unacceptable environmental conditions and
health hazards not only to the residents of the local area, but to the whole community.
Because of the high capital costs of installing sewers, the more general extension of
sewerage will likely be decided on the basis of affordability. Affordability in turn will be
mainly dependent on the overall economic growth of the region.

Disposal of wastes from on-site sanitation systems requires consideration on a site-


specification basis. Where ground conditions are suitable, discharge to a soakage pit is•
acceptable. Where ground permeability is too low or where the water table is too high,
soakage pits are not an acceptable option. Where it is impracticable to pump the effluent to
an existing sewer, the safest environmentally acceptable option is to provide holding tanks
to collect the wastes for subsequent removal by tanker truck. Unfortunately the operating
costs of holding tank systems are high and the expenditure has seen discharge of septic tank
effluent to a waterway. Evidence of this is seen in the observed water quality of many
roadside drains and waterways. This procedure will probably have to be accepted as an
interim measure in some existing areas and perhaps during upgrading of facilities in some
new areas. It should never he regarded as anything it an interim measure to be replaced by
more environmentally acceptable solutions as soon as possible. Its benefit is to remove
sewage wastes from the immediate vicinity of the homes, but it results in the receiving
drains and waterways being open sewers.

It is essential to develop and implement guidelines and training materials designed to


strengthen the abilities of local authorities to properly regulate the development of on-site
sanitation facilities as part of the normal building regulatory processes.
It will be vitally important to provide assurance that all relevant local authorities have
effective programs in place to properly enforce the comprehensive technical standards to be
developed for that area. Training programs should be established to train local staff to fully

53
understand the design principles of each of the optional on-site designs. Training should
also be provided in the conduct of percolation tests, the techniques of plan review and
performance of field inspections. Clarifications for amendment of local by-laws should also
be prepared for adoption in all the local agencies.

Also, it is important to seek the assistance of senior legal advisors in the development of
legal procedures which will permit health officials and other officials of local authorities to
obtain a court order for the immediate abatement of health nuisances or other conditions
which constitute a threat to the health, safety or welfare of the public.

Criminal proceedings in Sri Lanka are not effective in achieving the desired goals of
eliminating nuisances or health hazards. Penalties are low and extensive delays can be
encountered in the prosecution of cases.

To achieve any sustained improvement in sanitation services there must be commitment by


those receiving the services to their ongoing operation and maintenance. One of the
essential components for a successful program is health education so that the community as
a whole understands the linkages between health and sanitation.

Tougher regulations with enforceable limits on industrial discharges will result in more
pretreatment by industry as a source control. New regulations will discourage incineration
of sludge in favor of its beneficial use as bagged dry compost (for urban areas) or liquid-
haul bio solids (for agricultural areas).

54
9

REFERENCE S
REFERENCES

Canter, LW & Knox RC , Septic Tank System Effects on Ground Water Quality, Lewis
Publishers, Michigan, 1985
Henry, JG & Heinke, GW, Environmental Science and Engineering, edn, Prentice Hall,
New Jersey, 1996
Mara D, Sewage Treatment in Hot Climate, John Wiley & Sons, London, 1975.
National Water Supply & Drainage Board, Greater Colombo Wastewater and Sanitation
Master Plan, Engineering-science , USA,2002
Seawater Consultants, Report of Rehabilitation and Upgrading of Existing Effluent
Treatment Plant at Pugoda Mills, 2004.
Sinclair Knight Mertz Ltd, Manual of Hikkaduwa Sewerage System 2004

<hap:!! www.statistics.lk>
<http://www.unesco.org>

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