CODES Special Publication 5

Edited by David R. Cooke, Cari Deyell and June Pongratz

r
CODES SRC
Centre for Ore Deposit Research
University of Tasmania
Australia

2004
UTAS
Centre for Ore Deposit Research
University of Tasmania
Private Bag 79
Hobart Tasmania Australia 7001

www.codes.utas.edu.au

June 2004
Second edition August 2004

ISBN 1 86295 175 6

Cover: Jurassic intrusion-related auriferous quartz pyrite

vein, Johnny Mountain deposit, BC, Canadá.
Sample provided by J.B. Gemmell.

another Pongatz Production 2004

Printed by the Printing Authority ofTasmania.
 Contents

Francois Robert: Characteristics of lode gold deposits in greenstone belts 1

Andrew Tunks: Contrasting styles of Proterozoic gold mineralisation in Ghana, West África 13

David R. Cooke, Alan J. Wilson and Andrew G. S. Davies: Characteristics and génesis of porphyry

copper-gold deposits 17

Doug Kirwin: The Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold porphyry deposits, South Gobi, Mongolia 35

Richard M. Tosdal: Tectonics of porphyry copper and epithermal deposits as constrained by vein geometry 41

Alan J. Wilson, David R. Cooke and Tully Richards: Veins, pegmatites and breccias: examples from the

alkalic Cadia Quarry gold-copper porphyry deposit, NSW, Australia 45

J. Bruce Gemmell: Low- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits 57

Andrew G. S. Davies, Theo M. van Leeuwen, David R. Cooke, J. Bruce Gemmell: The Kelian gold deposit —
exploration history, critical factors and deposit summary 65
Joey S. Garcia Jr: Geology and mineralisation characteristics of the Victoria and Teresa gold deposits,
Mankayan mineral district, north Luzon, Philippines 77

M. D. Hannington: Spectrum of gold-rich VMS deposits from the Archaean to the present 79

Guy Gosselin: Agnico-Eagle's LaRonde mine — a world-class gold-rich VMS deposit 87

Peter Pring: Recent gold-rich VHMS discoveries at Gossan Hill 93

Jeffrey W. Hedenquist, Richard H. Sillitoe and Antonio Arribas: Characteristics of and exploration for
high-sulfidation epithermal gold-copper deposits 99

Stephen E. Kesler: Geology and exploration at Pueblo Viejo 111

Brian Levet: The Martabe high-sulfidation epithermal gold deposits of North Sumatra, Indonesia 121

Lawrence D. Meinert: Characteristics of gold skarn deposits 125

Jean S. Cline, Albert H. Hofstra, John Mintean, Richard M. Tosdal and Kenneth A. Hickey: Characteristics
and génesis of Carlin-type gold deposits, Nevada, USA 133

APPENDIX

Stephen E. Kesler, Norman Russell and Karr McCurdy — Trace-metal content of the Pueblo Viejo precious-metal
deposits and their relation to other high-sulfidation epithermal systems. Reprinted from Mineralium Deposita,
with permisssion of the publishers Springer-Verlag GmbH.
 Sponsors

ANGLOGOLD
ASHANTI

BARRICK
AUSTRALIA
 Preface
DAVID COOKE, ANDREW TUNKS AND CARI DEYELL
This volume contains proceedings of the 24 Carat Gold
Workshop, which was held in Hobart, Tasmania, on
14-16 June 2004. At the time of writing, the workshop
had attracted more than 100 delegates from Canadá, the
United States of America, the Philippines, Papua New
Guinea, Ghana and Australia.
The workshop consisted of 13 one-hour keynote
presentations from selected industry and academic
specialists who, where possible, have addressed the
following issues:
• Characteristics of a hydrothermal gold deposit type
• Anatomy of a giant gold deposit discovery
Seven of the papers contained within this volume
summarise the characteristics and origins of gold deposits:
lode gold (Robert), porphyry copper-gold (Cooke), low
and intermedíate sulfidation epithermal gold (Gemmell),
volcanic-hosted massive sulfide gold (Hannington), high
sulfidation epithermal gold (Hedenquist), gold skarns
(Meinert) and Carlin-type gold (Cline). There is also
one overview paper on the structural architecture of
porphyry and epithermal deposits (Tosdal). Five papers
deal with the anatomy of giant ore deposit discoveries,
and characteristics of those deposits (Tarkwa/Damang
- Tunks; Oyu Tolgoi — Ivanhoe Mines; Kelian — Davies;
La Ronde - Gosselin; Pueblo Viejo - Kesler).
In addition to the keynote presentations, each half-
day session concluded with a one-hour forum that dealt
with exploration strategies for future discoveries of giant
ore deposits. These forums included presentations by
industry geologists on recent discoveries of gold deposits,
which were followed by group discussions on the
requirements for finding new gold deposits. This volume
contains papers summarizing the characteristics of four of
those deposits discussed in the exploration forums: Cadia
Quarry (Wilson), Teresa and Victoria (Garcia), Golden
Grove (Pring) and Martabe (Levet). Presentations were
also given on Siberia lode gold (Byass) and relationships
between different types of carbonate-hosted gold deposits
(White), but no accompanying papers were provided.
The aim of the 24 Carat Gold Workshop is to help
maintain the high level of interest in gold deposits that
currently exists amongst industry and academic geologists.
It is hoped that some of the insights gained from reading
this volume will help geologists in their quests for new
gold deposits, and in furthering our understanding of the
origins of the deposits that have already been discovered.
Acknowledgements
We thank the speakers for their written and oral
contributions which have helped to make this workshop
a success: Francois Robert, Andrew Tunks, Adrián Byass,
David Cooke, Doug Kirwin, Dick Tosdal, Alan Wilson,
Bruce Gemmell, Andrew Davies, Joey Garcia, Mark
Hannington, Guy Gosselin, Peter Pring, Jeff Hedenquist,
Steve Kesler, Brian Levet, Larry Meinert, Jean Cline
and Noel White. The editors of the workshop volume
subjected each paper to peer reviews. The authors are
thanked for their patience in making corrections and
for providing high quality versions of their illustrations,
wherever possible.
The publisher of Mineralium Deposita is thanked for
providing permisssion to reprint the paper by Kesler.
Special thanks are owed to three individuáis who have
helped to make this workshop a success. June Pongratz is
thanked for her tireless efforts in editing and typesetting
the workshop volume. Karin Orth and Kylie Kapeller
are thanked for taking on so many of the logistical
tasks associated with running the workshop, including
registrations.organisationof social functions, arranging the
conference venues and dealing with the accommodation
and travel bookings for the guest speakers.
David Cooke and Cari Deyell Andrew Tunks
Editors, Workshop Volume Workshop Convener
June 2004
 Characteristics of lode gold deposits in greenstone
belts
FRANQOIS ROBERT
Introduction
Greenstone belts are an important source of gold,
especially those of late Archaean and Paleoproterozoic
age, and continué to be the focus of significant gold
research and exploration efforts. Their importance is
further illustrated by the fact that they are well represented
among the global population of giant gold deposits. Of
the 28 giant gold deposits (>20 Moz) considered by
Sillitoe (2000), eight are from greenstone belts (Golden
Mile, Homestake, Hollinger—Mclntyre, Ashanti, Kolar,
Kirkland Lake, Hemlo, and Boddington).
Much has been written about greenstone gold
deposits, and their general deposit characteristics and
genetic models have been summarised in several reviews
arricies (Colvine, 1989; Hodgson, 1993; Goldfarb et al.,
2001; Groveset al., 2003).
Despite all the work in the last two decades, there
still remains ambiguity with respect to the classification,
nomenclature, and origin of these deposits, and as to how
many (and which) deposit types are present in greenstone
belts. The main unresolved issues relate to existence and
importance of different types and ages of deposits in
greenstone belts. Two main school of thoughts are that
the majority of deposits belong to a single 'orogenic' class,
with few 'anomalous deposits' of other types (Groves et
al, 2003; Fig. 1), and that there several deposit types
and ages represented in the population of large deposits,
including epithermal and porphyry-style deposits (Robert
and Poulsen, 1997; Penczak and Masón, 1995; Robert,
2001).
Barrick Gold of Australia Ltd., Locked Bag 12, Cloisters Square, Perth, WA
6850, Australia
1
There is general agreement that:
• Many deposits share a number of recurring character-
istics
• Deposits also display significant diversity in other
important attributes which defines a number of
recurring styles of deposits
• Some of this diversity reflects variations in host rocks,
metamorphic grade and depth of emplacement,
• Some of the variations also reflect the existence of
different types of gold deposits.
However, there is no consensus on:
• The criteria that distinguish 'orogenic' deposits from
other types
• Which deposits belong to the orogenic group and
which ones represent other deposit types
• The interpretation of timing of mineralisation relative
to deformation and metamorphism.
Such ambiguities make it difficult to review the
characteristics of lode gold deposits in greenstone belts
in a unifying way. The approach taken here is to review
the geologic setting and characteristics of deposits by
highlighting commonalities and by adequately capturing
the variations observed. This provides a base for discussing
recurring 'styles' of deposits and for touching on the
question of permissible models.
The focus is on gold deposits greenstone belts and
their associated clastic sedimentary rocks. Deposits in
clastic sedimentary belts lacking any significant volumes
of volcanic rocks, such as those in Central Victoria, are
excluded, as this introduces even more ambiguities.
All types of gold deposits present in greenstone belts
are considered except those of clear VHMS origin (for
example Horne, Bousquet and La Ronde in Abitibi).
These are discussed in a separate session.
Frangois Robert

Figure 1 Schematic representación of orogenic gold deposits (A), gold deposits with clear anomalous ore geochemistry (B) and intrusion-related
deposit (C), all of which may be present in greenstone belts. From Groves et al. (2003).

Table 1 Definitions of terms used to desígnate gold deposits in deformed terranes.

Terms/type Original definition and comments

Lode gold Originally used to distinguish bedrock from placer gold deposits. Also later used by Lindgren (1933) to
refer to relatively wide zones of irregularly interconnected veinlets and intervening mineralized wallrocks.
Lode gold applies to several types of deposits, including epithermal and 'intrusion-related'. It is appropriate
to refer in general to gold deposits in greenstone belts, but is not synonymous with mesothermal or
orogenic.
Orogenic gold Gold-only deposits formed during the main period of crustal shortening of their host belt (Groves et al.,
1998). The term applies to such deposits in both greenstone belts and clastic sedimentary basins
From a strict point of view, only deposits that can be demonstrated to have formed during crustal
shortening (e.g. syntectonic veins) should be included in this category.

Gold-only Refers to deposits in which Au is the only significant metal enriched in the deposit (including relative to
Ag), to distinguish them from other types of deposits with low to anomalous concentrations of base or
other metáis.
Commonly equated with orogenic but the issue is that other deposit types, argued to be present in
greenstone belts, can also share this charactetistic. Examples include alkalic and other epithermal deposits.

Mesothermal gold Hydrothermal deposits formed at temperatures of 15O-300°C (Lindgren, 1933).

The term was widely applied to gold-only deposits in greenstone belts and slate belts in the 1980's.
However, some of the deposits used as classic mesothermal examples in that period were classified by
Lindgren (1933) as hypothermal.
Greenstone gold General term that encompasses all gold deposits in greenstone belts, irrespective of their origin and
characteristics. I would view it as equivalent to iode gold' deposits.

2

Definition and nomenclature
Numerous terms have been used to refer to all or to
specific subsets of gold deposits in metamorphic belts
in general and in greenstone belts. This situation,
compounded by different classification schemes and
diverging interpretations of many deposits, leads to
significant confusión. Table 1 summarises the original
definition of the more commonly used terms, some of
which have been used appropriately, but others less so.
Time distribution
• Lode gold deposits occur in greenstone terranes
that span the nearly all the geologic timescale, from
Paleoarchean (Pilbara) to Mesozoic (Mother Lode).
• The most prolific greenstone belts have formed at
specific times in the evolution of the Earth as follows
(Goldfarb et al., 2001): Neoarchean (2.6-2.7 Ga, in
the Yilgarn and Superior cratons), Paleoproterozoic
(2.1 to 1.8 Ga, in the Black Hills and West African
craton) and Mesozoic (0.14 Ga, in the Sierra Foothills
province).
• However, not all belts or cratons of these prolific ages
are equally endowed (see below).
Figure 2 Probability plot of size of gold deposits with >3 t Au in greenstone belts of five Precambrian provinces. From Hodgson (1993).
3
Characteristics oflode gold deposits in greenstone belts
Size distribution
• As for most deposit types, most of the gold endowment
in greenstone belts is contained in a few large deposits.
This is shown in Figure 2 for gold deposits with >3 t
Au in the Superior, Slave, Churchill, Yilgarn and
Zimbabwe cratons: 28 of the 270+ deposits, i.e., 10%
of the population, contain 67% of the gold (Hodgson,
1993).
• Within cratons or granite greenstone terranes, the bulk
of the gold endowment is commonly contained in
specific greenstone belts or even specific areas within
them. For example, the southern Abitibi belt, Eastern
Goldfields Province, and Ashanti belt host the bulk of
the gold in the more extensive Superior, Yilgarn and
West African cratons, respectively.
• These differences in endowment between the different
áreas, very important in exploration, are due in a large
part to differences in the proportion of large deposits
(Hodgson, 1993). These differences are apparent in
Figure 2 for deposits > 100 t of contained gold.
Fran^ois Robert
Belt-scale distribution of deposits
Relative to structures
• Gold deposits and occurrences are not uniformly
distributed within greenstone belts. While occurrences
display significant scatter, the deposits themselves tend
define corridors that are commonly spatially associated
with regional (crustal-scale), belt-parallel structures.
• The larger deposits, representing the bulk of the gold
endowment, tend to be restricted to specific crustal-scale
structures such as such as the Larder Lake—Cadillac
and Porcupine Destor 'Breaks' in Abitibi (Fig. 3).
Other examples include the Boulder—Lefroy fault in
the Wiluna-Norseman belt, and the Obuasi Fissure
between the Ashanti Belt and Kumasi basin in West
África.
• Despite their distribution along crustal-scale structures,
most large deposits are actually associated with lower-
order faults and shear zones, away from the transcrustal
structure. For example, the >5 Moz deposits in the
Abitibi belt occur up to 6 km from these crustal breaks
(Fig. 3; Robert, 2003). Only a few large deposits
actually occur directly within transcrustal structures
themselves, such as Kerr Addison in Abitibi and
Jubilee-New Celebration in the Eastern Goldfields.
• This spatial association of large gold deposits with
crustal-scale structures is not universal, and it appears
to be lacking in the Uchi greenstone belt of Superior
Province (Card and Poulsen, 1998) or in the Black
Hills.
• Within these corridors and along crustal-scale
structures, deposits display a strong clustering into
camps (Fig. 3), typically defined by at least one large
deposit, a few small ones, and numerous occurrences
(Hodgson, 1993).
• These camps are localised at bends or major splay
intersections along the crustal-scale structures. Along
some faults, there appears to be a regular spacing of
camps, for example along the Larger Lake—Cadillac in
Abitibi (Fig. 3) and Boulder-Lefroy fault system in the
Eastern Goldfields Province, where gold camps occur
at intervals of 30—50 km.
Relative to rock types
• By virtue of their occurrence along crustal breaks,
many gold camps and large deposits are situated
near boundaries between major lithologic units.
The Obuasi deposit, for example is located near the
structural contact between the mafic volcanic rocks of
the Ashanti Belt and clastic sedimentary rocks of the
Kumasi basin.
• Gold deposits can occur in any type of supracrustal
4
rocks present in a greenstone belt and, consequently
over a wide range of stratigraphic positions, from lower
manc-ultramafic volcanic to upper clastic sedimentary
stratigraphic levéis. However some belts display a
preferred association of deposits with mafic-ultramafic
volcanic rocks (e.g., Wiluna—Norseman belt) and
others with sedimentary rocks (e.g., Barberton belt)
• In some belts, gold deposits may show a spatial
association with specific rock types whose distribution
is also controlled by crustal scale structures. A good
example is the association with felsic porphyries and
Timiskamine conglomerates in southern Abitibi, as
emphasised by Hodgson (1993).
• Gold deposits globally show only a weak association
with large granitic intrusions within the belts, mainly
occurring along their edges rather than in their cores.
A notable exception is the Grass Valley deposit in
California.
Relative to metamorphic grade
• Although gold deposits and occurrences are present in
rocks of all metamorphic grades, from granulite to sub-
greenschist, the majority occurs in greenschist grade
rocks, as represented in Figure 4.
• The large deposits and camps occur dominantly in áreas
of greenschist grade metamorphism, although a few
large deposits also occur in áreas of mid-amphibolite
or higher grade (e.g., Kolar, Hemlo).
• The question of whether deposits have formed at
ambient metamorphic conditions or have been
overprinted by metamorphism is a challenging one,
especially at high metamorphic grades. Examples of
both situations have been clearly been documented.
Local settings of deposits
Gold deposits in greenstone belts occur in a whole range
of lithologic and structural settings, as represented in
Figure 4. Within this range, there are a few recurring
patterns and associations that appear to be favorable for
the development of large deposits. The recognition of
these favourable settings is important from an exploration
point of view. As a general rule, areas of high geometric,
structural and lithologic complexities appear to be more
favorable.
Structural setting
Nearly all gold deposits show a close spatial association
with shear zones, faults, or folds, as shown in Figure 4.
This attests to the importance of structure as a control
of mineralisation, as would be expected given the
hydrothermal origin of the deposits.
 Characteristics of lode gold deposits in greenstone belts

Figure 3 Simplified geologic map of parts of the Abitibi greenstone belt showing the distribution of transcrustal structures and gold deposits.
The different types of deposits are represented by different symbols, and the larger symbols mark deposits with >5 Moz gold. The main gold
districts are also identified.

Figure 4 Schematic representation of the diverse lithologic, structural and metamorphic settings of gold deposits in the Yilgarn craton. From
Groves etal. (1990).

5
Francois Robert
• The character of structures with which the gold deposits
are associated generally reflects the local metamorphic
grade. It ranges from relatively brittle in areas of lower
to sub greenschist grade, to brittle-ductile (depending
on rock type) in mid to upper greenschist grade, to
clearly ductile at amphibolite or higher grade (Fig. 1).
• Favorable structural settings in the vicinity of
transcrustal structures are linked to the distribution
and geometry of lithologic units (Fig. 4):
-Shear zones and faults developed along lithologic
contacts between units of contrasting competencies
and along thin incompetent lithologic units. Common
examples include mafic-ultramafic volcanic contacts
(Kerr—Addison), volcanic-sediment contacts (Obuasi),
the edge of granitic intrusions (Tarmoola, Granny
Smith), and interflow sedimentary rocks in volcanic
piles. Along these contacts and incompetent units,
deposits will preferentially develop at sites of bends,
splays or other structural intersections.
-Competent rock units enclosed in less competent ones,
a setting that favors the development of fracturing and
veining. Examples include felsic dykes and stocks in
clastic sedimentary (Wallaby) or volcanic rocks (Sigma-
Lamaque), granophyric layers in differentiated dolerite
sills (Mt Charlotte and Fimiston), and magnetite-rich
sedimentary rocks units in mafic volcanic or clastic
sedimentary sequences.
-Folds hinges and anticlines, especially in layered rocks
units such as BIFs and sedimentary rocks (Homestake,
Musselwhite).
Lithologic setting
• As indicated above, gold deposits can occur in all rock
types present in the belt. However there are particular
host rocks associations that appear to be particularly
favorable for mineralisation (Fig. 4):
-Fe-rich mafic igneous rocks such as tholeiitic basalt
and differentiated dolerite sills
-BIFs (of oxide and silicate facies) and iron-rich clastic
sedimentary rocks
Porphyry stocks and dykes of dioritic to felsic
compositions, whether they intrude mafic-ultramafic
volcanic or clastic sedimentary rocks.
• Fe-rich lithologies are regarded as favorable chemical
hosts, in light of their high Fe content, whereas
intermediate to felsic porphyry intrusions are viewed
a favorable structural host, in light of their high
competencies and their brittle response to regional
deformation (fratcturing and veining).
• Specific lithologic associations also appear to
dominate in some greenstone belts or districts: the
Norseman-Wiluna belt is well know for its association
of gold deposits with differentiated dolerite sills,
6
the Quadrilatero Ferrifero district of Brasil for its
association with iron-formation, and the southern
Abitibi for its association with conglomerates and
high-level porphyry intrusions.
Characteristics of deposits
As indicated in the introduction, lode gold deposits
in greenstone belts display a wide range of geometric,
structural and hydrothermal characteristics, reflecting
the existence of a spectrum of mineralisation styles
(Colvine, 1989; Groves et al., 1993; Hodgson, 1993,
Robert and Poulsen, 1997). Despite such diversity, there
are recurring characteristic among the deposits, which
have prompted the development of unified models.
In the sections below, these recurring characteristics
are clearly identified, while the most commonly noted
variations are also covered.
Dimensions and overall geometry
• The deposits range in overall shape from tabular to
pipe-like bodies that, in most cases, conform to the
regional structural and lithologic trends.
• In a majority of cases, tabular deposits have steep dips
(Kolar, Obuasi) and elongated to pipe-like deposits have
moderate to steep plunges (Kanowna Belle, Wallaby).
Ore shoots internal to tabular deposits have moderate
(Kirkland Lake) to steep plunges (Kolar; Fig. 5), and
some deposits also have well-defined funnel shapes,
either in cross-section (Fimiston) or in longitudinal
section (Kerr Addison, Kolar; Fig. 5).
• In several cases, however, the deposits and their
main structures have only moderate dips (Lancefield,
Norseman, Granny Smith) and plunges (Homestake,
Morro Vehlo).
• Greenstone gold deposits tend to be vertically extensive.
Large deposits commonly have a vertical extent in excess
of 1 km, reaching -3 km in the case of Kolar (Fig. 5).
As an illustration, all of the nine >5 Moz deposits in
southern Abitibi exceed 1 km of vertical extent, and
five of them exceed 2 km (Robert, 2003). The down-
plunge extent of the moderately plunging Homestake
deposit reaches 5 km at Homestake (Caddey et al.,
1991).
• Large deposits (>5 Moz) commonly have kilometre-
scale strike length, and in several cases in excess of
5 km (Kolar, Fig 5). The footprints of the large deposits
(>5 Moz) are substantial and commonly exceeds
1 km2. They can reach 10 km2 for large deposits such
as Hollinger-Mclntyre deposit (31.4 Moz).

Figure 5 Longitudinal projection of the Kolar gold deposit, illustrating the dimensions of large gold systems. From Hamilton and Hodgson
(1986).
Mineralisation types
Although classical 'mesothermal' quartz—carbonate
veins represent an important style, a number of deposits
are better characterised as wallrock-disseminated
accumulations of gold and sulfides, with negligible quartz
veins beyond the centimetre-scale, and others as sulfide-
rich veins or sulfidic wallrock replacements.
These variations are commonly treated in terms
of structural styles (Groves et al., 1995) or combined
structural-mineralisation styles (Hagemann and Cassidy,
2000). The approach taken here is to distinguish the
mineralisation types from the structural styles, in order
to avoid possible confusion generated by cases where
mineralisation has been overprinted by structures of a
certain structural style (e.g., ductile shear zones) and may
not be related to it.
There are three end-member constituents of
mineralised zone in lode gold deposits, each with some
compositional variations (Fig. 6):
• Veins: defined as through-going veins, vein arrays,
and breccia veins. Compositional variations include:
(1) quartz—carbonate veins with low sulfide content
(<5-10% sulfides), (2) sulfide-rich veins (>20-25%
sulfides), and (3) crustiform-colloform veins that are
commonly rich in carbonate (>25% carbonate).
• Replacements zones: wallrock replacements without
any significant veins or veinlets. They range from
zones of disseminated sulfides (<5—10% sulfides), to
zones of semi-massive sulfides (>25% sulfides). Sulfide
distribution ranges from evenly distributed in the rock
7
Characteristics of lode gold deposits in greenstone belts
mass to concentrated in bands parallel to foliation or to
bedding.
• Veinlet systems: arrays of either sulfidic fractures or
of thin (<l-2 cm) discontinuous quartz (± carbonate)
veinlets, forming systems of parallel veinlets to
multidirectional stockworks.
These different constituents of mineralised zones
generally combine to form a number of recurring types of
mineralisation, listed in Table 2 and shown schematically
in Figure 6:
• Quartz—carbonate veins with intimately associated
sulfidic alteration haloes. Include laminated veins in
brittle-ductile shear zones and faults, as well as arrays of
planar to sigmoidal extensional veins in competent host
rocks. Breccia veins are also common, mainly in brittle
to brittle-ductile structures, as are discontinuous quartz
lenses parallel to foliation in the more ductile shear zones.
This is the most common type of mineralisation and
represents the classical 'mesothermal' vein-type deposits
(Hodgson, 1993). Examples include: Sigma-Lamaque,
Victory, Mount Charlotte, Obuasi (in part), KerrAddison
(carbonate ore).
• Disseminated sulfide zones ± veinlet systems. The
abundance of veinlets in this type of mineralisation is
highly variable and can range from totally absent to a
well-developed multidirectional stockwork. This type of
mineralisation can occur in relatively wide shear zones
or in specific low strain units such as clastic sedimentary
rocks or intermediate to felsic intrusions. This type is also
relatively common and is present in a number of large
deposits, including Hemlo, Camflo, Kerr Addison (flow
ore), Big Bell, Plutonic and Wallaby.
Francois Robert

Figure 6 Schematic representation of the main constituents of mineralised zones and how they combine to form the different types of
mineralisation discussed in the text.

Table 2 Preliminary compilation of characteristics of common styles of deposits in greenstone belts

Style of deposit Metal Alteration assemblages Structural or lithologic associations Examples (from Superior
signature and Yilgarn cratons)
Quartz-carbonate veins and Au/Ag > 5 Carb-ser (biot)- Veins in brittle-ductile shear zones Dome, Pamour, Hollinger-
vein arrays As, W, ±Te, py (apy) ± alb, at and faults, commonly along lithologic Mclntyre, Sigma-Lamaque;
(<5-10% sulfides) Mo, B greenschist grade; contacts or within incompetent rock St. Ives; Norseman; New
units Holland; Mt. Charlotte, San
Biot-act-py ± carb, at Antonio
amphibolite grade Extensional vein arrays of variable
complexity in competent host rocks
Commonly centered on clusters of felsic
dykes or stocks
Disseminated sulphide Au/Ag > 5 1- alb-carb-ser-py; Mafic volcanic and plutonic hosts; Campbell-Red Lake (in
zones ± stockworks of mafic As, W, 2-biotite-pyrrhotite commonly stratabound part); Kerr Addison (flow
association ore), Sons of Gwalia,
Plutonic
Disseminated sulphide Au>Ag, 1- Kfsp-ser-silica; Tonalitic to syenitic Hemlo; Malartic; Ross;
zones ± stockworks of felsic As, Te +Hg, 2- albite-carbonate- stocks and dykes, commonly Wallaby; Kanowna Belle;
association Mo, Sb, V, sericite porphyritic; clastic and epiclastic hosts Binduli;
Ba common
Iron-formation-hosted veins, Au>Ag; As Fe-amphibole; chlorite; Folded iron-formation; commonly cut Musselwhite; Geraldton;
stockwork and stratabound common garnet; +/- carbonate by intermediate to felsic intrusions Cleo-Sunrise (in part)
sulfides
Disseminated sulfides of calc- Au>Ag Epidote-actinolite- Stratabound zones in iron-formation Madsen; Akasaba;
silicate association ("skarn") dioside-garnet Daveyhurst, Nevoria

Sulphide-rich veins (> 20% Au/Ag is 1-sericite-chloritoid- Sequences with felsic volcanic rocks and Doyon; Bellevue, Copper
sulfides) and veinlet systems variable; alumino-silicate synvolcanic intrusions Rand
Cu, Zn 2- Sericite-chlorite
Colloform-crustiform Au/Ag > 5 Ser (biot)-carb at Felsic high-level porphyry intrusions Campbell-Red Lake; Dome
carbonate-quartz veins, As, Te, V, greenschist grade and dykes; (ankerite veins); Fimiston,
breccias and sulfidic Hg, Sb, W, Kanowna Belle (in part),
In brittle structures
replacements Zn Jundee, Wiluna
Abbreviations: act - actinolite; alb - albite; asp - arsenopyrite; biot - biotite; carb - carbonate; Kfsp - K-feldspar; py - pyrite; ser - sericite.

8

Crustiform-colloform carbonate-quartz veins and
associated wallrock sulfides. This type of mineralisation is
distinguished on the basis of the presence of epithermal-
style veins. It consists of narrow high-grade zones of
carbonate-quartz veins, veinlets and breccias, with a
variable but complex combination of sulfidic fractures,
wallrock sulfide replacements, and silica—arsenopyrite
replacements. This type of mineralisation is relatively
uncommon but is present in several large deposits. It is
dominant at Fimiston, Jundee, Wiluna, and Campbell
Red Lake, and is also present at Kanowna Belle, Racetrack,
and Dome (ankerite veins).
• Iron-formation-hosted sulfidic replacements ± quartz
veins and veinlets. Combines varying proportions of
discordant quartz veins and veinlets and concordant
replacement of iron-rich beds. It is relatively common,
and is the BIF equivalent of quartz—carbonate veins
described above. Examples include Homestake, Geita
and Sunrise (in part).
• Sulfide-rich veins, veinlets ± sulfide disseminations.
Characterises a small number of deposits, but including
significant ones, such as Doyon (see Robert, 2003).
Deposits of this type range from individual sulfide-rich
veins (Copper Rand, Bellevue) to vein arrays (e.g., Doyon
Zone 3, Sleeping Giant), to zones of sulfide veinlets and
associated disseminated sulfides (Doyon Main Zone,
Mount Gibson).
Many deposits consist of a single type of mineralisation,
while others combine more than one type. Each of the
above type of mineralisation is represented by large
deposit examples.
Structure of deposits
As for mineralisation types, there is a range of geometries,
structural styles and complexities in lode gold deposits.
Many deposits share the following characteristics:
• Deposits consist of single to multiple orebodies,
especially the large ones. Accordingly, they range from
simple to complex 3D arrays of mineralised structures,
and commonly involving folds (e.g., Dome mine).
• Shear zones and faults are almost universally present,
either as ore hosts, as bounding structures, or as
overprinting structures (Fig. lb).
• A key issue with ores hosted in penetratively strained
rocks, of either regional or shear zone character, is
whether or not the mineralisation is synchronous
with deformation or overprinted by it, as discussed by
Robert and Poulsen (2001).
Besides these common characteristics, the structure
and geometry of deposits is largely dictated by the type
of mineralisation. Key structural features of selected
mineralisation types include:
• Quartz-carbonate vein deposits typically combine
9
Characteristics of lode gold deposits in greenstone belts
laminated veins or sigmoidal vein arrays in moderately
to steeply dipping reverse shear zones with arrays
of shallow-dipping extensional veins in adjacent
competent and lower strain rocks. The reverse
character of the shear-zone-hosted veins and shallow-
dips of extensional veins attest to the formation of
these quartz—carbonate vein deposits during crustal
shortening (Robert and Poulsen, 2001).
• Iron-formation-hosted deposits are stratabound and
their geometry is largely dictated by the shape of the
iron-formation unit, which is commonly folded. In
some deposits, the mineralised zones are localised in
fold hinges and plunge parallel to the fold axis, as
Homestake, while on others mineralisation is controlled
by intersecting structures and plunges parallel to the
line of intersection.
• Colloform-crustiform carbonate—quartz vein and
sulfidic replacements also form complex arrays of
mineralised zones in brittle structure in several deposits
(Jundee, Wiluna), consistent with the high crustal
levels suggested by their internal textures and common
breccia character. In a few deposits (Campbell—Red
Lake, Fimiston), the mineralised zones are clearly
overprinted by penetrative structural fabrics.
• Deposits dominated by disseminated ± veinlet systems
show significant structural variability. They range from
low-strain deposits intimately associated with felsic
porphyry intrusions with or without clear fault controls
(Kanowna Belle, Wallaby) to high strained and folded
deposits (Hemlo, Plutonic)
Ore composition
Recurring compositional characteristics of deposits are as
follows:
• The ores of a majority of deposits are consistently
enriched in silver, arsenic and W, and have Au/Ag >
5. Other commonly but not systematically enriched
elements include B, Te, Bi, Mo.
• Although the deposits can be vertically and laterally
very extensive, there is only cryptic mineralogical
zoning
• The dominant sulfide mineral is pyrite at greenschist
grade, pyrrhotite at amphibolite grade. Arsenopyrite is
the dominant sulfide in many clastic-sediment-hosted
ores at greenschist grade, and loellingite is also present
at amphibolite grade.
Significant variations include:
• Ores range form quartz-rich, in the case of quartz-
carbonate veins to quartz-poor in disseminated sulfide
± veinlet systems and iron-formation hosted deposits.
• Disseminated ± veinlet systems and sulfidic vein ores
may have Au/Ag <5, and <1 in some cases.
• Disseminated ± veinlet system ores and colloform-
Francois Robert
crustiform carbonate—quartz vein and sulfidic
replacements display significant variability in associated
metals and minerals. Some deposits can contain highly
elevated concentrations of one or more of Te, Mo, V,
Sb, Hg, and Ba. Sulfidic vein ores generally contain
elevated concentrations of copper and zinc.
Wallrock alteration
The most common type of wallrock alteration involves
potassium, CO 2 and S metasomatism. Key features of
this alteration type are as follows:
• Alteration haloes are zoned from distal chlorite—
calcite to proximal sericite-carbonate pyrite ± albite
assemblages. The relative abundances of these minerals,
the composition of carbonate, and the dimensions of
alteration haloes are influenced by the composition
of the host rocks (Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000).
Carbonate alteration commonly form a continuous,
deposit-scale alteration halo around large deposits
hosted in Fe-rich mafic rocks.
• This type of alteration is nearly universal around
quartz—carbonate ores and is dominant in many
deposits of disseminated ± veinlet ores (Table 2)
• The actual mineral assemblages also vary as a function
of metamorphic grades, typically with the appearance
of biotite at the expense of sericite at upper greenschist
grade, and various calc-silicate minerals (Ca amphibole,
tremolite, diopside and garnet) at amphibolite and
higher grade.
However, a number of deposits show distinctly
different alteration assemblages that cannot be attributed
to host rock composition of metamorphic effects and
that must require the involvement of fluids of different
compositions. These other types of alteration include:
• K-feldspar—muscovite ± aluminosilicates, for example
in the disseminated ± veinlet ores at Hemlo and Big
Bell.
• Sericite—chlorite or sericite-aluminosilicate alteration
around sulfidic vein deposits, as at Copper Rand and
Doyon.
• Albite (rather than sericite)—carbonate—pyrite
alteration. Some of these alteration zones also contain
hematite (or magnetite), anhydrite, and/or barite (or
Ba enrichment). These are indicative of oxidised fluids
that contrast with the reduced ones normally associated
with the sericite-carbonate-pyrite alteration.
Styles of deposits and timing of mineralisation
Among all the diversity of characteristics presented above,
a relatively small number of recurrent styles of deposits
can be recognised, as summarised in Table 2 (see also
Robert and Poulsen, 1997; Robert, 2003).
10
• These deposit styles can be regarded as end-members
among a broader spectrum of deposits.
• The range of vein textures and geochemistry certainly
suggest deposit formation from shallow to moderate
crustal levels, as implied in Figure 1A. For deposit
at higher metamorphic grades, it is perhaps more
difficult to discriminate between deposits truly
formed under those conditions from those that have
formed at shallower crustal levels and subsequently
metamorphosed and overprinted by penetrative
deformation.
• The key questions is one of the age of mineralisation
and whether or not the deposits of different styles have
formed at the same stage in the evolution of their host
terranes or at different times.
In some greenstone belts, and for a few deposits, there
is clear field and geochronologic evidence for more than
one age of mineralisation:
• It the Eastern Goldfields Province, it is well accepted
that quartz—carbonate vein arrays of the Mount
Charlotte deposit overprints the colloform-crustiform
veins and sulfidic replacements of the Fimiston deposit
(Clout etal., 1990).
• In southern Abitibi, Robert (2001, 2003) has also
argued for the presence of multiple ages of gold
mineralisation, on the basis of field relations and robust
geochronologic relationships. It is very difficult (and
dangerous) to generalise, but there is clear evidence for
some selected deposits or group of deposits.
• In the Val d'Or district of southern Abitibi,
geochronologic constraints on pre- and post mineral
felsic intrusions indicate at least two distinct ages of
quartz-carbonate veins, separated by at least 8 Ma
(Fig. 7).
Applicable models
Evidence for more than one age of mineralisation
supports the possible existence of multiple models as
follows:
• The orogenic model, as portrayed in Figure 8 for
quartz-carbonate and iron-formation-hosted deposits,
probably accounts for the largest number of deposits.
The model as defined here is applicable strictly to
deposits that can be demonstrated to have formed
during crustal shortening.
• The geologic model presented by Robert (2001) for
syenite-associated disseminated deposits in Abitibi
(Fig. 9), is definitely applicable to the disseminated +
veinlets deposits described here. This models proposes
that disseminated mineralisation is temporally related
to the emplacement of high-level porphyry stock and
dyke complex at about a volcanic—sediment contact,
prior to folding by the main phase of shortening
 Characteristics of lode gold deposits in greenstone belts

Figure 7 Schematic representation of cross-

cutting relationships between two generations
of quartz-carbonate veins (yellow) in the Val
d'Or district, showing available U-Pb zircon
ages for the main volcanic (green) and felsic
intrusive rocks (blue, orange, pink and red).

Figure 8 Schematic cross-section representing the

geologic and structural setting of quartz-carbonate
veins and iron-formation hosted deposits. From
Robert and Poulsen (2001).

Figure 9 Schematic geologic model for disseminated-veinlet deposits

associated with a high-level porphyry stock cross-section representing
the geologic and structural setting of quartz-carbonate veins and iron-
formation hosted deposits. From Robert and Poulsen (2001).

11
Frangois Robert

across the belt. The model could easily be adapted for
deposits like Kanowna Belle and Wallaby by extending
the high-level porphyry intrusions at a higher position
in the overlying clastic sedimentary rocks.
• Finally, a low-sulfidation epithermal model has been
proposed for a few deposits, for example at Campbell-
Red Lake by Penczak and Mason (1995). This model
has definite merits for that specific deposit in light of
the high-level vein textures and the fact that the veins
are overprinted by the main phase of shortening across
the belt.
References
Caddey, S.W., Bachman, R.L., Campbell, T.J., Reid, R.R.,
and Otto, R.P., 1991, The Homestake gold mine, an
Early Proterozoic iron-formation-hosted gold deposit,
Lawrence County, South Dakota, in Shawe DR and
Ashley RP, eds., Geology and Resources of Gold
Deposits in the United States: United States Geological
Survey Bulletin 1857-J, 67 p.
Card, K.D., and Poulsen, H.K, 1998, Geology and Mineral
deposits of the Superior Province of the Canadian
Shield: Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of the
Precambrian Superior and Grenville Provinces and
Precambrian Fossils in North America, no. 7, p. 13—
194.
Clout, J.M.F., Cleghorn, J.H., and Eaton, P C , 1990, Geology
of the Kalgoorlie goldfield, in Hughes, F.E., ed.,
Geology of the Mineral Deposits of Australia and Papua
New Guinea: The Australasian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, p. 411—431.
Groves, D.I., Knox-Robinson, C.M., and Rock, N.M.S.,
1990, An overview of lode-gold deposits, in Ho, S.E.,
Groves, D.I., and Bennett, J.M., eds., Gold Deposits of
the Archean Yilgarn Block, Western Australia: Nature,
Genesis and Exploration Guides, Geology Department
(Key Centre) and University Extension, University of
Western Australia Publication No. 20, p. 2-18.
Groves, D.I., Ridley, J.R., Bloem, E.M.J., Gebre-Mariam,
M., Hagemann, S.G., Hronsky, J.M.A., Knight,
J.T., McNaughton, N.J., Ojala, J., Vielreicher, R.M.,
McCuaig, T.C., and Holyland, P.W., 1995. Lode gold
deposits of the Yilgarn Block: products of late-Archean
crustal-scale overpressured hydrothermal systems, in
Coward, M.P., and Ries, A.C., eds., Early Precambrian
Processes: Geological Society of London Special
Publication 95, p. 155-172.
Groves, D.I., Goldfarb, R.J., Gebre-Mariam, M., Hagemann,
S.G., and Robert, F, 1998, Orogenic gold deposits: A
proposed classification in the context of their crustal
distribution and relationships to other gold deposit
types: Ore Geology Reviews, v. 13, p. 7—27.
Groves, D.I., Goldfarb, R.J., Robert, F, and Hart, C.J.R.,
2003, Gold deposits in metamorphic belts: Overview
of current understanding, outstanding problems,
future research, and exploration significance: Economic
Geology, v. 98, p. 1-30.
Hagemann, S.G., and Cassidy, K.E, 2000, Archean orogenic
gold deposits: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 13, p.
9-68.
Hamilton, J.V., and Hodgson, C.J., 1986, Mineralization and
structure of the Kolar Goldfield, India, in MacDonald
A.J., ed., Proceedings of Gold'86 Conference: Toronto,
Ontario, p. 270-283.
Hodgson, C.J., 1993, Mesothermal lode gold deposits, in
Kirkham R.V., Sinclair W.D., Thorpe R.I. and Duke,
J.M., eds. Mineral Deposits Modeling: Geological
Association of Canada, Special Paper 40, p. 635-678
Lindgren, W, 1933, Mineral deposits: McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Penczak, R.S., and Mason, R., 1995, Metamorphosed Archean
epithermal Au-As-Sb-Zn-(Hg) vein mineralization at
the Campbell mine, northwestern Ontario: Economic
Geology, v. 92, p. 696-719.
Robert, E, 2003, Giant Gold Deposits of the Abitibi
Greenstone Belt: WA Gold Giants and Global Gold
Giants, Extended Abstracts Volume, UWA Centre for
Global Metallogeny, MSc Short Course 6 & 7 February
2003, p. 81-90.
Robert, F., 2001, Disseminated syenite-associate gold deposits
in the Abitibi greenstone belt, Canada: Mineraliuum
Deposita, v. 36, p. 503-516.
Robert, F, and Poulsen K.H., 1997, World-class Archaean gold
deposits in Canada: An overview: Australian Journal of
Earth Sciences, v. 44, p. 329-351.
Robert, F., and Poulsen, K.H., 2001, Vein Formation and
Deformation in Greenstone Gold Deposits: Reviews in
Economic Geology, v. 14, p. 111-155.
Sillitoe, R.H., 2000, Enigmatic origins of giant gold deposits, in
Cluer, J.K., Price, J.G., Struhsacker, E.M., Hardyman,
R.F., and Morris, C.L., eds., Geology of Ore Deposits
2000: The Great Basin and Beyond: Geological Society
of Nevada Symposium Proceedings, May 15-18, 2000,
p. 1-18.

12
 Contrasting styles of Proterozoic gold
mineralisation in Ghana, West Africa
ANDREW TUNKS

Historically two distinct styles of Proterozoic Au mineral-

isation have been recognised and mined in Ghana. The
first style of Au mineralisation occurs solely within quartz
lithic and oligomictic conglomerates of the Banket Series
within the Tarkwaian Group. The auriferous horizons
are perfectly conformable with the hosting strata and
economic gold grades are typically restricted to three
conglomeratic horizons, locally termed 'Banket Reefs'
(Brabham, 1998). Sestini (1973) and Hirdes and Nunoo
(1994) interpret the geological evidence to indicate that
the Banket conglomerate-hosted gold mineralisation
within the Tarkwaian is of a paleoplacer origin. The
second style of mineralisation is gold associated with
graphitic-mylonitic shear zones with quartz ± carbonate
veins in deformed rocks of the Birimian Supergroup. This
mesothermal style is typically associated with extensive
arsenopyrite alteration of the host rocks. Examples include
the +30 million ounce Obuasi deposit, (Blenkinsop et
al., 1994; Allibone et al., 2002a), greater than six million
ounces at Prestea (Appiah, 1991) and more than two
million ounces of gold at Bogusu (Allibone et al., 2002b,
Fig. 1).
The Damang deposit is unique in that it host both
styles of mineralisation (Fig. 2). These styles include
the 'placer deposits' occurring within quartz-lithic
conglomerates of the Banket Series. The second style
is associated with an extensive low-displacement, fault-
fracture mesh that formed in a compressional stress
regime late in the deformational history and after the
peak metamorphism (Fig. 3). Regional deformation
within the Tarkwaian involved initial NW-SE directed
shortening (D ). A major NNE trending Fj anticline

Figure 1 Regional Geology of SW Ghana modified from Allibone

et al. (2002a). Area of Damang Mine defined by rectangle. Major
gold deposits include Obuasi, Bibiani, Konongo, Bogusu, Prestea
CODES, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 79, Hobart, Tasmania and Tarkwa. Several advanced projects are also shown; Alum,
Australia 7001 Mampon and Yampho Sefwi. Modified from Tunks et al. (2004).

13
 Andrew Tunks
Figure 2 (A) Regional geology of the Damang Area illustrating the
broad scale geometry of the Damang Anticline, the location of the
Damang gold mine and several other prospects. The Abosso Mine
was an underground development on high-grade portions of the
Banket Conglomerate. It was closed for economic reasons in the
1980s. (B) Cross section demonstrating complexity of the Damang
Anticline and internal dismemberment by TD thrusts. Modified
from Tunks et al. (2004).
hosts the Damang orebody. Broadly north-south
shortening during D2 resulted in the formation of E-
W trending thrusts with small displacements. The D
shortening direction was similar to that of D . Steep D
faults were reactivated and a new set of low angle thrusts
and associated flat-lying extension veins were formed.
The bulk of the mineralisation observed at Damang is
associated with the low displacement D fault and fracture
mesh. The presence of flat-lying extensional veins and
the reactivation of some misoriented D structures is
indicative of periodic episodes of supralithostatic fluid
pressures, low differential stress and fault-valve behaviour
towards the end of the deformation history.
Late in 1999 Ranger Minerals NL, through their 90%
owned subsidiary Abosso Goldfields Limited, committed
to exploring the ground between Tarkwa and Damang
for further resources. Although extensive geochemical
soil sampling had been previously conducted during the
early 1990s, there had not been any meaningful attempts
to quantify the potential for Tarkwa-style mineralisation
north of Rex along the western limb of the Damang
anticline, or south of Lima on the eastern limb. The
neglect of the potential on the western limb was brought
about by early exploration in the 1930s. At this time adits
were driven into the Banket positions to assess their grade
and width. However, the adits were always stopped after
intersecting the three mineralised horizons.
Recent structural mapping in the Damang open
pit (Fig. 3) and remapping of the western limb of the
anticline in 2000 and 2001 has provided a much better
understanding of the deformational history, and has led to
new discoveries of gold mineralisation. Specifically, this
work revealed that the Banket horizons were structurally
repeated. Rather than three units, in places there were up
to 16 horizons (Fig. 4). This repetition has allowed several
areas to be completely reassessed and subsequently led to
the definition of substantial new oxide resources.
References
Allibone, A., Teasdale, J., Cameron, G., Etheridge, M., Uttley,
P., Soboh, A., Appiah-Kubi, J., Adanu, A., Arthur, R.,
Mamphey, J., Odoom, B., Zuta, J., Tsikata, A., Patayc,
E, Famiyeh, S., and Lamb, E., 2002a, Timing and
structural controls on gold mineralization at the Bogoso
gold mine, Ghana, West Africa: Economic Geology, v.
97, p. 949-969.
Allibone, A., McCuaig, C. T, Harris, D., Etheridge M.,
Munroe, S., Byrne, D., Amanor, J., and Gyapong, W.,
2002b, Structural Controls on Gold Mineralization at
the Ashanti Gold Deposit, Obuasi, Ghana: Society of
Economic Geologists Special Publication No. 9, p. 65-
93.
Blenkinsop, T, Schmidt, M., Kumi, R., and Sangmoor, S.,
1994, Structural Geology of the Ashanti Goldmine:
Geologisches Jahrbuch, D 100, p. 131-153.
14
 Contrasating styles of Proterozoic gold mineralisation in Ghana, West Africa

Figure 3 Compilation of the mapped geology within the main portion of the Damang gold mine open pit at the 894 RL which is
approximately 100—145 m below the original pre-mining surface. The pit itself extends both to the north and south of this illustration
although those areas were still dominantly within the oxide profile at the time of mapping. The trace of the Damang fault which is shown
outside the western wall of the pit is only approximate and was located from the resource drilling data and by projection from higher levels
in the pit. Location marks are shown in the local mine grid where north (GN) is at 032° to the east of magnetic north (MN). Modified from
Tunksetal. (2004). " N .

Brabham, G., 1988, The Regional Geological Setting and

Nature of the Damang Stockwork Gold Deposit- A
New Type of Gold Deposit in Ghana: Masters Thesis,
University of Western Australia, 152 p. (unpublished).
Hirdes, W, andNunoo, B., 1994,The Proterozoicpaleoplacers
at Tarkwa gold mine, SW Ghana; sedimentology,
mineralogy, and precise age dating of the Main Reef
and West Reef, and bearing of the investigations on
source area aspects: Geologisches Jahrbuch D100, P.
247-311.
Sestini, G., 1973. Sedimentology of a palaeoplacer: the
gold-bearing Tarkwaian of Ghana. Amstutz, in G.C.,
Bernard, J.A., Ed., Ores in Sediments: p. 275-306.
Tunks, A.J., Selley, D., Rogers J., and Brabham, G., 2004, Vein
Mineralisation at the Damang Gold Mine, Ghana:
Controls on Mineralisation: Journal of Structural
Geology, v. 26, p. 1275-1274.

15
Andrew Tanks

dolente
Huni Sandstone
Tarkwa Phyllite
Banket Series

Banket Series
Sandstone

type A faults
bedding
axial trace of
Damang Anticline
dolerite with
intrusive contact
reverse fault with
movement sense
laminated shear
zone with lineation

Figure 4 (A) Detailed geology of the Tomento region. Prospective

Banket Series stratigraphy is folded about NE to NNE plunging,
upright TF , closures. Thrust surfaces with SE transport dismember
macroscopic TFj anticline in NW of prospect. (B) Lower hemisphere
equal area stereographic projection of poles to bedding: calculated
(5-axis approximates TFj hinge. Modified from Tunks et al. (2004).

16
 Characteristics and genesis of porphyry copper
gold deposits
DAVID R. COOKE1, ALAN J. WILSON2 AND ANDREW G. S. DAVES 3

Introduction various ways. These include greater understanding of the

Porphyry deposits are large tonnage, low grade resources
of copper, molybdenum and gold. They form at
convergent plate margins within both oceanic island
arc and continental arc settings (Fig. 1). Most of the
deposits are Cainozoic in age, with Mesozoic, Paleozoic
and Archaean examples also known. In each of these
deposits, mineralisation and alteration occur within and
around one or more porphyritic intrusions. Ore is hosted
primarily in veins and breccias. Minor sulfides occur as
disseminations in hydrothermally altered rocks. Varied
combinations of the aforementioned magmatic and
hydrothermal features define this class of hydrothermal
ore deposit.
Our understanding of the characteristics of porphyry
deposits comes largely from the 'golden era' of porphyry
research in the 1960s and 1970s. Much of that research
was conducted on Laramide porphyry Cu systems in
the southwestern USA (e.g., Lowell and Guilbert, 1970;
Sheppard et al., 1971; Taylor, 1974, Titley, 1982), with
noteworthy contributions from South America (e.g.,
Gustafson and Hunt, 1975) and the southwestern Pacific
(e.g, Gustafson and Titley, 1978, and references therein).
Since that time, the interpretations and empirical
observations of porphyry systems made by Sillitoe (e.g.,
1973, 1979, 1989, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2000) have
strongly influenced how porphyries are documented,
explored, and researched. Others have also contributed
significantly to our understanding of these deposits in
physics and chemistry of aqueous phase separation from
igneous melts (Henley and McNabb, 1978; Burnham,
1979; Candela, 1991; Fournier, 1999) and of the
architectural controls on porphyry formation at the top
of batholiths (e.g., Dilles and Einaudi, 1992).
In this paper, we review the characteristics and
genesis of porphyry copper—gold deposits, revising and
updating the review of Cooke et al. (1998). We discuss
how different systems can be discriminated on the basis
of magma chemistry. Characteristic features of the
intrusions, veins, breccias and altered rocks are discussed,
with examples from the circum-Pacific used to help
illustrate key features. We conclude with a brief review
of the origin of porphyry-style mineralisation, and some
comments on exploration parameters. For a broader
perspective on porphyry deposits, read the recent reviews
by Sillitoe (1997), Hedenquist and Richards (1998),
Sillitoe (2000), Tosdal and Richards (2001), Camus
(2002) and Richards (2003).

1
Centre for Ore Deposit Research, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 79,
Hobart, 7001
2
Newcrest Mining Limited, Level 2, Hyatt Business Centre, 20 Terrace Figure 1 Global distribution of porphyry deposits.
Road, East Perth, WA 6004
3
TeckCominco, Vancouver

17
David R. Cooke, Alan ]. Wilson and Andrew G. S. Davies
Classification
Porphyry deposits are classified on the basis of their metal
endowments, specifically copper, gold and molybdenum
(Fig. 2A; Kesler, 1973). Porphyry copper—gold deposits
are common in oceanic island arc settings, but have
also formed in continental arcs. They are commonly
associated with thin, pipe-like intrusive complexes ('pencil
porphyries') of mafic to intermediate composition, which
intrude to shallow crustal levels (-1 to 2 km depth). The
deposits are commonly enriched in magnetite, both in
early-formed veins and potassic-altered rocks. Sillitoe
(1979) defined gold-rich porphyry copper deposits
as those containing greater than 0.4 g/t Au. However,
large tonnage gold resources also occur in lower grade
porphyry copper-gold deposits (0.1—0.4 g/t Au) and
also in the largest of the porphyry copper—molybdenum
deposits, which have gold grades much less than 0.1 g/t
(Table 1).
Porphyry copper and copper—molybdenum deposits
(Fig. 2A) are widespread in continental arcs, although
examples are also known in oceanic arcs and cratonic
settings (Titley, 1990). The intrusions that are associated
with these porphyries tend to have larger cross-sectional
areas than their copper—gold counterparts, with stocks
and plutons the most typical morphologies. Larger
intrusion dimensions appear to correlate with greater
depths of emplacement (^2—5 km depth). The magmas
have intermediate to felsic compositions.
Porphyry deposits can be further subdivided on the
basis of magma chemistry (Fig. 2A; Lang et al., 1995).
Copper-molybdenum systems are associated exclusively
with calc-alkalic intrusions. In contrast, intrusions related
to copper—gold porphyry deposits range from low-K
(e.g., Batu Hijau, Indonesia) through medium-K (e.g.,
Far South East Philippines), high-K calc-alkalic (e.g.,
Grasberg, Indonesia) to alkalic. The alkalic porphyry
copper—gold systems include silica-saturated (e.g., Cadia,
NSW) and silica-undersaturated examples (e.g., Galore
Creek, British Columbia). Differences between alkalic
and calc-alkalic copper—gold porphyry deposits are
highlighted in the following sections, where appropriate.
The largest gold-rich porphyry deposits (in terms of
contained gold) are associated with high-K calc-alkalic
intrusions (e.g., Grasberg, Bingham, Kal'makyr). At least
one giant, gold-rich porphyry district is associated with
alkalic intrusions (Cadia). Most of the other large gold-
rich porphyry deposits are associated with calc-alkalic
intrusions (Table 1, Fig. 2).
Tectonic setting
There is a global association of porphyry deposits
with subduction-related environments, with most of
18
the world's porphyry deposits forming in Mesozoic-
Cainozoic orogenic belts at convergent plate boundaries
(Sillitoe, 1972; Fig. 1). The porphyry deposits within
these belts are typically emplaced at the end of magmatic
cycles (Richards, 2003). Deep crustal sutures provide
conduits for crustal ascent of magma and help to localise
the mineral deposits. These mantle-tapping structures
are typically transverse to the arc, and are most likely
inherited from older basement. Richards (2003) provided
a comprehensive review of the tectono-magmatic and
structural processes that allow fertile magma generation
through magma ascent to magma emplacement.
Sillitoe (1997) emphasised that porphyry deposits
are the products of tectonic change, rather than of
steady-state subduction processes. Factors that have
been considered as potentially involved in porphyry ore
formation include:
• change in convergence rate
• change in plate motion vectors
• reversal of strike-slip fault systems
• slab rollback and extension after peak compression
• syn-tectonic intrusive activity during peak
compression
• reversal of arc polarity
• aseismic ridge subduction.
No consensus has been reached regarding whether
any of these are unique factors, or indeed whether any
of them are actually critical for porphyry formation. It
appears that different tectonic triggers operate in different
tectonic settings. Compressional arc terrains are most
favourable for the formation of giant porphyry deposits.
The rates of uplift and mass wasting are controlled by
tectonic phenomena. These rates need to be optimised
in order to develop and preserve high-grade porphyry
systems. Rapid uplift during the life of the magmatic-
hydrothermal system can lead to telescoping of the
high sulfidation epithermal environment into the early-
formed porphyry. This process has resulted in significant
hypogene upgrading of porphyry metal resources in both
copper—gold (e.g., Far South East—Lepanto; Philippines;
Agua Rica, Argentina) and copper—molybdenum systems
(e.g, Rosario, Chuquicamata, and La Escondida; Chile).
It is also likely to be responsible for the common evolution
from lithostatic through to hydrostatic loading during
the life of a porphyry system.
Uplift is also important for the development of
significant tonnages of supergene ore, which typically
accumulate in a two-stage process. First, the porphyry
deposit must uplifted and partly exhumed, which
requires rapid uplift rates in young systems. Then uplift
and erosion need to stop, allowing oxidation and leaching
of the mineralised intrusion and remobilisation of sulfide
ore into significant supergene enrichment blankets.
Climatic factors also come into play, with arid climates
 Characteristics and genesis of porphyry copper—gold deposits

Table 1 Grade-tonnage data for selected large porphyry copper-gold deposits.

Deposit Province Age (Ma) Tonnage Au Au(t) Cu Cu Mo Mo Refs

(Mt) (g/t) (wt %) (Mt) (wt %) (Mt)
Au-rich porphyry Cu deposits
Grasberg Irian Jaya 3 2,480 1.05 2,604 1.13 28.02 1,2,3
Bingham Utah 38.8 3,228 0.50 1,603 0.88 28.46 0.02 0.81 1,2
Kal'makyr Uzbekistan 310-294 2,700 0.51 1,374 0.40 10.80 2,4
FSE / Lepanto N. Luzon 1.5-1.2 685 1.42 973 0.80 5.48 2,3,5
Cerro Casale Chile 13.5 1,285 0.70 900 0.35 4.50 1,2
Cadia NSW 440 1,055 0.76 806 0.31 3.27 1,3
Panguna Bougainville 3.5 1,415 0.57 799 0.46 6.51 1,2
Minas Conga Northern Peru 20 641 0.79 506 0.30 1.92 2,3
OkTedi PNG 1.2- 1.1 700 0.64 446 0.64 4.48 1,2
Peschanka Kamtchatka L. Jur. 940 0.42 395 0.51 4.79 2
Dal'neye Uzbekistan 310-294 545 0.69 376 0.59 3.21 2,4
Bajo de la Argentina 8-7 551 0.67 369 0.52 2.87 1,2,6
Alumbrera
Prosperity BC, Canada 79 631 0.46 290 0.25 1.58 1,2,3,7
Porphyry Cu-Au-(Mo) deposits

Oyu Tolgoi Mongolia 411 2,467 0.32 790 0.68 20.57 8,9, 10
Batu Hijau Indonesia 3.7 1,644 0.35 572 0.44 7.23 1,2, 11
Frieda River PNG 14-11 1,103 0.32 354 0.61 6.73 1,2
Pebble Copper Alaska 90 1,000 0.34 340 0.30 3.00 2,3
Tampakan Philippines Pliocene 1,400 0.24 336 0.55 7.70 12
Atlas Philippines 61 1,380 0.24 331 0.50 6.90 2
Sar Cheshmeh Iran 12.2 1,200 0.27 324 1.2 14.40 0.03 0.36 1,2, 13, 14
Sipilay Philippines K-T 884 0.34 301 0.50 4.42 0.01 0.09 2
Reko Diq Pakistan Miocene? 729 0.39 284 0.64 4.67 15
La Escondida Northern Chile 38 2,262 0.10 226 1.15 32.49 0.02 0.48 2,16
Porphyry Cu-Mo deposits with by-product Au

ElTeniente Central Chile 4.8 12,482 0.035 437 0.63 94.35 0.02 2.50 16
Chuquicamata Northern Chile 33.6 7,521 0.04 301 0.55 66.37 0.02 1.81 16

The 25 largest known porphyry gold deposits and districts, ranked on the basis of contained gold and subdivided into Au-rich porphyry
deposits (> 0.4 g/t Au), porphyry Cu-(Au) deposits (0.1 to 0.4 g/t Au) and porphyry Cu-Mo deposits that produce large tonnages of gold as a
by-product (<0.1 g/t Au; modified from Cooke et al., submitted). References: 1 — Kirkham and Dunne (2000); 2 — Mutschler et al. (1999); 3
- BMO Nesbitt Burns (2002); 4 - Sokolov (1998); 5 - Hedenquist et al. (1998); 6 - Ulrich and Heinrich (2001); 7 - Caira et al. (1995); 8
- Perello et al. (2001); 9 - Ivanhoe Mines (2002); Ivanhoe Mines (2004); 11 - Garwin (2002); 12 - Sillitoe (1999); 13 - Samani (1998); 14
-Porter (1998); 1 5 - Mincor (2002); 16 - Camus (2002).

Figure 2 Classification schemes for porphyry deposits. (A) By commodity. Metal grades - g/t Au, wt % Cu, wt % Mo. Sources of data:
Kirkham and Dunne, 2000; Singer et al, 2002. Modified after Thompson, 1994. (B) By magma chemistry. Modified after Lang et al, 1995.

19
David R. Cooke, Alan J. Wilson and Andrew G. S. Davies
ideal for developing supergene resources (e.g., N Chile,
SW Arizona). There are examples of young copper—gold
porphyries that have developed supergene resources in
wet, tropical climates (e.g., Ok Tedi, PNG; Boyongan,
Philippines) but these are the exceptions rather than the
rule.
Intrusions
The 'porphyry' class of deposits encompasses a broad and
varied spectrum, all of which are related to one or more
subvolcanic porphyritic stocks. Porphyry emplacement
can occur prior to, synchronous with and after the onset
of fracture-controlled mineralisation.
The geometry of intrusions associated with copper-
gold mineralisation appears to vary as a function of
depth, with deep level plutons, shallower level stocks
and shallowest level dykes and pipes. It is possible to see
most or all of these intrusion morphologies within an
individual deposit, if the system was actively uplifting
and eroding during the history of intrusive activity (e.g.,
Lang andTitley, 1998; Lickfold et al., 2003).
Compared to their copper—molybdenum counterparts,
the mineralised stocks in porphyry copper—gold deposits
are small (mostly less than 0.5 km2 in plan section).
They are, however, either known or inferred to have a
significant vertical extent, with vertical exposures of
the porphyritic stocks at Grasberg extending over more
than 1500 m (Kavalieris, 1994). The stocks are mostly
cylindrical in shape and tend to widen with depth. The
uppermost portions of the stocks are probably emplaced
at depths of 1—2 km below the palaeosurface, and the
copper—gold orebody may extend for over a kilometre
vertically (Grasberg), and up to several hundred metres
laterally into the surrounding wall rocks.
Great complexity can occur above and to the sides
of the mineralising intrusive complex. Figure 3 shows
thin, irregular quartz monzonite porphyry (QMP) dykes
that have extended beyond the limits of the main body
of quartz monzonite porphyry at Endeavour 27, NSW.
Thin (1 m) irregular dykes occur close to, and have
emanated from, the larger QMP pipe. The intersection
of narrow dykes during diamond drilling may discourage
explorers, given their small width and lack of substantial
mineralisation. However, it is important to realise that
such dykes may lie close to a larger intrusive complex,
and thorough exploration is required to assess the
mineralisation potential of such features.
Porphyritic diorite to quartz diorite intrusions
characterise many of the calc-alkalic porphyry deposits of
the western Pacific and southeast Asia (e.g., Santo Tomas
II, Far Southeast, Philippines; Fig. 4A). Hornblende is the
characteristic primary mafic phase in these intrusions, and
primary magnetite occurs as microphenocrysts and in the
20
groundmass. In alkalic porphyry copper-gold deposits,
the intrusions related to copper—gold mineralisation are
mostly monzonites and syenites (eg., Cadia, NSW, Galore
Creek, British Columbia, Didipio, Philippines; Fig. 4B).
Clinopyroxene and/or biotite are common primary mafic
phases in these intrusions.
Multiple intrusive phases are typical of many
porphyry copper-gold systems (e.g., Bingham Canyon,
Utah; Bajo de la Alumbrera, Argentina; Galore Creek,
British Columbia; Cadia and North Parkes, NSW).
Several criteria can help determine the relative timing of
intrusion emplacement. These include xenoliths of older
intrusions within younger porphyries (e.g., Fig. 4C),
truncated veins at intrusive contacts (Fig. 4D) and abrupt
metal grade transitions (Sillitoe, 2000). It is common
for low grade, weakly mineralised and altered, late-stage
porphyries to dilute or truncate grade within intrusive
complexes. A common mistake is to infer that these late
stage intrusions are the main cause of mineralisation and
alteration, because they occupy the centre of the deposit.
Careful examination of intrusive contacts, particularly
with respect to vein truncations and grade boundaries,
can typically rectify this misinterpretation.
Of the known porphyry deposits and prospects
in the Philippines, approximately three-quarters have
been emplaced within 4 km of the margin of a large
equigranularpluton (Sillitoe andGappe, 1984). Although
there is a close spatial relationship between batholiths and
porphyry stocks, it is less common for porphyry deposits
to have been emplaced within plutonic host rocks (e.g.,
Cadia Hill, NSW). In many cases (e.g., Northern Luzon),
there is a significant time break (> 10 Ma) between early
batholith emplacement and late porphyry intrusion, and
the spatial superposition of the intrusive suites is related
to the erosion that occurred during this time interval. It
may be those crystalline plutonic rocks and batholiths
provide effective barriers to later high-level intrusions,
which are therefore emplaced around the weaker (usually
fractured) margins of the phaneritic intrusions.
Deposit clusters
Copper—gold and copper-molybdenum deposits occur
in clusters in many porphyry provinces. Significant
examples include OyuTolgoi (Mongolia), Cadia (NSW),
Atlas (Philippines) and Chuquicamata (Chile). There are
many cases where two or more porphyry deposits are
situated within 3 km of each other, and may be derived
from the same deep-seated magma chamber. The outer
propylitic alteration halos of these groups of deposits
generally overlap.
The clustering phenomenon provides a simple
empirical exploration tool: explore around known
 Characteristics and genesis of porphyry copper—gold deposits

Figure 3 Examples of porphyry intrusion morphologies from the Endeavour 27 porphyry Cu-Au deposit, NSW. (A) View TOW across the
E27 open pit. A dyke of pink-coloured quartz monzonite porphyry has intruded black, biotite altered trachyandesites in the far wall of the
pit. This dyke emanates from a larger pipe, exposed in the pit floor (lower left hand side of the photo). The regolith profile at this deposit was
mined for supergene Cu—Au mineralisation. (B) Close-up view of dykes emanating from the larger quartz monzonite porphyry body in the
southwest corner of the deposit. Note the discontinuous dyke on the right hand side of the photo.

Figure 4 Examples of porphyritic intrusions associated wiih ( u—Au mum jlisaruin. M.igncrite occurs both as microphenocrysts and in the
groundmass of each of these magnetite-series intrusions. (A) Plagioclase—hornblende—quartz—phyric quartz diorite porphyry, Far South East,
Philippines. This is the typical texture and mineralogy of mineralising intrusions associated with medium-K calc-alkalic Cu-Au porphyries in
the Philippines. (B) Plagioclase-K-feldspar-augite-phyric quartz monzonite porphyry (QMP), Endeavour 27, NSW. This is the typical texture
and mineralogy of mineralising intrusions associated with alkalic Cu—Au porphyries in NSW. (C) Endeavour 26 alkalic Cu—Au porphyry
deposit, NSW. Xenolith of pre-mineral phaneritic biotite quartz monzonite within early mineral biotite—K-feldspar—plagioclase—phyric QMP
(modified after Lickfold et al., 2003). (D) Endeavour 22 alkalic Cu-Au porphyry deposit, NSW. Intrusive contact between syn-mineral,
weakly porphyritic K-feldspar—plagioclase—phyric Q M P (left) and late-mineral augite—biotite—K-feldspar—plagioclase—phyric QMP (right).
Timing relationships are provided by the truncated quartz veins, which only occur in the syn-mineral intrusion and have been cut by the late-
mineral intrusion (modified after Lickfold et al., 2003).

porphyry deposits thoroughly. The high grade Ridgeway
porphyry gold-copper deposit (78 Mt @ 2.0 g/t Au,
0.67 % Cu) was only discovered when Newcrest Mining
Limited drilled its 498th diamond hole into the Cadia
district. They had discovered three lower grade systems in
the same structural corridor prior to Ridgeway, showing
that persistence can pay handsome rewards.
There are isolated porphyry deposits in some provinces
(e.g., Panguna, PNG; Batu Hijau, Indonesia; Bingham
Canyon, Utah). It may be that exploring for deposit
clusters is only a valid technique in some porphyry
provinces, although the question of clustering should
always be addressed.

21
David R. Cooke, Alan J. Wilson and Andrew G. S. Davies
Magmatic-hydrothermal transition
The physics and chemistry of aqueous phase separation
and metal partitioning from a crystallising igneous melt
are poorly understood, and are at the frontier of current
research into porphyry deposits. We use observations of
subtle textural features combined with the application of
new microanalytical techniques to help understanding
the 'magmatic-hydrothermal transition'.
Unidirectional solidification textures (USTs) provide
textural evidence for aqueous phase separation from
a crystallising melt (Fig. 5A, B, C). These features are
also known as crenulate layers (Shannon et al., 1982),
comb quartz layers (Kirkham and Sinclair, 1988) and
comb-textured quartz (Lowenstern and Sinclair, 1996).
They are well known from porphyry molybdenum
systems, but are also becoming more widely recognised
in copper-gold porphyry deposits (e.g., Lickfold
et al., 2003; Wilson et al., 2003, Wilson et al., this
volume). Related features include composite magmatic-
hydrothermal features known as vein-dykes (Fig. 6D)
and polyphase quartz phenocrysts, which are interpreted
to represent myrolitic cavities through which fluids
migrated during crystallisation of the porphyry (Harris
et al., 2003a, accepted). Recognition of polycrystalline
quartz phenocrysts may be a useful field tool for helping
to discriminate potentially fertile and barren intrusions
(White, 2004).
Advances in microanalytical techniques now allow
for metal concentrations in melts and early-formed
hydrothermal fluids to be analysed from melt and fluid
inclusions. Extreme metal concentrations have been
detected in fluid inclusions (e.g., Audetat et al., 1998;
Heinrich et al., 1999; Ulrich et al., 1999; Harris et al,
2003b). Chemical mapping of the associated silicate-
melt inclusions reveals preferential partitioning of metals
into the aqueous phase, rather than into the residual
melts. The discovery of melt inclusions within quartz
veins (Harris et al., 2003b) and composite melt-fluid
inclusions (Davidson et al., submitted), indicate that
the interplay between melts and hydrothermal fluids in
porphyry systems can be intimate, and occurs from the
macro- to the micro-scale.
Altered rocks
The alteration footprint of porphyry deposits has
proven to be the most useful guide to exploration, due
to the enormous volume of rocks that are affected, and
the distinctive mineral assemblages that are produced.
K-feldspar, biotite and magnetite altered rocks (the
'potassic' or 'K-silicate' alteration assemblage) are
intimately associated with mineralisation in many
porphyry copper—gold systems, occurring within the
22
mineralising intrusion and in the immediately adjacent
wallrocks (proximal alteration). Porphyry deposits also
have peripheral halos of chlorite, epidote, calcite and
albite altered rocks ('propylitic' assemblage), which can
extend for kilometres laterally from the central intrusive
complex (distal alteration). Where carbonate rocks are
present, calc-silicate alteration may form together with
high grade skarn resources.
In many cases, the early-formed alteration assemblages
in porphyry deposits have been altered due to passage
of acidic waters and gases late in the evolution of the
deposit. These late-stage alteration assemblages include
muscovite-quartz-pyrite ('phyllic'), chlorite-illite—pyrite
('intermediate argillic'), kaolinite—illite—pyrite ('argillic')
and alunite—kaolinite—pyrophyllite—diaspore-pyrite
('advanced argillic' alteration assemblages). Uplift and
exhumation, surface topography and the stratigraphic and
structural architecture of the individual deposits control
the spatial distributions and overprinting relationships of
these late-stage assemblages.
Titley (1982) summarised the various styles of
hydrothermal alteration that occur in porphyry systems.
As its name suggests, pervasive alteration results in the
complete replacement of the precursor lithology by a
secondary mineral assemblage. In contrast, selectively
pervasive alteration only affects certain mineral phases
(e.g., hornblende phenocrysts) in a large volume of rock,
leaving the remaining constituents of the rock unaltered.
Vein-veinlet alteration refers to alteration assemblages
associated with vein mineralisation (this term is typically
applied to thin (1—3 cm) phyllic alteration halos around
discrete veins). Note that the classification of alteration
styles in porphyry systems is a function of the scale of
observations — all alteration types are fracture-related
when viewed at the appropriate scale.
When identifying alteration assemblages in the field,
it is best to describe them mineralogically (e.g., biotite-
magnetite alteration, muscovite—quartz—pyrite, etc.).
Then try to classify them in terms of the various well-
known alteration assemblages after careful petrographic
examination of overprinting relationships. The typical
hydrothermal alteration assemblages that occur in
porphyry copper-gold systems include:
• K-silicate (or potassic): K-feldspar, biotite, quartz,
magnetite, anhydrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite,
(actinolite, albite, hematite). This phase of high-
temperature K-metasomatism is generally associated
with ore formation, and is distinguished from
other alteration assemblages by the lack of H-ion
metasomatism. It is typically the earliest recognised
alteration event in most porphyry deposits, be they
of alkalic or calc-alkalic affinity (Fig. 6). Biotite is
the diagnostic hydrothermal mineral in mafic to
intermediate rocks, occurring as clots, chains, vein
 Characteristics and genesis of porphyry copper—gold deposits

Figure 5 Magmatic-hydrothermal transition features: unidirectional solidification textures (USTs) and vein dykes from alkalic porphyry Cu-
Au deposits of NSW. A) 1.2 m wide image of comb quartz layers in the roof zone of an intermineral quartz monzonite porphyry (QMP),
Ridgeway, NSW. Twelve comb quartz layers are intercalated with bands of QMP in this underground exposure (modified after Wilson et al.,
2003). B) Close up of one of the UST bands from (A), showing abundant chalcopyrite in the quartz layers, and large K-feldspar phenocrysts
in the QMP layers (modified after Wilson et al., 2003). C) Thin (5 to 20mm) layers of crenulated, coarse-grained prismatic comb quartz
intergrown with microcrystalline aplite porphyry layers in K-feldspar-phyric QMP at E26. Bornite occurs in both the aplite and quartz layers
(modified after Lickfold et al., 2003). D) Composite vein-dyke in calc-potassic altered QMP from Ridgeway. Banded quartz-magnetite vein
with central aplite dyke. These have been cut by later quartz-chalcopyrite veins and microfaults.

halos and as selective replacements of primary mafic
minerals (Fig. 6A, B). K-feldspar is the dominant
secondary mineral in felsic rocks, where it has altered
primary feldspars and the igneous groundmass (Fig.
6C). Where both biotite and K-feldspar alteration has
occurred, K-feldspar typically has overprinted early-
formed biotite (Fig. 6D). In some deposits, albite,
actinolite and/or magnetite form prior to biotite and
K-feldspar alteration. Sulfides (chalcopyrite, bornite,
pyrite, molybdenite) and gold occur primarily in
veins that have K-silicate alteration halos. Low grade
disseminations of sulfides also occur in the altered
rocks, but the bulk of the resource resides in the fracture
array. Gold commonly occurs as exsolution blebs in
chalcopyrite and/or bornite. Extensive development
of magnetite in biotite-altered zones, and a positive
magnetite — gold correlation in copper-gold porphyries
have important implications for exploration.
Propylitic: epidote, albite, chlorite, pyrite, actinolite
(calcite, illite, kaolinite). A weakly developed rock-
buffered assemblage that forms peripheral to the
potassic assemblage. Requires low C 0 0 contents in the
fluids to stabilise calc-silicate phases (e.g., epidote) in
place of carbonate minerals. It occurs within all other
alteration 'zones' in the porphyry environment, but also
forms the outermost alteration halo to the deposits,
extending up to several kilometres away from the main
mineralised centre. Epidote is the diagnostic mineral,
occurring as pseudomorphs after primary plagioclase,
and as chains, clots and fracture fill (Fig. 6E, F).
Detailed investigations of propylitic alteration at the
Tintic porphyry copper deposit, Utah (Norman et al.,
1991) and Palinpinon geothermal field, Philippines
(Rae et al., 2003) identified outermost chlorite, central
epidote and innermost actinolite propylitic subzones,
reflecting increasing temperatures inwards towards the
intrusive centre.
Intermediate argillic (or SCC): chlorite (smectite),
illite (muscovite), quartz, pyrite, (kaolinite, calcite,
hematite, rutile). This assemblage occurs in mafic to
intermediate volcanic rocks (Fig. 6B, G). Given the
association with andesitic rocks, this assemblage is
particularly common in island arc settings. It is present,
but poorly documented, in Eastern Pacific porphyry
deposits.
Phyllic: muscovite (illite), quartz, pyrite, (chlorite,
calcite, chalcopyrite). Based on overprinting and
crosscutting relationships, this distinctive phase of H-
ion metasomatism and K-metasomatism post-dates
the potassic and intermediate argillic assemblages (e.g.,
Fig. 6G) and is unrelated to ore deposition in many
systems. In others, it is associated with high-grade
ore (e.g., E48, NSW; Far South East, Philippines).
In most alkalic copper—gold porphyry deposits, well-
defined 'zones' of phyllic alteration are absent, with
this assemblage restricted to late-stage, through-going
faults and related fractures (Fig. 6H).
Argillic: illite (muscovite), kaolinite, pyrite, quartz,

23
David R. Cooke, Alan]. Wilson and Andrew G. S. Davies

Calc-alkalic porphyries Alkalic porphyries

Figure 6 Hydrotheimal alteiation in calc-alkalic and alkalic porphyry Cu—Au deposits (left and right columns, tespcctn elv) (A) Biotite
alteration: Thin envelope of biotite alteration associated with a banded quartz—magnetite—chalcopyrite vein in a propylitic-altered andesite.
Biotite and magnetite have selectively replaced hornblende phenocrysts. These are cut by a thin chlorite—anhydrite—quartz—chalcopyrite
vein with an intermediate argillic alteration halo (chlorite-illite). Ampucao, Philippines. (B) Biotite alteration: Secondary biotite-magnetite
clots have selectively replaced pre-mineral diorite, Didipio, Philippines. (C) K-feldspar alteration: Thin pink K-feldspar alteration halos
around quartz veinlets in dacite porphyry, Ampucao, Philippines. (D) K-feldspar alteiation: Magmatic-hydrothermal breccia. Clasts have
been pervasively biotite-altered (pre-brecciation), and clasts margins and fractures have been altered to red hematite-dusted K-feldspar after
fragmentation. Coarse-grained quartz, K-feldspar, biotite and chalcopyrite have cemented the breccia. Endeavour 27, North Parkes, NSW.
(E) Propylitic alteration: epidote occurs as veinlets, and also as pseudomorphs after plagioclase in andesite. Chlorite and albite occur as
groundmass alteration minerals, and also after hornblende and plagioclase phenocrysts, respectively. Far South East, Philippines. (F) Propylitic
alteration: This flow-banded plagioclase-phyric trachyte contains secondary chains and clots of epidote with red hematite-dusted albite halos.
Epidote has also selectively replaced individual plagioclase phenocrysts. North Parkes, NSW. (G) Phyllic alteration: Late-stage quartz—bornite
vein with thin, white phyllic (muscovite) alteration halo has cut intermediate argillic (chlorite—illite) altered quartz diorite porphyry and early-
formed wormy quartz—magnetite vein. Far South East, Philippines. (H) Phyllic alteration: Sheeted quartz—pyrite veins with quartz—muscovite
alteration halos have cut early quartz-cemented breccia in hematite-dusted aphyric trachyte, Endeavour 26, NSW. (I) Advanced argillic
and silicic alteration: Silicic alteration has produced residual quartz—rutile—pyrite alteration with secondary porosity where feldspar crystals
have been leached. The advanced argillic assemblage contains alunite and kaolinite pseudomorphs after feldspar. Lepanto-Far South East,
Philippines. (J) Calc-potassic alteration: Laminated quartz—magnetite vein stockwork in calc-potassic altered quartz monzonite porphyry from
Ridgeway, NSW. The calc-potassic assemblage here is defined by actinolite and hematite-dusted K-feldspar.

24
 Characteristics and genesis of porphyry copper—gold deposits

montmorillonite (smectite). Late stage H-ion
metasomatism that can occur spatially between the
phyllic and advanced argillic assemblages. Usually
poorly defined.
Advanced argillic: alunite, kaolinite/dickite, pyro-
phyllite, diaspore, quartz, pyrite. Intense, corrosive
late stage H-ion metasomatism that can overprint all
other alteration assemblages, destroy primary textures
and leach all components except for Si, Al, Fe and Ti
from the host rocks (Fig. 61). This assemblage typically
forms in the upper parts of porphyry systems, and
therefore has a poorer preservation potential in ancient
deposits. High sulfidation epithermal gold—copper
mineralisation may occur within this environment.
Calc-silicate: garnet, diopside, wollastonite,
chlorite, anhydrite, pyrite, magnetite, quartz, calcite,
siderite, etc. This complex assemblage can form
when carbonate rocks undergo metasomatism in the
porphyry environment, and is the host for copper-
gold (proximal) and zinc—lead-silver (distal) skarn
mineralisation.
Alkalic porphyry deposits have only undergone
minimal H-ion metasomatism, in contrast to their calc-
alkalic counterparts. Instead, they contain unusually
high concentrations of secondary calcium-bearing phases
such as actinolite, epidote, pyroxene, calcite and garnet,
together with albite. These minerals are combined in
several subtle alteration assemblages, including 'calc-
potassic' (Fig. 6J), 'calc-sodic' and 'sodic' (Lang et al.,
1995). They are essentially hybrids of the classic potassic
and propylitic assemblages.
Veins
Porphyry deposits are characterised by multiple
crosscutting generations of vein mineralisation (Fig. 7).
The mythology of porphyry deposits is that mineralisation
occurs in a random array of veins, known as a stockwork.
The reality is that the stockwork is typically defined by
two or three preferred vein orientations, with conjugate
(e.g., Fig 7A, C) or orthogonal relationships (e.g., Fig.
7B; Tosdal, this volume). Sheeted vein arrays also occur
(e.g., Fig. 7D).

Figure 7 Examples of vein arrays in alkalic porphyry Cu—Au deposits. (A) Orthogonal quartz-calcite-bornite stockwork with thin orthoclase
alteration halos in biotite-altered trachyandesite, Endeavour 27, North Parkes, NSW. (B) Sub-horizontal and sub-vertical quartz-bornite veins
in orthoclase-altered aphyric trachyte, Endeavour 26, North Parkes, NSW. (C) Orthogonal laminated quartz—magnetite vein stockwork at
Ridgeway, NSW. A late-stage epidote-calcite-quartz-chalcopyrite-gold vein has cut the earlier-formed veins, but is sub-parallel to one of the
older vein sets. (D) Sheeted quartz—bornite veins in propylitic-altered quartz monzonite porphyry, Cadia Hill, NSW.

25
David R. Cooke, Alan]. Wilson and Andrew G. S. Davies
Anaconda devised a scheme of vein classification from
their investigations of the El Salvador deposit (Gustafson
and Hunt, 1975). Their scheme can be applied to
most porphyry deposits, and can help to understand
the temporal and thermal evolution of the system. A
modified version of Gustafson and Hunt's (1975) vein
classification scheme is as follows:
• 'M' veins: In diorite- and (less commonly) monzonite-
hosted copper-gold porphyries, biotite alteration is
the first alteration assemblage to form. Although not
described by Gustafson and Hunt (1975), minor M-
veins can form in association with biotite alteration.
M-veins consist almost entirely of magnetite and
relate to an initial, high temperature phase of Fe-K-
metasomatism, and are part of the early Fe-enrichment
that occurs in mafic porphyry systems. They were first
recognised by Arancibia and Clark, (1996) at Island
Copper, British Columbia. M-veins can comprise
discontinuous 'chains' or 'beads' of magnetite ±
biotite, anhydrite and copper-sulfides, or irregular
veinlets similar in texture to A-veins (described
below). Isolated clots of magnetite + biotite can also
be recognised. These clots are probably connected by
hairline M-veinlets.
• A'veins: Inmorefelsicsystem,A-veinsaregenerallythe
first veins to form. They are characterised by granular,
anhedral mineral textures, and are associated with K-
metasomatism (H-ion metasomatism is absent). At El
Salvador copper-molybdenum porphyry deposit, A-
veins are characterised by quartz, perthitic feldspars,
anhydrite and minor biotite, magnetite, chalcopyrite
and bornite. On the fringe of the deposit, pyrite is also
present in A-veins. Within the porphyritic intrusion,
the earliest A-veins are irregular, discontinuous and
segmented, whereas later A-veins tend to be more
continuous and have parallel walls; some also contain
internal symmetry. This evolution in vein texture
probably relates to a transition from vein formation in
a crystal mush (early stage) to formation in a coherent,
solidified magma (late stage A-veins).
• 'B' veins: The second vein type is characterised by
continuous, planar structures with parallel walls,
some form of internal banding and in some cases
minor vuggy textures. The presence of a centre-line
of anhydrite, magnetite and/or sulfides is common.
B-veins are associated with K-metasomatism; there
is still no H-ion metasomatism at this stage. At El
Salvador, B-veins contain coarse grained quartz,
anhydrite and tourmaline, and minor chalcopyrite,
pyrite, molybdenite and rare bornite. The change from
A to B-veins can be inferred to occur as temperatures
decrease from near-magmatic to hydro thermal. The
transition from ductile to brittle conditions favours
the formation of more planar, through-going veins. It
26
is possible to identify veins with characteristics of both
B and late stage A-veins; these are typically termed
"AB-veins".
• 'C veins: Although not described by Gustafson
and Hunt (1975), C-veins were defined by Dillies
and Einaudi (1992) at the Ann-Mason copper-gold
porphyry deposit in Nevada. These veins crosscut A
and B veins, and pre-date D-veins. At Ann-Mason,
C veins consist of varying proportions of quartz,
epidote, chlorite, chalcopyrite, pyrite or bornite. C-
veins are intimately associated with most of the copper
mineralisation in the biotite alteration zone at Ann-
Mason, with copper-sulfides occurring within and
adjacent to the C-veins. Because C-veins have thin
alteration envelopes where biotite has been altered
to chlorite, this vein stage probably represents the
transition from K- to H-ion metasomatism. Copper
may have originated via leaching and remobilisation
from earlier-formed vein and alteration assemblages,
or due to late stage metal release from the intrusive
complex.
• 'D' veins: These late-stage veins crosscut A and B-
veins, and generally occur as an array of continuous,
systematically oriented fractures. Euhedral grain
textures and open space fill textures (symmetrical
banding, comb textures, vugs, etc.) are most commonly
developed in D-veins. H-ion metasomatism is
characteristic, with phyllic or intermediate argillic
alteration halos common. At El Salvador, D-veins
define an imperfect radial pattern and contain
abundant quartz, muscovite and pyrite, with lesser
chalcopyrite, bornite, enargite, tennantite, sphalerite
and galena. By the time D-veins form, the porphyry
system has evolved to lower temperatures (=300°C)
and brittle fractures predominate. The presence of
copper in D veins may relate to late-stage addition of
copper, or remobilisation from pre-existing sulfides.
Breccias
Distinctive breccia types occur in porphyry deposits
(Fig. 8A). Some of them can be strongly mineralised.
Others are unmineralised, but can provide a useful guide
to exploration. Interpreting the origins and significance
of breccias requires systematic observations regarding
their compositions and morphologies (Davies et al.,
2000). Only after this information has been collected can
genetic classification schemes be applied.
Sillitoe (1985) provided the definitive work on the
types and origins of porphyry-related breccias, but some
confusion remains over terminology. Much of this stems
from sloppy or inadequate descriptions of the two types
of binding medium (cement and matrix). Igneous-
cemented breccias are a simple product of magma
 Characteristics and genesis of porphyry copper—gold deposits

Figure 8 (A) Breccias in porphyry-related environments. Early-formed magmatic hydrothermal breccias form due to catastrophic failure of a
crystallising intrusion and the overlying rock mass. These breccias can be mineralised by the subsequent passage of magmatic-hydrothermal
fluids. In contrast, late-stage intrusion into an existing magmatic-hydrothermal system may trigger a phreatomagmatic eruption, resulting
\ in a maar-diatreme complex characterised by weakly mineralised to barren rock flour matrix breccias. Late stage tectonism can also produce
fault breccias, which typically truncate grade. Diagram modified after Davies, unpublished data. (B) Igneous-cemented breccia, with clasts
of andesite contained within a crystalline quartz monzonite porphyry matrix and cut by quartz-calcite-bornite veins with K-feldspar halos.
Many workers erroneously call this type of breccia an igneous matrix breccia, despite the binding medium being a chemical precipitate (in this
case, monzonite). E31 alkalic porphyry Cu-Au prospect, North Parkes, NSW. (C) Chalcopyrite-cemented magmatic hydrothermal breccia.
This raonomictic breccia originally consisted of shattered, K-feldspar-altered monzonite porphyry and secondary pore space. It was then
cemented by copper sulfides when magmatic-hydrothermal fluids permeated the void spaces. Mt Polley alkalic Cu—Au porphyry deposit,
British Columbia. (D) Polymictic rock flour matrix (diatreme) breccia, Acupan gold mine, Philippines. Clasts have muscovite-chlorite
altered margins, and weakly altered cores, indicating that hydrothermal fluids permeated the unit after brecciation, even though the breccia is
essentially unmineralised. This breccia occurs within an epithermal gold deposit, but contains clasts of porphyry Cu—Au-style mineralisation.
E) Quartz-chalcopyrite stockwork in calc-potassic altered quartz monzonite porphyry. A late stage fault breccia has disrupted the stockwork,
producing a polymictic breccia that contains clasts of altered monzonite, vein quartz and sulfides set in an altered rock flour matrix.
Chalcopyrite has been smeared along the margins of the fault breccia, defining a weak foliation indicative of a tectonic origin. Ridgeway
alkalic porphyry Au—Cu deposit, NSW.

27
David R. Cooke, Alan ]. Wilson and Andrew G. S. Davies
emplacement (Fig. 8B). They contain clasts (xenoliths)
of wallrocks within a crystalline igneous binding
medium (e.g., monzonite). In contrast, magmatic-
hydrothermal breccias form due to catastrophic brittle
failure of a partly crystallised intrusion and the overlying
rock column, and can be intimately associated with ore
(e.g., Fig. 8C; Sillitoe, 1985; Waarnaars et al., 1985).
The binding medium in these breccias typically includes
varying proportions of hydrothermal cement that has
infilled void space (e.g., chalcopyrite, tourmaline, and
quartz). Evidence for a magmatic-hydrothermal origin
is provided by primary fluid inclusions preserved in the
breccia cement. Biotite-altered rock flour may also be
present. When it is abundant, inappropriate terms such
as 'igneous matrix breccia' or 'magmatic breccia may
have been applied (e.g., Serrano et al., 1996). In such
cases, simple descriptive names such as 'biotite breccia'
are preferable, as they do not have inappropriate genetic
connotations.
Emplacement of magma into active hydrothermal
systems can trigger phreatomagmatic and phreatic
explosions, resulting in the formation of diatreme,
large breccia pipes that have a rock flour matrix (Fig.
8A, D). Diatremes typically post-date the main stage
of porphyry ore formation, and dilute or truncate ore
(Sillitoe, 1985). Surface manifestations comprise maars
and tuff-rings. In older terrains, these surficial deposits
may be completely eroded, but large blocks derived from
them may have slumped down into the breccia pipe,
providing evidence that the breccia pipe breached the
palaeosurface. Diatremes are nature's drillholes. Careful
examination of mineralised and altered clasts in diatremes
can reveal the presence of porphyry-style mineralisation
at some depth beneath the current level of exposure.
Although diatremes are typically weakly mineralised to
barren in porphyry systems, they may be overprinted by
high grade epithermal mineralisation (e.g., Yanacocha,
Peru; Acupan, Philippines). They typically have a much
greater surface area than the mineralising intrusions, and
therefore provide a useful exploration vector to porphyry
and epithermal-style mineralisation, particularly in the
wet tropical climates of the western Pacific.
Tectonic activity can produce late-stage fault breccias
(Fig. 8E). These breccias may act as local aquitards that
inhibit fluid flow, whereas others may be aquifers that
promote fluid flow and allow for extensive hydrothermal
alteration. They may also partition strain heterogeneously,
so that certain domains within the breccia may prove to
have been more susceptible to post-breccia deformation,
fluid flow and mineralisation. Fault breccias usually
disrupt or truncate grade in porphyry deposits, but may
be related to overprinting epithermal-style mineralisation
(e.g., Wilson et al., this volume).
28
Porphyry ore genesis
Two end-member models have been proposed for
porphyry deposits (e.g., McMillan and Pantaleyev, 1980),
In the orthomagmatic model, the porphyritic intrusion
provides the heat, fluids and metals to form the on
deposit, i.e., purely magmatic-hydrothermal processes
were responsible for the primary distribution of tht
metals. The convective model argues that the intrusion
is a heat source that drives widespread convection of
external fluids (meteoric, connate, etc.), with metal:
leached from the country rocks and deposited in the
main upflow zone within and immediately adjacent tt
and above the intrusion. The orthomagmatic model i:
currently flavour of the month, although geochemica
evidence for the involvement of external fluids at some
point in the evolution of the deposit can be found in
many deposits, indicating that reality lies somewhere in
between the two scenarios.
Porphyry deposit formation requires three phases:
(1) generation of a fertile magma and ascent of tha
melt to the upper crust; (2) volatile exsolution from
shallow-crustal porphyritic intrusion; (3) sulfide and gold
deposition and associated hydrothermal alteration.
Stage 1 - Fertile Magma Production
Magmatic arcs can be the focus for subduction-related
magmatism for periods of tens of millions of years
However, porphyry deposits in any given province will
generally form in a considerably smaller time period (1-
5 Ma). This observation demonstrates that the magmas
responsible for the formation of porphyry deposits are
not typical products of arc magmatism. Some special
tectonic event must be required to generate them (e.g.
collisional or oblique convergence events, change in tht
angle of subduction, etc.). Richards (2003) provides,
comprehensive review of the magmatic phenomena tha;
can generate fertile melts above subduction zones.
During partial melting and ascent of a fertile magma
the upper crust (Fig. 9A), if sulfides crystallise early, or the
melt becomes saturated with reduced sulfur, chalcophile
elements such as copper and gold will be sequestered b\
the sulphides, and be unable to contribute further tt
magmatic-hydrothermal processes. A high oxidation stats
of the magma is advantageous as this increases sulphur
solubility and limits sulfide crystallisation. Consequently
porphyry copper—gold deposits tend to be associated with
the most oxidised magnetite series granitoids. Coppa
and gold solubilities in the melt are high when sulfur
is transported as SO 2 rather than H 2 S. The abundance
of anhydrite is some porphyry systems reflect abundant
SO,.

Figure 9 - Schematic cross-section of a translithospheric shear zone,
modified from Richards (2003). A) Migmatitic zone in the lower
crust. The metatexite zones are where the region contains partial
melt at volumes lower than the critical melt fraction, so that melts
migrate by percolation to regions of lower pressure. Horizontal
compression will cause the accumulation of melt in horizontal
sills. Extensional shear bands can form due to localised shear
strain, and melt will be drawn into these zones, rising as buoyant
plugs or diapirs. These may coalesce into through-going dykes,
providing a conduit for the transfer of melt from the base of the
crust to the upper crust. B) Magma migrates up dykes to its neutral
buoyancy level. If the dykes connect to the surface, volcanism may
occur (shown here as a red-coloured dacite dome). Alternatively,
magmas may accumulate within an upper crustal magma chamber,
particularly under a compressional tectonic regime, which suppresses
volcanism and promotes uplift through basin inversion. Volatile
exsolution during fractional crystallisation can cause bubbles of
volatiles to coalesce on the walls of the crystallising magma chamber.
Once connectivity is achieved, volatiles will migrant buoyantly to
the apices of the magma chamber, where porphyry copper deposits
(PCD) may form. Note: Richards' (2003) original model involves
arc-parallel strike-slip faults, with magmatism localised within strike-
slip pull-apart basins, in contrast to the inverted basin model and
arc-transverse faults shown here.
29
Characteristics and genesis of porphyry copper—gold deposits
Stage 2 - Volatile Exsolution
At the site of ore deposition, a key aspect of porphyry
copper genesis is the release of magmatic-hydrothermal
volatiles from a crystallising porphyritic intrusion (the
magmatic-hydrothermal transition). Candela (1991)
speculated that when magmas exsolve an aqueous
phase, they might form a 'foam' or 'froth' between the
solidified carapace and the central crystal mush. Volatiles
are concentrated in this zone as bubbles, and if bubble
density is high enough to provide connectivity, volatiles
will buoyantly ascend up the walls of the solidifying
stock, accumulating in the apex of the intrusion
(Fig. 9B). Accumulation of fluids beneath the carapace of
the inwardly-crystallising stock leads to carapace failure,
second boiling and mineralised stockwork formation
when hydrostatic pressures exceed lithostatic pressure plus
the tensile strength of the crystallised carapace (Burnham,
1979; Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980; Burnham, 1985).
The fracture event may initially lead to increased
volatile exsolution from the melt, however fractures will
subsequently be sealed due to mineral deposition and/or
lithostatic compression. Pressure cycling can then result
in multiple fracture events, producing the classic vein
crosscutting relationships observed in porphyry systems.
The earliest vein stages in porphyry deposits are
intimately related to the formation of K-silicate (K-
feldspar and/or biotite) alteration assemblages. These
veins generally contain a diagnostic primary fluid
inclusion population of coexisting hypersaline brines
(up to 10 or more daughter minerals) and low density
vapour. Estimated temperatures of formation range
from 350° to in excess of 700°C, and salinities can be
extremely high, locally exceeding 70 eq. wt. % NaCl.
Bodnar et al. (1985) found that during shallow crustal
emplacement of a hydrous felsic magma, either a
single-phase supercritical fluid of moderate salinity or a
dense hydrous salt melt plus a low-salinity vapour may
exsolve from the water-rich silicate melt, depending on
temperature, pressure and dissolved Cl/H. Alternately,
a low-salinity magmatic vapour plume released from
the crystallising porphyry may condense out small
proportions of hypersaline liquid (Henley and McNabb,
1978). Two of these three cases can give rise to the early
fluid inclusion populations recognised in most porphyry
deposits. Evidence for the third scenario (exsolution of an
early single-phase supercritical fluid) has been noted in
several deep-level porphyry copper—gold—molybdenum
systems as a precursor to the main stage of ore deposition
(e.g., Nevados del Famatina, Argentina; Losada-Calderon
and Bloom, 1990; Bingham, Redmond et al., 2004).
David R. Cooke, AlanJ. Wilson and Andrew G. S. Davies
Stage 3 - Ore formation and hydrothermal alteration
Ore deposition is poorly understood in porphyry
copper—gold deposits. It is remarkable that for such a
well-studied class of hydrothermal ore deposit, such a
fundamental question remains to be resolved adequately.
Most workers propose models of ore formation based
on fluid cooling (e.g., Redmond et al., 2004). While
cooling is certainly capable of causing sulfide deposition,
extreme temperature gradients are required for this
process to generate ore grades. Such conditions are only
achieved where fluids mix at the Earth's surface, or in
the subsurface. Conductive cooling is sluggish, requires
intimate fluid—rock contacts, and occurs gradually over
large distances (Drummond and Ohmoto, 1985). None
of these favour high grade ore formation, but are capable
potentially of producing weak geochemical anomalies.
Porphyry deposits are huge accumulations of
sulfur, with copper sulfides the dominant ore minerals.
Metal transport in the magma is favoured by oxidising
conditions, with sulfur transported primarily as SO 2 ,
to prevent formation of immiscible sulfide droplets and
sequestration of copper-gold ores in the mantle. Ore
formation therefore requires either (a) a sulfate reduction
mechanism at the trap site (e.g., fluid mixing or water-
rock interaction), (b) a supply of external H2S that the
copper—gold-bearing fluids interact with, or (c) a huge
excess of sulfur flushing through the system, with much
of the oxidised sulfur failing to precipitate at the trap site,
and sulfides scavenging the smaller proportion of reduced
sulfur from the mineralising fluids. Sulfur isotope studies
typically indicate that the hydrothermal fluids forming
porphyry deposits are reducing (H 2 S-predominant). This
means that option (c) is unlikely, and options (a) and (b)
require more detailed investigation.
In contrast to ore-formation, the processes of
hydrothermal alteration are well understood. K-silicate
and propylitic alteration assemblages form early, under
lithostatic loads. The transition from K-silicate to
propylitic alteration relates to increased water-rock
interaction and wallrock buffering out from the centre of
the hydrothermal system. O—D isotopic signatures from
phyllic alteration assemblages confirm that both the early-
and late-stage fluids are dominated by magmatic fluids
in many porphyry deposits (e.g., Kusakabe et al., 1994;
Wolfe et al., 1996, Harris and Golding, 2002; Wilson et
al., this volume). Transitions to late stage acid alteration
(phyllic and advanced argillic assemblages) therefore
appear to correlate with a progression from lithostatic to
hydrostatic load (e.g., Fournier, 1999), rather than to the
late-stage ingress of meteoric water (e.g., Taylor, 1974).
It seems that the importance of late-stage waters
vary from deposit to deposit, but overall, their role is to
complicate the original ore shells by locally redistributing
30
metals (limited copper redistribution, but potentially
major gold redistribution), and by forming complex
zones of overprinting hydrogen-ion metasomatism. These
processes commence when the thermal anomaly around
the crystallising porphyritic stock collapses, allowing
brittle failure of what were quasi-ductile rocks during the
earliest alteration stage. Such processes mark the end of
porphyry ore formation, but may be the beginning of
peripheral deposit formation (especially epithermal and
carbonate-hosted gold deposits).
Exploration criteria
The morphology and composition of a porphyry
deposit, and its geochemical and geophysical responses,
will be dictated by the composition of the host rocks
(e.g., siliciclastic, volcaniclastic, carbonate, plutonic or
metamorphic rocks), the depth of erosion (shallow versus
deep), the composition of the mineralising intrusion
(alkalic versus calc-alkalic), the structural architecture
and fault movement history (e.g., Thompson, 1995). The
following generalisations regarding porphyry exploration
need to be tempered by the knowledge that exploration
for porphyry systems should be designed to suit the local
environment.
• Explore near known systems: From a regional
perspective, areas of known porphyry mineralisation
are the most prospective for further discoveries. The
local environment is known to be favourable for the
development of porphyry systems, and the level of
erosion is appropriate for exposure of the deposit at
or near surface. The tendency of porphyry deposits to
cluster increases the exploration potential for a radius
of several kilometres around a known deposit.
• Regional-scale structures: Arc-transverse lineaments
and arc-parallel fault systems are known to have localised
porphyry systems in both island and continental arc
settings (e.g., PNG, Australia, Chile). Recognition
of the controlling structures at both the regional and
district-scale is vital to exploration success (e.g., Cadia;
Wilson et al., this volume).
• Geophysical signatures: Detailed aeromagnetics can
be used to help delineate the regional geology, and to
detect magnetic lows related to magnetite-destructive
alteration (phyllic, intermediate argillic, etc.), or (in
rare cases) bullseye and annular magnetic highs related
to the magnetite-bearing, biotite altered core zone,
Radiometrics may also prove useful in delineating
K-silicate alteration. The spatial association of mid-
crustal batholiths and porphyritic stocks means that
many porphyry copper-gold deposits occur adjacent
to or within large gravity lows. IP chargeability highs
and resistivity lows may be associated with porphyry-
style mineralisation and alteration, although they do

not necessarily provide a direct vector to ore. IP is less
effective in areas that contain conductive overburden
(e.g., North Parkes). Alkalic porphyry deposits tend to
have lower total sulfide contents and poorly developed
phyllic alteration zones, making them less amenable
to discovery by IP techniques than their calc-alkalic
counterparts.
Geochemical signatures: Drainage geochemistry
(stream sediments, pan concentration and BLEG)
and concomitant float mapping is the most effective
method for detecting porphyry copper—gold systems
in wet tropical climates (e.g., Batu Hijau; Maula and
Levet, 1996). Allen et al. (1995) used the trace element
chemistry of alluvial gold (particularly Pt, Pd, Cu and
Ag) to rank potential porphyry sources in Irian Jaya.
Soil sampling is still a common and effective tool in
porphyry exploration, although in suitable areas (e.g.,
North Parkes), bedrock sampling by RAB or aircore
drilling may prove more effective, because it avoids
the enrichment / depletion effects of soil profiles, and
the dilution or masking effects of transported material.
Rock chip sampling is still a highly effective exploration
technique in under-explored porphyry terrains (e.g.,
Mongolia, Iran, Argentina). Float mapping can still
prove highly effective in wet, steeply dissected terrains
(e.g., Philippines). Recent landslips can generate
mineralised boulder trails and geochemical dispersion
halos in regions that had previously been explored
without success, so it is worth traversing previously
explored ground, particularly after typhoons and large
earthquakes.
• Intrusive geochemistry: Kay et al. (1999) have shown
that the mineralising intrusions associated with
porphyry and epithermal mineralisation in Central
Chile have high La/Yb ratios, caused by partial melting
of thick continental crust. Consequently, geochemical
signatures of unaltered intrusions temporally
associated with porphyry mineralisation may be used
in conjunction with detailed geochronology as a
fertility index when assessing the porphyry potential
of magmatic arcs.
• Alteration mapping: The alteration zoning model of
Lowell and Guilbert (1970) has proven to be a highly
effective exploration tool, although a rigid adherence
to it has probably also led to the failure to recognise
porphyry systems that depart from the 'classic' zonation
pattern. In deeply eroded terrains, the challenge
for explorationists lies within the propylitic-altered
rocks, where they need to (a) recognise that minor
chlorite ± epidote may be the footprint of a nearby
porphyry deposit, and (b) determine the direction
towards the source of such alteration. In high-level
environments, identifying porphyry centres beneath
zones of widespread silicification and advanced
31
Characteristics and genesis of porphyry copper—gold deposits
argillic alteration assemblages remains one of the
great exploration challenges. Airborne hyperspectral
mapping is likely to revolutionise exploration in these
settings, provided that vegetation cover is sparse.
PIMA, XRD and similar technologies are already used
widely to help identify and map high temperature clay
phases (eg. dickite, some smectites, pyrophyllite) and
alunite in the lithocap environment.
• Breccias: Understanding the significance and origins
of breccias is a critical but often overlooked step in the
evaluation of porphyry copper districts. High quality
geological mapping remains an essential component
of exploration programs both at the district and
prospect scales, due to complex overprinting and
timing relationships. Diatremes can provide a wealth
of information about the underlying rock units, and
can contain clasts of porphyry-style mineralisation,
which should help to focus and encourage exploration
programs.
• Drilling: There is no avoiding it. Ultimately the
'truth-tester' must be applied in order to discover any
porphyry deposit. The dimensions of the alteration
system can be estimated by comparisons with similar
deposits elsewhere in a given province. Grid-drilling
at an appropriately broad scale should be sufficient
for intersecting hydrothermal alteration associated
with the porphyry system. The discovery of the
Spence copper-molybdenum porphyry deposit in
Northern Chile demonstrates that this approach
can be successful. The key element is to ensure that
a geologist who recognises the significance of subtle,
peripheral alteration features logs the core.
References
Allen, J.M., Artmont, G.J., and Palmer, K., 1995, Application
of alluvial gold mineralogy to exploration of the
Central Ranges, Irian Jaya, Indonesia, in Mauk, J.L.,
and George, J.D. St., eds., PACRIM Congress 1995
- Exploring the Pacific: Australian Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, Melbourne, 9/95, p. 7-12.
Arancibia, O.N., and Clark, A.H., 1996, Early magnetite-
amphibole-plagioclase alteration-mineralisation in the
Island Copper porphyry copper-gold-molybdenum
deposit, British Columbia: Economic Geology, v.91, p.
402-438.
Audetat, A., Giinther, D. and Heinrich, C.A., 1998: Formation
of a magmatic-hydrothermal ore deposit: insights with
LA-ICP-MS analysis of fluid inclusions. Science 279,
2091-279
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 The Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold porphyry deposits,
South Gobi, Mongolia
IVANHOE MINES OYU TOLGOI GEOLOGICAL TEAM*
Introduction
The Oyu Tolgoi copper-gold porphyry deposits are
located approximately 570 km south of the capital city
of Ulaanbaatar and 80 km north of the border with
China. Mineralisation has been identified within an area
of 5-5 km north-south by 3 km east-west, in which four
principal mineral deposits have been delineated, known
as the Central Oyu, South Oyu, Southwest Oyu and the
Hugo Dummett deposits.
Exploration History
Old diggings and small amounts of slag found in the area
indicate that the Oyu Tolgoi area was subject to small
scale mining activity in ancient times. However, modern
mineral exploration did not begin in earnest in the area
until 1996, when the Magma Copper Company Ltd.
began a reconnaissance program which examined copper
occurrences in various parts of Mongolia. In 1996, after
BHP Exploration acquired Magma Copper Company
Ltd., BHP Exploration continued the reconnaissance
program in eastern and southern Mongolia.
BHP Exploration first visited the Oyu Tolgoi Project
in September 1996 as part of its regional reconnaissance
program of the south Gobi region. BHP Exploration
subsequently applied for, and was granted, an exploration
concession covering 1350 km2. After geological mapping,
stream and soil sediment surveys and magnetic and IP
surveys, BHP Exploration completed six diamond core
holes totaling 1102 m during the 1997 field season. With
encouraging results from two of the holes, a second phase
of drilling was undertaken in 1998, consisting of an
* Presented by Doug Kirwin for the Ivanhoe Mines Oyu Togloi geological
team.
35
additional 17 widely-spaced core holes totaling 2800 m.
These holes failed to return significant mineralisation
and BHP Exploration suspended the project pending
economic review. In 1999, following a review of past
results, additional drilling and continued exploration on
the property was planned but never carried out. BHP
Exploration offered the properties for joint venture.
Ivanhoe Mines Ltd., originally acquired its interest in
the property from BHP Exploration in May 2000 pursuant
to the Earn-in Agreement. Shortly thereafter, IVN carried
out a RC drill program to delineate a chalcocite blanket
intersected by one of BHP Exploration's diamond drill
holes. This program consisted of 109 RC holes totaling
8828 m. The holes were targeted to define supergene
copper mineralisation that might be amenable to a heap
leaching SX-EW process similar to the Monywa Copper
Project. While the results further defined parameters of
a chalcocite blanket at Central Oyu, IVN reviewed the
results and decided that the chalcocite blanket was neither
large enough nor high grade enough to be economic as a
stand-alone deposit.
In 2001, IVN continued the RC drilling program
to expand the chalcocite blanket and locate additional
supergene resources. IVN also completed three diamond
drill holes to test deep hypogene copper and gold
potential. One of these holes, O T D 150, intersected 508
m of chalcopyrite-rich mineralisation grading 0.81%
copper and 1.17 g/t gold, while another hole, OTD
159, intersected a 49 m-thick chalcocite blanket grading
1.17% copper and 0.21 g/t gold and 252 m of hypogene
covellite mineralisation grading 0.61% copper and 0.11
g/t gold.
The diamond drill holes were sufficiently encouraging
for IVN to conduct a major follow-up drill program that
resulted in the delineation of the Southwest Oyu deposit.
In late 2002, drilling in the far northern section of the
property intersected 638 m of bornite—chalcopyrite-rich
Ivanhoe Mines Oyu Tolgoi Geological Team
mineralisation grading 1.61% copper and 0.07 g/t gold
starting at a depth of 222 m. This marked the discovery
of the Hugo Dummett deposit.
Ivanhoe Mines Ltd., completed the earn-in
requirements under the Earn-in Agreement with BHP
Exploration by the first quarter of 2002. After certain
back-in rights held by BHP Exploration expired, BHP
Exploration transferred title to IVN in the summer
of 2002. Pursuant to the Earn-in Agreement, BHP
Exploration retained a 2% net smelter returns royalty on
production from the Oyu Tolgoi Project. IVN acquired
this royalty from BHP Exploration in November 2003
in consideration for the payment to BHP Exploration of
$37,000,000.
Geological Setting
The Oyu Tolgoi exploration block is located in the
Lower to Mid Palaeozoic Gurvansaihan Terrane,
which comprises island arc volcanic and volcaniclastic
assemblages intruded by Late Devonian-Carboniferous
granitoids. Major tectonic features include the East
Mongolian Fault zone, which bounds the eastern side
of this terrane, and the 35 km diameter Hanbogd Na-
alkalic granite complex (Lower Permain), located to the
east of the Oyu Tolgoi exploration block. Regional scale
structures trending N70E which converge to the East
Mongolian Fault zone transect the Hanbogd complex
and the Oyu Tolgoi exploration block. The age of the
mineralisation has been dated as Late Devonian.
In general, outcrops are sparse and constitute less
than 20% of the area. A Neogene piedmont outwash
deposit forms a flat terrace dipping gently to the south
and occupies a north-northwest-trending zone in the
center of the exploration block. This unit comprises red
clay and gravel and is up to 40 m thick. Two major south-
southeast drainages incise this terrace and are filled by
Quaternary sands and gravels. A wide variety of felsic
to mafic dykes are found throughout the exploration
block and in drill holes. Post mineral dykes comprise
basalt, rhyolite, hornblende—biotite andesite, and biotite
granodiorite intrusive units. The property also contains
variably altered and mineralised porphyritic quartz
monzodiorite dykes that are genetically related to the
copper-gold porphyry systems.
Satellite imagery and geophysical interpretations
indicate that there are two major northeast trending
structures on the property. In addition, recent work in
the sedimentary covered northern part of the property
near the Hugo Dummett deposit has confirmed the
occurrence of folded stratigraphy.
36
Southwest Oyu
The geology and mineralisation of the Southwest Oyu
zone is characterised by a gold-rich porphyry system, with
a high-grade core about 250 m in diameter and extending
to depths greater than 900 m vertically. The deposit is
centred on small quartz monzodiorite stocks intruded
into massive biotite and magnetite altered porphyritic
augite basalt which hosts 80% of the copper and gold in
the deposit. The high grade core is enclosed by a large,
low-grade ore shell approximately 600 m by 1,200 m in
area. The system is low in total sulfides and the copper
and gold mineralisation is related to chalcopyrite.
Mineralisation at Southwest Oyu consists mainly
of finely disseminated pyrite-chalcopyrite with minor
bornite and massive chalcopyrite veins cross-cutting and
impregnating earlier deformed quartz vein stockworks
and the basalt-quartz monzodiorite host rocks. The
mineralisation is related to a late stage sericite and
sencite-biotite-albite overprint, which affects the quartz
monzodiorite intrusions and basaltic wall rocks. Gold to
copper ratios vary between 0.5:1 and 1:1 in the outer
margin of the deposits increasing to approximately 2:1
into the high grade gold core, with the highest ratios up
to 3:1 in the deeper parts of the deposit.
South Oyu
South Oyu is a copper porphyry deposit, developed
mainly in basaltic hostrocks. The South Oyu deposit
is characterised by secondary biotite, magnetite and
moderate intensity quartz veining, with a strong sericite,
chlorite-smectite overprint. Unlike Southwest Oyu,
the South Oyu system is not gold-rich. The deposit is
intruded by sericite altered quartz monzodiorite dykes,
with weak to locally strong copper mineralisation, and
by small post-mineral andesite, rhyolite and basalt dykes,
that may locally occupy up to 50% of the rock volume.
Copper mineralisation at South Oyu consists of finely
disseminated pyrite-chalcopyrite and bornite.
Central Oyu
Central Oyu includes high-sulfidation copper
mineralisation consisting of hypogene covellite, chalcocite
and minor enargite, copper-gold porphyry mineralisation
consisting primarily of chalcopyrite, and a chalcocite
enrichment blanket. The high-sulfidation mineralisation
and advanced argillic alteration are telescoped onto
an underlying and peripheral porphyry system. The
chalcocite blanket appears to overlie the covellite-ricri
quartz-veined zones in pyrite-rich quartz monzodiorite,
The quartz-veined zones are also strongly covellite
mineralised. Supergene mineralisation underlies a leached
 The Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold porphyry deposits, South Gobi, Mongolia

cap extending 20—80 m below the surface. The upper
20-40 m of the chalcocite blanket consists of chalcocite
with minor covellite and digenite. The lower parts of
the blanket has lower copper grades and is dominated
by covellite. The upper chalcocite and lower covellite
zones are a standard feature of enrichment blankets. The
style of mineralisation with the largest volume is the
high-sulfidation system with finely disseminated pyrite-
covellite-chalcocite. The covellite mineralisation generally
averages about 0.7% copper and is characterised by high
pyrite content and minor enargite.
Hugo Dummett
The north trending Hugo Dummett deposit extends
over a strike length of approximately 2.6 km (Fig. 1).
It appears to be bound to the north by a late-stage,
northeast-trending, high-angle reverse fault. The southern
half of the deposit is dominated by high-sulfidation
mineralisation. This is hosted by advanced argillic altered
dacitic ash flow tuff, which overlies intermediate argillic
to chlorite altered basalts. Sedimentary rocks overlie the
dacitic tuffs and cap the high sulfidation system. Quartz
monzodiorites have intruded basalts as fingers and
dykes irregularly along the strike length of the deposit.
At the north end of the deposit, an intensely quartz
stockworked quartz monzodiorite intrusion correlates
with a significant increase in gold content of bornite-rich
mineralisation in several deep holes. The mineralisation
is hosted by basalt and quartz monzodiorite. Bornite-
chalcopyrite mineralisation in the northern end of Hugo
and bornite, chalcocite mineralisation at Hugo South are
centred on a zone of intense quartz veining that extends
along the axis of the entire deposit. The highest grade
mineralisation corresponds to zones with greater than
90% quartz, which may be over 80 m thick in drill core
(Fig. 1).
The Hugo Dummett deposit is divided into the
Hugo North and Hugo South zones for the purposes
of development and mine planning. Hugo South and
Hugo North are separated by a transition zone of narrow
mineralisation that corresponds to a 110° trending cross
fault. Hugo South has a lower gold to copper ratio,
averaging 10:1 copper to gold in most of the zone. It
represents the portion of the deposit closest to the surface,
with the lowest portion of the deposit approximately
700 m below surface compared to 1500 m below surface
for Hugo North. Alteration of the ignimbrite in Hugo
South is dominated by advanced argillic alteration
consisting of pyrophyllite, diaspore, zunyite and alunite

Figure 1 Surpac model of the Hugo Dummett deposit, May 2004 (looking west). The brown coloured ore
shell (0.6 % copper equivalent cutoff) contains 1.16Gt @ 1.29% Cu and 0.23 g/t Au.

37
Ivanhoe Mines Oyu Tolvoi Geological Team.

Figure 2 Cross-section N4767400 through Hugo North,

showing geology, drill hole traces and copper-gold assays.

38

overprinted by topaz and finally by kaolinite and dickite.
Sulfide mineralisation is primarily hosted in the advanced
argillic altered ignimbrite.
Hugo North contains a high-grade copper zone, hosted
primarily in basalt monzodiorite in which mineralisation
exceeds 2% and ranges up to 5% copper (Fig. 2). An
important feature of the Hugo North mineralisation is
a significant increase in the gold to copper ratios. The
northern half of Hugo North contains a gold to copper
ratio of 0.5 to 1.0 locally up to a high of 1:1. This gold-
rich zone is dominated by bornite, but is mixed with
minor chalcocite and chalcopyrite and is associated with
intense quartz veining occupying up to 85% of the rock.
The high-grade deposit is internal to a significant larger
body of copper mineralisation grading between 1 % and
2% copper, consisting of a mixture of chalcopyrite and
bornite. Alteration in Hugo North consists primarily
of quartz, sericite, chlorite and local patches of biotite.
Advanced argillic alteration and associated high
sulfidation mineralisation (including enargite) is present
only in the hanginging wall ignimbrite, which overlies
the bulk of the deposit.
The width of the mineralised zone on the Hugo
Dummett deposit varies along strike from 200 m to in
excess of 500 m. Mineralisation dips generally to the
east between 40° and 80°, but is generally above 60° and
increases to sub-vertical at the end of Hugo North.
Geophysics
Initial geophysical surveys were conducted by BHP
Exploration in 1996. They consisted of airborne
magnetics, ground magnetics and gradient array IP. In
2001, IVN conducted gradient array IP on 100 m-spaced
north—south lines over the 3 km by 4 km core block at
Oyu Tolgoi. Multiple current electrode spacings ranging
from 1000 m to 3600 m were used. These were able to
define the sulfide assemblages in Southwest, South and
Central Oyu. The IP survey also defined a large, semi-
circular feature with Central Oyu on the southern side
and the Hugo Dummett IP anomaly on the north side.
Ivanhoe Mines Ltd., exploration at Oyu Tolgoi has
consisted mainly of remote sensing and geophysical
methods, including satellite image interpretation, detailed
ground magnetics, Bouguer gravity and gradient array IP,
as well as extensive drilling. Gradient array IP has been
conducted on north-south and subsequently east—west
lines at 100 m line spacing, with electrode spacing
up to 11 km. Drill holes have been targeted to test IP
chargeability targets or structural zones. Outcropping
prospects, including Southwest, South and Central Oyu,
have been mapped at 1:1000 scale, while the central part
of the exploration block was mapped at 1:5000 scale
39
The Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold porphyry deposits, South Gobi, Mongolia
in 2001. The entire remaining exploration block was
mapped at 1:10,000 scale in 2002.
In 2002, IVN re-oriented the IP survey lines to east to
west to account for a predicted north—northeast trending
high grade copper zone at Hugo Dummett. The core
block of Oyu Tolgoi was then resurveyed on 100 m-
spaced lines using multiple AB current electrode spacing.
This survey resulted in an entirely different chargeability
signature that now appears to reflect a continuous zone
of sulfide mineralisation extending north-northeast
from the southwest end of Southwest Oyu through to
the northernmost extent of the property, for a total strike
length of approximately 5.5 km.
The 2002 IP survey clearly outlines the high-grade
zone of Southwest Oyu as a nearly vertical pipe that
becomes tightly constrained with depth. On the survey,
Central Oyu mineralisation trends north—northeast
and continues to be the dominant chargeability feature
reflecting concentrations of pyrite of up to 10% and
the central covellite core of the high-sulfidation system.
Extending north—northwest from Central Oyu, a strong
IP anomaly reflecting 4% to 6% pyrite mineralisation
extends through Hugo Dummett.
Detailed total field, ground magnetic surveys, reading
25 m by 5 m and 50 m by 10 m centres, have been
completed over the full Oyu Tolgoi tenement. Although
done in two surveys, the data were merged to produce
a magnetic image of the block. The magnetic survey
clearly defines the structural fabric of the property as
well as the zonation of alteration assemblages. Marked
magnetic highs on the hydrothermal magnetite-altered
basalts underlying South and Southwest Oyu and
magnetic lows correspond with advanced argillic, high
sulfidation systems that encompass Central Oyu to Hugo
Dummett due to the magnetic destruction caused by
these systems.
Conclusions
Figure 3 illustrates the spatial extent of porphyry and
high sulfidation mineralisation at Oyu Tolgoi. Consistent
intervals over hundreds of metres of several percent
hypogene copper and associated gold within the Hugo
deposit are remarkable and atypical of porphyry copper
deposits. The Oyu Tolgoi porphyry system represents the
most significant copper-gold porphyry discovery since
Grasberg.
Ivanhoe Mines Oyu Tolgoi Geological Team

40
 Tectonics of porphyry copper and epithermal
deposits as constrained by vein geometry
RICHARD M. TOSDAL
Background
Porphyry copper-(molybdenum-gold) deposits (PCD)
and related epithermal deposits form from magmas
emplaced in the shallow crust. PCD are known to
form during distinct and short-lived episodes within a
protracted history of arc formation. Limited data suggest
the same temporal limitation probably also applies to
metal-bearing high-sulfidation deposits (HS) despite the
widespread formation of intense but barren acid leached
zones, defined by acid-stable mineral assemblages,
in volcanic edifices. Low-sulfidation (LS) epithermal
deposits (Cooke and Simmons, 2000; John, 2001) and
the intermediate-sulfidation (IS) epithermal-types of
Hedenquist et al. (2000) form from near-neutral pH
fluids, and reflect extensive fluid-rock interaction and
an input of meteoric fluids. Although not a perfect
relationship, there are times during the life of an arc
when HS systems dominate and likewise when IS/LS
systems dominate. Where contemporaneous, there is also
little geographic overlap between HS and IS/LS systems,
although HS systems can evolve to low-sulfidation state
mineral assemblages or are locally fringed by smaller LS
systems. Where HS and IS/LS are spatially related, there
is a temporal (Lepanto/La Victoria) or a size difference
between them (El Indio/Rio del Medio).
Whereas the geochemical and mineralogic character-
istics of PCD and epithermal deposits are reasonably well
documented, there has been limited attention focused
on the role of tectonics, except from the point of view
of relating ore formation to structural sites or broadly
to deformation events. Reviews have proposed that
Mineral Deposit Research Unit, University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
41
PCD form in contractional, including transpressional,
arcs where the stress field approached a neutral state
(Tosdal and Richards, 2001). HS deposits presumably
form in similar environments (Tosdal and Richards,
2002) but also where there is small magnitude extension
(Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). The IS/LS deposits
form where extension or transtension dominate the
magmatic environment (Cooke and Simmons, 2000;
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). LS systems characterise
rift environments. These contrasting tectonic settings
should be reflected in the vein geometry of the individual
deposits.
Construction and degassing of an upper crustal
magma chamber
Construction of an upper crustal (6-10 km depth)
magma chamber is essential to the formation of PCD
and epithermal deposits, because a sufficient volume of
magma and exsolved fluid must be available to source
and transport metals. A minimum volume of -50 km3 of
calc-alkaline magma is required to supply the amount of
metal observed in an average PCD, a volume representing
a modest-sized shallow-level pluton (Cline and Bodnar,
1991). Exsolution of a hydrous and sulfur-bearing
magmatic volatile phase from the magma, and fluid
focusing in cupola zones of the pluton are key processes
in the formation of a PCD. Escape of a metalliferous fluid
from the PCD environment is critical for the formation
of epithermal deposits. Passive vertical rise of fluid leads
to formation of HS in already acid-leached rocks above
a PCD (Yanacocha) or laterally along lithologic contacts
or older fault systems (Lepanto). Lateral escape of the
fluid and interaction with the hydrosphere leads to IS/LS
deposits. In the case of epithermal deposits, escape of the
hydrothermal fluid must have been efficient enough to
Richard M. Tosdal
have inhibited precipitation within the porphyry copper
environment of much of the metal exsolved from the
magma chamber.
Structural characteristics of PCD and epithermal
deposits
There are few comprehensive structural studies of vein
geometry in PCD, and studies in HS deposits are rarer.
In PCD, veins open episodically and repeatedly at
different paragenetic stages. A consistent vein orientation
persists throughout the deposits laterally and vertically.
Moreover, the veins have a consistent angular relationship
between them that also characterises the deposit. There is
always a dominant vein orientation, but there are usually
veins that are orthogonal(El Salvador, Bingham, Mineral
Park, Batu Hijau) or conjugate (Highland Valley) to the
main vein orientation. There is also a combination of
orthogonal and conjugate (El Salvador) veins or radial
and conjugate veins (Chuquicamata). Other PCD have
largely uni-directional veins (MacArthur in the Yerington
District; Cadia Hill). In some deposits, veins bisect
orthogonal veins (El Salvador); these veins are essentially
conjugate. Intersection angles between conjugate veins
are most commonly vertical except where flat veins are
present (El Salvador, Batu Hijau, Hugo Dummett zone
at Oyu Tolgoi, Skouries). In PCD, the veins are not
randomly oriented, as would be expected if the veins
result from volume expansion caused by catastrophic
exsolution of hydrothermal fluids. Breccias form under
these conditions. Instead the veins show a systematic
orientation across the deposit that is strongly influenced
by the extant anisotropy (intrusion geometry, distribution
of rocks types) in the rocks.
Structural studies in HS deposits are difficult because
of the texturally destructive alteration. Nonetheless,
the distribution of ore in an economic HS deposit does
constrain fluid pathways, and hence the stress enhanced
permeability structure. In many but not all HS deposits,
ore is controlled by faults or fracture meshes in the
host volcanic rocks. Importantly, the faults also cut the
country rocks to the volcanic host rocks. The faults have
also controlled emplacement of the volcanic host rocks,
are older than the magmatism, and were exploited by
the hydrothermal fluids. Stratigraphy and rock types
complicate the flow paths. Moreover, many of the
faults are misoriented for dilatancy within the regional
stress field (Yanacocha). Within some HS deposits
(Summitville) and districts (Yanacocha), ore bodies are
controlled by orthogonal faults, much like that seen in
the vein geometry of PCD. In other districts, the ore
bodies are distributed along radial faults systems (Sipan)
or along fault and fracture meshes that span the almost
entire 360° of potential strike (Pascua). Conversely, there
42
are some districts (Chinkuashih) where the ore bodies
are distributed along parallel faults, and the ore zones are
largely uni-directional.
In contrast to PCD-HS deposits, IS/LS deposits
typically consist of veins with a common orientation . The
vein or veins are either laterally extensive for up to several
kms in strike length (Guanajuato, San Juan, Baguio) or
confined to swarms of small discontinuous veins (Round
Mountain). As with HS deposits, stratigraphy and rock
types complicate fluid pathways. A single vein orientation
thus fixes the effective minimum principal stress at the
time of formation, in stark contrast to the PCD-HS
deposits where there are commonly at least two directions
of mutually orthogonal extension. In IS/LS deposits with
multiple vein orientations (McLaughlin), paragenetic
and structural relations indicate a fundamental switch
in the regional stress orientations during the life of the
hydrothermal system, which can be explained by changes
in structural setting at the time. The switch was a one-
time event and not repeated, unlike the PCD and many
HS environments.
Stress during formation of PCD-HS deposits
versus LS deposits
Taking the simplest case, orthogonal or orthogonal-
conjugate veins characterise many PCD regardless of depth
of formation. A similar geometry seems to dominate many
but not all HS deposits. During brittle failure of isotropic
rocks, extensional fractures are the easiest to form, and
are oriented normal to the effective minimum principal
stress. Such fractures should dominate fluid-saturated
environments such as PCD, and they will be filled by
hydrothermal minerals whenever open or reopened.
Orthogonal veins thus require two different directions
for the effective minimum principal stress. Conjugate
veins are essentially shear veins, and require a slightly
higher differential stress. These veins lie at high angles to
the effective minimum principal stress. The intersection
of the conjugate veins, if they formed at the same time,
fixes the intermediate effective principal stress. Structural
anisotropy will influence the exact angular relationship
between the stress directions and fractures.
In view of the ease of forming extensional fractures,
the simplest interpretation of orthogonal veins in a PCD
is that the effective minimum principal stress changed
orientation episodically during the life of the system. As the
intersections of conjugate veins are dominantly vertical,
the other horizontal stress component is most likely
the effective maximum principal or compressive stress.
Because of the relatively short duration of hydrothermal
activity (0.1 to <1 m.y) in PCD and HS deposits, it seems
unlikely that multiple and regular rotations or interchange
of a regional far-field stress would occur during deposit
 Tectonics of porphyry copper and epithermal deposits as constrained by vein geometry

formation. Therefore, in order to explain the repeated
interchange of the effective minimum principal stress, a
low-differential horizontal stress field should be the norm
during PCD formation. The conclusion should also
apply to some HS deposits. As the effective intermediate
principle stress is most commonly vertical, formation
of PCD seemingly is favored by compressional stress
(Fig. 1A). In detail, however, it is likely that the stress
orientation and extensional direction(s) during porphyry
emplacement and deposit formation will be strongly
influenced by local factors, including fluctuating fluid
pressure in the magma or hydrothermal system, magmatic
activity, regional seismic activity, or other events. Each
event could be sufficient in an area of low differential
horizontal stress to trigger the interchange of effective
minimum principal stress and generate episodic vein
opening in orientations at high angle to each other. The
net effect is an ore deposit with a systematic range of vein
orientations, each of which is mutually cross cutting.
In contrast, some HS and all IS/LS epithermal deposits
are characterised by a dominant vein orientation, a
characteristic that requires a differential horizontal stress
field such that the same vein orientation was repeatedly
dilatant during the life of the hydrothermal system (Fig.
IB). All indicate that extension, or the minimum effective
principal stress was horizontal. Subhorizontal tabular
ore shoots in IS/LS deposits indicate a subhorizontal
intermediate effective principal stress. The net result is
an extensional setting.
Tectonic setting of PCD-HS deposits versus LS
deposits
The low-differential horizontal-stress environment in
an overall contractional (or transpression) setting is
seemingly favorable for PCD and many HS deposits.
These environments must correspond to parts of an
arc or periods during an arc where there was limited
shortening co-spatial with magmatism. Such a setting is
conducive to the collection of magma to form a large
upper crustal chamber (Takada, 1994) from which
sufficient hydrothermal fluid can be exsolved. It also is
an environment that favors a lack of volcanic activity
such that the magma chamber does not erupt, thereby
bleeding the chamber of fluid. A transient time of near-
neutral stress state could also form during contraction
and uplift of mountain ranges as uplifted mountains
exceeding 3-4 km elevation become gravitationally
unstable and undergo a stress inversion from compression
below 3—4 km elevation to tension at higher elevations.
Emplacement of a porphyry system in an uplifting
mountain range at those depths would facilitate PCD
formation. Perhaps El Teniente and Andina—Rio Blanco
represent these environments.
Fluid escape from the magma chamber is largely vertical
to access the HS environment. Such escape must have
been relatively rapid so the metallic mineral deposition
was not extensive in the PCD environment. Completely
neutral stress states or slightly extensional strain might be
conducive to the passage of the fluid through the PCD
environment. Conversely, IS/LS deposits are favored
during times of differential horizontal stress. Active
deformation is usually extensional (Mexico) or strike-
slip, locally in areas undergoing large-scale shortening
(southern Peru, northern California). Deformation is co-
spatial with magmatism, and must disrupt the fluid seal
around the magma chamber, thus allowing the fluid to
escape into the hydrosphere.
The models presented herein are testable. Firstly,
PCD-HS and IS/LS deposits of the same age and size

Figure 1 Stress distribution, dyke pattern, volcano and subvolcanic intrusion geometry, and idealised vein geometry under contrasting
conditions of differential horizontal stress. (A) HS-PCD deposits are favored in near-neutral regional stress. The different vein orientations
formed under the alternating effective minimum principal stress direction are shown in solid and dashed lines. (B) IS/LS are favored in areas of
differential horizontal stress. Expected vein geometry is shown. Modified from Takada (1994).

43
Richard M. Tosdal

should not be common in the same geographic areas Tosdal, R.M., and Richards, J.P., 2001, Magmatic and
within a convergent margin arc. In the epithermal structural controls on the development of porphyry
environment, HS or IS/LS deposits will dominate Cu±Mo±Au deposits: Reviews in Economic Geology,
certain times and areas within a convergent arc as the v. 14, p. 157-181. |
Tosdal, R.M., and Richards, J.P., 2002, Tectonic setting;|
tectonics during magmatism controls magma chamber
A critical link in the formation of porphyry Cu and-
development, permeability structure, and access of the
epithermal deposits: Applied Structural Geology
magmatic-derived hydrothermal fluids to the shallowest for Mineral Exploration and Mining, Internationa^
crustal levels. There are, however, numerous areas where Symposium, Abstract Volume, Bulletin 36, p. 209-
LS deposits are found within regions dominated by HS 211.
deposits; the converse is also true. In these cases, there
is a time gap between the two deposit types or there is a
difference in structural setting of the magmatic complex.
In the SW Pacific, where the deposits are commonly co-
spatial and closely related temporally, complex and rapidly
shifting tectonic settings accompanied magmatism. The
shifting tectonic setting should affect the dynamics of the
magma chamber and subsequent pathways for escaped
metalliferous hydrothermal fluids.
Secondly, implicit in the near-neutral stress states is
an explanation why PCD are episodic in a convergent
magmatic arc. It is rare in the life of an arc under overall
compression that magmatism coincides with a low
differential horizontal or near neutral stress. In essence,
tectonic conditions conducive to PCD formation are only
achieved during transient periods of stress relaxation, or
transient periods during uplift of the mountain range.
Times coincident with the end of deformation episodes
or with plate reorganisations are two plate tectonic
settings previously proposed to explain PCD formation
that fit the criteria.

References

Cline, J.S., and Bodnar, R.J., 1991, Can economic porphyry

copper mineralization be generated by a typical calc-
alkaline melt?: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 96,
p. 8113-8126.
Cooke, D.R., and Simmons, S.F., 2000, Characteristics
and genesis of epithermal gold deposits: Reviews in
Economic Geology, v. 13, p. 221-244.
Hedenquist, J.W., Arribas, A., Jr., and Gonzalez-Urien, E.,
2000, Exploration for epithermal gold deposits: Reviews
in Economic Geology, v. 13, p. 245-277.
John, D.A., 2001, Miocene and Pliocene epithermal gold-
silver deposits in the northern Great Basin, western
USA: Characteristics, distribution, and relationship to
magmatism: Economic Geology, v. 96, p. 1827-1853.
Sillkoe, R.H., and Hedenquist, J.W., 2003, Linkages between
volcanotectonic settings, ore-fluid compositions, and
epithermal precious metal deposits: Society of Economic
Geologists Special Publication 10, p. 315-343.
Takada, A., 1994, The influence of regional stress and magmatic
input on styles of monogenetic and polygenetic
volcanism: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 99, p.
13,563-13,573.

44
 Veins, pegmatites and breccias: examples from the
alkalic Cadia Quarry gold-copper porphyry deposit,
NSW, Australia
ALAN J. WILSON1*, DAVID R. COOKE1 AND TULLY RICHARDS2
Introduction
The alkalic porphyry deposits and related magnetite
skarns of the Cadia district, central New South Wales,
Australia, are spatially and temporally related to pipes,
dykes and stocks of monzonitic to quartz monzonitic
composition (Fig. 1; Holliday et ak, 2002; Wilson,
2003; Wilson et ak, 2003). Gold—copper mineralisation
is typically hosted by quartz-sulfide + calcite veins which
occur as sheeted veins and stockworks in association with
potassic (orthoclase) and calc-potassic (biotite—actinolite—
orthoclase) alteration (Wilson, 2003, Wilson et al., 2003).
Phyllic alteration is typically restricted to late-stage fault
zones and is associated with minor amounts of base metal
mineralisation (Holliday et ak, 2002). Magnetite skarns,
with minor gold—copper mineralisation have formed
locally within calcareous volcaniclastic sandstone units
(Green, 1999; Forster and Seccombe 2000; Holliday et
al., 2002).
In addition to these features, the Cadia Quarry deposit
is host to a number of distinctive styles of transitional
magmatic—hydrothermal to hydrothermal alteration
and mineralisation. These include structurally focused
zones of pegmatite-cemented breccias, locally developed
unidirectional solidification textures (UST; Shannon
et al., 1982) and late stage 'quartz fragment breccias'.
This paper documents these features, discusses their
significance and possible origins, and briefly compares
them to similar occurrences in other alkalic porphyry
systems.
'Centre for Ore Deposit Research, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 79,
Hobart, Tasmania, 7001, Australia
1
Cadia Valley Operations, Newcrest Mining Limited, Cadia Road, Orange,
New South Wales, 2800, Australia
* Present address: Newcrest Mining Limited, Level 2, 20 Terrace Road,
East Perth, Western Australia, 6004, Australia (email: wilsonal@newcrest.
com.au)
45
Geological setting of the Cadia district
The geology of the Cadia district has previously been
described by Holliday et al. (2002) and Wilson et al.
(2003), and is summarised briefly here. The Cadia
deposits formed within the intra-oceanic Macquarie
Arc, a belt of Early Ordovician to Early Silurian mafic
to intermediate volcanic, volcaniclastic and intrusive
rocks (Fig. 1). Intrusions related to mineralisation were
emplaced within a six kilometre long west-northwest
oriented corridor (Fig. 1). This corridor lies parallel to,
and within, a major pre-cratonic structural feature of
eastern and central Australia, the Lachlan Transverse
Zone (LTZ; Glen and Walshe, 1999). Local extension
along deep-seated structures within the LTZ during the
Late Ordovician to Early Silurian is interpreted to have
facilitated the emplacement of ore-related intrusions at
Cadia (Wilson, 2003).
Host rocks to the porphyry-related intrusions comprise
a thick sequence (>2 km) of fine- to coarse-grained, mafic
to intermediate volcanogenic sedimentary rocks of the
Middle Ordovician Weemalla Formation and overlying
Late Ordovician Forest Reefs Volcanics (FRV; Fig. 1;
Pogson and Watkins, 1998). Limestone and calcareous
sandstone units of late Eastonian age (Ea3; Packham et
ak, 1999) occur locally within the upper portion of the
FRV. Uplift and erosion of the Cadia district during the
Early Silurian exposed the Cadia Quarry, Cadia Hill and
Cadia East deposits prior to the deposition of Middle to
Late Silurian shale and fossiliferous sandstone (Fig. 1).
Miocene basalts of the Canobolas Volcanic Complex
(Wellman and McDougall, 1974) overlie Ordovician and
Silurian rocks of the Cadia district unconformably.
Alan J. Wilson, David R. Cooke and Tully Richards

46
 Veins, pegmatites and breccias: examples from the alkalic Cadia Quarry gold-copper porphyry deposit, NSW, Australia
Exploration History of the Cadia district
Exploration discoveries in the Cadia district have been
described previously by Wood and Holliday (1995),
Newcrest Mining Staff (1996, 1997, 1998), Holliday
et al. (1999) and Tedder et al. (2001). Only a brief
summary is provided here. Gold-copper mineralisation
was first discovered in the Cadia district in 1851, when
prospectors discovered and exploited narrow, high grade
vein mineralisation peripheral to the Cadia Quarry
deposit. The Big Cadia Fe—copper—gold skarn deposit
(formerly known as Iron Duke) was discovered soon after,
and it became the main focus of mining activity for the
next 100+ years, with over 0.1 Mt at 5-7% Cu produced
between 1851 and 1917. Big Cadia has had a diverse
mining history, with periods where it has been operated
as an iron quarry (1917 to 1929, 1941 to 1943) and as
small-scale gold workings (1930s to 1952). In the 1960s
Carpentaria Exploration Company undertook further
exploration of Big Cadia. Pacific Copper then explored
the Cadia district from 1968 to 1988, discovering the
Little Cadia Cu-Au skarn (8 Mt @ 0.3 g/t Au, 0.4% Cu)
and delineating the skarn resource at Big Cadia (30 Mt
@ 0.4 g/t Au, 0.5% Cu). Pacific Copper and several joint
venture partners also detected Cu and Au mineralisation
at Cadia Hill, but failed to recognise the potential of the
porphyry mineralisation in the district.
Newcrest Mining Limited purchased the Cadia titles
in 1990, and although their initial exploration focus was
on the skarns, they soon shifted their attention to the
geochemical anomalies previously detected at Cadia Hill.
The Cadia Hill porphyry deposit (352 Mt @ 0.63g/t
Au and 0.16% Cu) was discovered in 1992. Discovery
of Cadia Quarry (50 Mt @ 0.46 g/t Au, 0.23% Cu)
followed in the same year, during step-out drilling to
the northwest of Cadia Hill along a favourable structural
corridor (Fig. 1). Step-out drilling to the south west of
Cadia Hill along the same structural corridor led to the
discovery of Cadia East in 1994 (300 Mt @ 0.46g/t Au,
0.37% Cu) and Cadia Far East in 1996 (290 Mt @ 0.98g/
tAu, 0.36% Cu). The Ridgeway deposit (78 Mt @ 2.0
g/t Au, 0.67 % Cu) was also discovered in 1996, during
drilling of the northwestern extension of the structural
corridor (Fig. 1). Ridgeway was discovered by Newcrest's
498th diamond drill hole, demonstrating the benefits of
persistence with a deep drilling program based on a solid
understanding of the key geological elements important
for localising mineralisation.
Alteration and mineralisation at Cadia Quarry
Mineralisation at Cadia Quarry occurs on the north-
western side of a series of northeast striking reverse
faults that have truncated mineralisation at Cadia Hill
47
(Fig. 1). The mineralised zone at Cadia Quarry strikes
northwest (-330° AMG grid) over a distance of -700 m.
Quartz veins within this zone strike -300°, dip -60°SW
and extend to depths in excess of 400 m (Fig. 2). The
intrusions that host mineralisation at Cadia Quarry are
texturally and compositionally variable, ranging from
medium grained, equigranular monzodiorite to coarsely
orthoclase porphyritic quartz monzonite and, locally, fine
grained syenite (Fig. 2).
Porphyry-style veins and related hydrothermal
alteration
The early stages of alteration at Cadia Quarry are
characterised by magnetite-stable sodic (albite) and
potassic (biotite—orthoclase) assemblages (Fig. 3). Minor
amounts of gold-copper mineralisation were introduced
at this time. Locally developed zones of pervasive albite
flooding contain minor stringers of bornite, chalcopyrite
and epidote (Fig. 3A). Early-stage magnetite-rich stringers
and quartz—magnetite ± chalcopyrite veinlets typically
have orthoclase alteration envelopes (Fig. 3B).
Magnetite-destructive potassic alteration is associated
with the main stage of gold—copper deposition at Cadia
Quarry and is typical of the transitional alteration
assemblages. Transitional stage potassic alteration halos
occur around sheeted quartz—sulfide ± calcite veins and
veinlets (Fig. 3C). The sulfide mineral assemblages in
these veins are zoned from chalcopyrite ± pyrite in the
core of the vein envelope to pyrite in the vein envelope
margins (Fig. 2C). These veins have a wide spatial
distribution (Fig. 2B), but the individual alteration halos
extend only for a few millimetres to a few centimetres
out from the quartz vein margins, so the volume of rock
altered by transitional potassic alteration is comparatively
small. The potassic alteration assemblage is characterised
by the selectively pervasive alteration of plagioclase to
orthoclase and, locally, of ferromagnesian phenocrysts to
biotite.
The peripheral and late stages of alteration comprise
propylitic and phyllic alteration assemblages (Fig. 2B).
Propylitic alteration is associated with only minor amounts
of copper mineralisation, whereas phyllic alteration has
locally introduced zinc-lead mineralisation and has
destroyed transitional stage gold—copper mineralisation.
Selectively pervasive propylitic alteration is the most
widespread alteration assemblage at Cadia Quarry (Fig.
3B, C and D). It has affected all of the primary mafic
phenocrysts in the quartz monzonite porphyry (QMP),
and in the intermediate to mafic FRV wallrocks. Mafic
phenocrysts have been altered to fine grained chlorite,
calcite and minor actinolite, and feldspar phenocrysts have
been altered to sodic plagioclase (albite-oligoclase). The
vein event that typically accompanies propylitic alteration
Alan J. Wilson, David R. Cooke and Tally Richards

Figure2 Section 13,100mE, Cadia Quarry. A. Geology of Cadia Quarry and Big Cadia, with copper and gold grade distribution. B. Distribution
of major alteration assemblages. C. Sulphide zonation. D. Distribaution of selected vein stages at Cadia Quarry. Ticks are located on the side
of the line that veins occur. Abbreviations : bt = biotite, cal = calcite, ccp = chalcopyrite, chl = chlorite, ep = epidote, mgt = magnetite, or =
orthoclase, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, wm = white mica.

48
 Veins, pegmatites and breccias: examples from the alkalic Cadia Quarry gold-copper porphyry deposit, NSW, Australia

Figure 3 Porphyry-style vein stages and alteration assemblages at Cadia Quarry. (A) Pervasive, intense albite-quartz alteration of an equigranular
monzonitic intrusion. Irregular stringers and blebs of bornite—epidote—chalcopyrite are locally developed. (B) Medium grained quartz monzonite
porphyry with a well developed network of early-stage quartz-magnetke-chalcopyrite veins and veinlets. These veins are associated with locally
intense orthoclase alteration envelopes. (C) Medium grained quarrz monzonite porphyry with multiple, transitional-stage quarrz—chalcopyrite
veins that are associated with orthoclase alteration envelopes. Ferromagnesian phenocrysts in the host intrusion have been alrered to chlorite.
(D) Quartz monzonite porphyry with transitional-stage quartz—calcite—chalcopyrite veins that have been cut by late-stage epidote—calcite veins
with wide hematitic alteration envelopes. The hematite in these alteration envelopes is difficult to distinguish from orthoclase alteration envelopes
that occur around the quartz veins. Abbreviations: ab = albite, bn = bornite, cal = calcite, ccp = chalcopyrite, chl = chlorite, ep = epidote, mgt
= magnetite, or = orthoclase, qtz = quartz.

comprises veinlets and stringers of epidote-calcite that
are generally associated with broad hematitic alteration
envelopes (Fig. 3D). These veinlets are responsible for
much of the 'reddening' that occurs throughout the
Cadia Quarry quartz monzonite porphyry.
Quartz-sericite-pyrite (phyllic) alteration occurs as
alteration envelopes around late stage, base metal-bearing
veins and related fault zones that have cut the main zones
of gold-copper mineralisation (Fig. 2B). These late-stage
faults are known locally as 'G-faults' due to the green
colour of the sericite. Phyllic alteration has resulted in
the selectively pervasive to pervasive alteration of the
feldspar component of the quartz monzonite porphyry to
a fine grained mass of white mica that is associated with
fine grained anhedral aggregates of calcite, quartz, pyrite
chlorite and rutile. The quartz—calcite-base metal sulfide
veins associated with these late stage faults are comparable
to deep level carbonate-base metal low sulfidation style
epithermal veins described by Corbett and Leach (1998).
Their presence implies that telescoping of the epithermal
environment into the Cadia Quarry porphyry system
occurred late in the evolution of the hydrothermal
system.
Unidirectional solidification textures
Two types of unidirectional solidification textures
(UST; Shannon et al, 1982) have been recognised at
Cadia Quarry (Fig. 4). Aplitic vein-dykes are part of the
transitional assemblage and have locally cut early stage
magnetite-chlorite stringers (Fig. 4A). Vein-dykes have
been described previously from the nearby Ridgeway
deposit (Wilson et al., 2003) and also from Goonumbla
(Heithersay and Walshe, 1995; Lickfold et al., 2003a, b).
They are composite structures that contain both magmatic
and hydrothermal precipitates. At Cadia Quarry, the

49
Alan J. Wilson, David R. Cooke and Tully Richards

Figure 4. Unidirectional solidification textures at Cadia Quarry. (A) Albite-altered quartz monzonite porphyry containing an early-stage chloritc-
magnetite veinlet that has been cut by a transitional-stage aplitic vein dyke. The vein dyke comprises selvages of fine grained, intimately intergrowi
magmatic orthoclase and quartz, and a central band of hydrothermal quartz with minor chalcopyrite, epidote and actinolite. Thin veinlets o!
calcite have cut these veins locally. (B) Pervasively albitised quartz monzonite porphyry with partially developed, irregular comb quartz layec
(marked by red arrows). Two crenulate layers of euhedrally terminated quartz crystals are intergrown with the medium grained intrusive rock, tht
black arrows indicating the direction of quartz crystal growth. The ferromagnesian minerals have been selectively altered to leocoxene and pyritc.
Abbreviations: ab = albite, act = actinolite, cal = calcite, chl = chlorite, leu = leucoxene, mgt = magnetite, or = orthoclase, qtz = quartz.

aplite portion of the vein-dykes is composed of fine
grained anhedral to graphically intergrown orthoclase and
quartz, with minor magnetite, chalcopyrite and biotite.
The aplite locally grades into diffuse patches or central
bands of hydrothermal quartz that is intergrown with
minor chlorite, chalcopyrite, epidote and actinolite.
Comb quartz layers (cf. Kirkham and Sinclair, 1988)
occur locally within the Cadia Quarry quartz monzonite
porphyry, although the relative age of these structures
remains poorly constrained due to a lack of cross cutting
relationships. Well-mineralised comb quartz layers have
also been documented from Ridgeway (Wilson et al.,
2003) and Goonumbla (Lickfold et al., 2003). At Cadia
Quarry, the comb quartz layers are typically crenulated
and comprise layers of 1-2 mm long euhedral quartz
crystals that are separated by bands of porphyritic
monzonite (Fig. 4B).
Hydrothermal breccias
Three distinct styles of hydrothermal breccia occur at
Cadia Quarry (Fig. 5), two of which comprise part of
the transitional alteration stage and one of which formed
during late stage alteration.
The first transitional stage breccia has been termed a
'pegmatite-cemented breccia', due to the coarse grained
nature of the silicate minerals that comprise the breccia
cement. These structurally focused breccias occur both
within and marginal to the Cadia Quarry orebody
(as defined by the limit of transitional stage quartz—
chalcopyrite veins; Fig. 2A, D). The breccias comprise
angular to subangular clasts of quartz monzonite porphyry
that are supported by a coarsely crystalline cement of
subhedral to euhedral orthoclase, quartz, biotite am
calcite (Fig. 5A, B, C). The pegmatitic cement locally
contains anhedral aggregates of fine to coarsely crystallintl
pyrite, molybdenite and chalcopyrite (Fig. 5B, C). Pale
brown sphalerite occurs locally as euhedral crystals in the
pegmatitic cement (Fig. 5B) and as intimate intergrowth;
with anhedral chalcopyrite and pyrite (Fig. 5B). The
igneous clasts have typically been altered to a fine grained
mass of orthoclase and biotite, with lesser calcite and
chalcopyrite. The local occurrence of thin transitional
stage quartz veinlets in the intrusive rock fragments (e.g..
Fig. 5A) indicates that the pegmatite-cemented breccia:
postdate the transitional stage quartz veins. Although
these breccias are small relative to the overall Cadia
Quarry orebody (typically a few metres wide, extending
laterally and vertically for tens of metres), they locally
contain high grade copper-molybdenite mineralisation
(to 10.0% Cu and 5.9% Mo), in addition to minor gold
and zinc.
The pegmatite-cemented breccias are associated with
distinctive spotty biotite-chlorite alteration halos that*
extend up to 50 m away from the breccias (Fig. 2B). The
well rounded spots are typically 0.5-2 cm across, although
they have coalesced locally into zones of pervasive biotitt
alteration.
'Chlorite matrix breccias' are the second breccia type
that formed during the transitional alteration stage
Fragments in these breccias are composed of subangular
to round, propylitically altered quartz monzonite
porphyry that are variably supported by a chlorite-
altered rock flour matrix of finely milled wallrock (Fig,

50
 Veins, pegmatites and breccias: examples from the alkalic Cadia Quarry gold-copper porphyry deposit, NSW, Australia

Figure 5. Breccias of the Cadia Quarry deposit. (A) Typical example of a transitional stage pegmatite-cemented breccia. The breccia cement
comprises coarse grained, euhedral crystals of orthoclase and biotite that are intergrown intimately with calcite, pyrite and chalcopyrite. The
quartz monzonite porphyry wallrock fragments have been altered pervasively to fine grained massive orthoclase and biotite. Locally, intrusive
fragments contain thin, transitional-stage quartz calcite veinlets (yellow outline). (B) An atypical example of a pegmatite-cemented breccia from
Cadia Quarry, with coarse grained, honey-coloured sphalerite that is intergrown with orthoclase and quartz. Minor amounts of chalcopyrite
and pyrite are also present. (C) Mineralised pegmatite-cemented breccia with minor amounts of chalcopyrite, molybdenite and pyrite that are
intimately intergrown with orthoclase, biotite and quartz. (D) 'Chlorite matrix breccia' within a hematite-altered quartz monzonite porphyry
Rounded intrusive clasts are partially supported by a dark green-grey matrix composed of milled quartz monzonite porphyry and fine grained
chlorite. The breccia has cut a transitional-stage quartz-chalcopyrite vein. Hematite alteration is related to a late-stage epidote—calcite veinlet. (E)
Example of a clast-rich chlorite matrix breccia, in which subangular to subround fragments of propylitically altered (chlorite—albite—epidote—
calcite) quartz monzonite porphyry are supported by a dark green chlorite-rich matrix. (F) Late-stage quartz fragment breccia with pervasive
phyllic alteration. Quartz fragments (thought to have originated from transitional stage pegmatite-cemented breccias) have been incorporated
into a late-stage breccia composed of milled intrusive fragments. Pervasive illite—muscovite alteration has partially destroyed the fragmental
texture of the breccia. (G) Quartz fragment breccia with intense illite-muscovite alteration that has overprinted transitional-stage pervasive
potassic alteration. Fragments of coarse grained subhedral quartz from pegmatite-cemented breccias are conspicuous. Abbreviations: bt = biotite,
cal = calcite, ccp = chalcopyrite, ep = epidote, ill = illite, mlb = molybdenite, ms = muscovite, or = orthoclase, py = pyrite, qtz = quartz, sp =
sphalerite.

5D, E). The breccias have irregular shapes and range in
size from a few centimetres to tens of metres in vertical
and/or horizontal dimension. Due to their small size, it
has not been possible to determine the precise geometry
of these breccias within the broader context of the
Cadia Quarry orebody. The internal breccia texture is
highly variable. Some breccias have a closed-framework
'jigsaw-fit' texture (Fig. 5D), whereas other breccias are
open framework, consisting of round quartz monzonite
fragments that are supported by a matrix of finely milled
monzonite (Fig. 5E). Gradational contacts between clast-
and matrix-supported breccias are typical.
The igneous fragments in the chlorite-matrix breccias
locally contain transitional stage quartz—sulfide—carbonate
veinlets and veins, indicating that the breccias developed
subsequent to the formation of the bulk of mineralisation
at Cadia Quarry. No additional sulfide mineralisation was
deposited at this time. However, these breccias have been
cut by locally developed calcite-base metal veins that are
associated with late stage phyllic alteration.

51
AlanJ. Wilson, David R. Cooke and' Tully Richards
Pervasive white mica—quartz alteration has accom-
panied the formation of late stage quartz fragment
breccias at Cadia Quarry (Fig. 2A, B, D). These
breccia zones have partially disrupted the transitional
stage pegmatite-cemented breccias. Breccia fragments
comprise subangular clasts of coarse-grained quartz
that are inferred to have originated from the cement of
the transitional stage pegmatitic breccias (Fig. 5F and
G). The pervasively altered groundmass of the quartz
fragment breccias is composed of massive, anhedral
aggregates of intergrown potassium feldspar and quartz
that has been partially overprinted by fine- to medium-
grained, greenish brown mica. Sulfides are largely absent
from quartz fragment breccias and the breccias and
associated zones of phyllic alteration are typically devoid
of gold and copper mineralisation. They form non-
mineralised domains within the mineralised envelope at
Cadia Quarry (Fig. 2).
Discussion
In terms of hydrothermal alteration, the Cadia Quarry
porphyry deposit shares many similarities with typical
porphyry-style mineralisation. The occurrence of
mineralised quartz veins in association with K—Ca-Na-
rich alteration assemblages that are temporally related to
high-level felsic intrusions is typical of porphyry deposits,
irrespective of the metal endowment (e.g., Grant et al.,
1980; Beane and Titley, 1981; Wallace, 1991). The
progression of alteration assemblages from early stage
sodic, through potassic to late stage phyllic assemblages is
typical of many porphyry copper deposits (e.g., Gustafson
and Quiroga, 1995, Arancibia and Clarke, 1996; Wilson
et al., 2003).
UST similar to those at Cadia Quarry have been
described from porphyry molybdenum deposits
(Shannon et al., 1982; Seedorff, 1988; Lowenstern and
Sinlcair, 1996) and more recently from porphyry copper-
gold deposits (Heithersay and Walshe, 1995; Atkinson
and Ware, 2002; Lickfold et al., 2003a,b; Wilson et al.,
2003). The coexistence of magmatic and hydrothermal
precipitates within the same structure has been interpreted
to indicate that aqueous fluids were exsolving from the
magma during melt emplacement (Shannon et al., 1982;
Lowenstern and Sinclair, 1996). Although the intrusion
that hosts the Cadia Quarry orebody appears to be a
passive wall rock (Wilson, 2003; cf. Newcrest Mining
Staff, 1996), the presence of transitional stage UST are
considered indicative of continued magmatic activity
during hydrothermal alteration and ore formation.
Hydrothermal breccias are a significant component of
porphyry deposits globally(e.g., ElTeniente, Camus, 1975;
Rio Blanco, Vargas et al., 1999; Agua Rica, Landtwing et
al., 2002). Although volumetrically small, the breccias
52
at Cadia Quarry provide some empirical constraints on
the evolution of the Cadia Quarry hydrothermal system.
The orthoclase—quartz—biotite cement in the pegmatite-
cemented breccia is indicative of a granitic source for the
fluids and these breccias are considered to be a variant on
the UST theme. The transitional stage timing of breccia
formation is consistent with the relative age of the vein-
dykes.
Pegmatites and pegmatitic veins are not widely
reported from porphyry deposits, although they do
occur in both medium- to high-K calc-alkalic (e.g.,
New Cornelia, Arizona, Gilluly, 1946; Cananea and La
Caridad, Mexico, Sillitoe, 1976; Grasberg, Pollard and
Taylor, 2002) and alkalic (e.g., Copper Mountain, BC,
Stanley et al. 1995; Dinkidi, Philippines, Wolfe et al,
1999) deposits globally. At Didipio, for example, high
grade gold-copper mineralisation is associated with the
emplacement of the Balut dyke, a texturally variable
and locally pegmatitic clinopyroxene syenite (Wolfe
et al., 1999). Dyke emplacement and mineralisation is
associated with pervasive orthoclase flooding (Wolfe et
al., 1999). Orthoclase—calcite-biotite ± sulfide-bearing
pegmatite-textured veins also occur in the Copper
Mountain porphyry district, British Columbia (Stanley
et al., 1995). These veins are recognised throughout
the district and formed during early stages of potassic
alteration (Stanley et al., 1995)
It is postulated here that the mineralised pegmatite-
cemented breccias at Cadia Quarry developed in
structurally localised dilatant zones that allowed
brecciation and open space development. These porous
domains acted as a focus for metal-rich magmatic-
hydrothermal fluids. Slow cooling of these fluids in
open spaces enabled the precipitation of a coarse grained
orthoclase, quartz and biotite cement. The occurrence of
sulfide minerals in the interstices to the silicate cement is
interpreted to indicate a relatively late timing for sulfide
deposition.
Unmineralised jigsaw-fit to well-milled 'chlorite
matrix breccia' formed after the pegmatite-cemented
breccias at Cadia Quarry. Again, a structural origin is
inferred. But in this case, grinding and milling of the
host monzonite produced abundant rock flour rather
than open spaces. Subsequent hydrothermal fluid flow
through the matrix of the breccia altered it to a chlorite- '
quartz-pyrite mineral assemblage, transforming the
breccia from a porous media to a solid rock. High fluid
velocities are suggested by the milled nature of the QMP
clasts in the central portions of some breccia bodies
(McCallum, 1985). Although the stress regime in which
these breccias developed has not been determined, their
occurrence throughout the QMP intrusions is inferred
to indicate the release of locally developed pockets
of overpressurised hydrothermal fluid, in response to
 Veins, pegmatites and breccias: examples from the alkalic Cadia Quarry gold-copper porphyry deposit, NSW, Australia
brittle fault movements in the crystallised QMP. Near-
neutral pH fluids are implied by the chlorite-dominated
alteration assemblage in the rock flour breccias.
The quartz fragment breccias formed during late
stage brittle faulting of the pegmatite-cemented breccias
and surrounding wallrocks. Oxygen and deuterium
isotopic analyses of muscovite in the quartz fragment
breccias (Wilson, 2003) show that the acidic fluids had
isotopic compositions comparable to magmatic vapours
that are actively discharging from high temperature
volcanic fumaroles (Giggenbach, 1992). A magmatic
origin has also been proposed for sericite from the
nearby Goonumbla porphyry deposits (Wolfe et al.,
1996; Harris and Golding, 2002). A fault rupture most
likely tapped late-stage magmatic gases from the magma
chamber beneath Cadia Quarry (c.f. Horita et al., 1995;
Hedenquist and Richards, 1998), producing late stage
magmatic-hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation.
Based on textural evidence, it is interpreted that the
bulk of gold—copper mineralisation at Cadia Quarry
formed from orthomagmatic fluids that exsolved from a
cooling and crystallising felsic intrusion which remains
unrecognised. The local occurrence of vein-dykes, comb
quartz layers and pegmatite-cemented breccias, which
all formed synchronously with mineralised quartz veins,
indicates that magmatic activity was ongoing in the
vicinity of Cadia Quarry during ore deposition. During
the late stages of phyllic alteration, aqueous fluids of
magmatic origin were focused into pre-existing zones of
structural weakness (the pegmatite-cemented breccias).
Over-pressuring of these fluid pockets resulted in localised
explosive brecciation, milling and phyllic alteration.
Exploration Implications
• Pegmatites and pegmatite-textured veins in alkalic
porphyries are an enigmatic feature that would be
exceedingly difficult to target during exploration, due
to their near-vertical, narrow, vein-like morphology.
However, the high grade (locally >20 g/t/) gold-
mineralised pegmatite at Dinkidi in the Philippines
demonstrates that they can be very important to
the economics of an alkalic porphyry deposit. At
Cadia Quarry, the pegmatite-cemented breccias are
mineralised and contribute to the overall resource of
the system. Exploration for deeper extensions of these
breccias is continuing.
• The 'G-faults' and quartz-fragment breccias at Cadia
Quarry are late stage magmatic-hydrothermal features
akin to deep level low sulfidation style epithermal
(carbonate-base metal) veins. These structures dilute or
truncate grade at Cadia Quarry. It is possible that the
fluids responsible for the G-faults and quartz fragment
breccias actually stripped early-formed gold from the
53
Cadia Quarry deposit, and remobilised it into low
sulfidation style epithermal veins. This may account
for the 'lode' gold veins peripheral to the Cadia Quarry
deposit. New discoveries of high-grade epithermal
style gold mineralisation in the district could be made
through a thorough exploration of the 'G-faults' and
related structures peripheral to the Cadia porphyry
centres.
• UST and vein dykes at Cadia Quarry indicate that
magmatic hydrothermal fluids were exsolved from the
monzonites. Similar textures in other alkalic porphyries
may be favourable indicators of magmatic fertility.
• Mineralisation at Cadia Quarry is restricted to a
marginal phase of the QMP pluton. An abrupt grade
cut-off occurs internally within the QMP, coincident
with a fault that has minimal apparent throw on it.
Cadia Quarry and Cadia Hill demonstrates that
alkalic QMP plutons need to be explored thoroughly,
as domains of mineralisation can occur internally or
on their margins, without any obvious indications of
mineralisation in the monzonite close to the orebody.
Acknowledgments
This publication was made possible by the generous
support of Newcrest Mining Limited, for which they
are thanked. The content of the paper was improved by
comments and discussions with John Holliday and Ian
Tedder.
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55
 Low- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
deposits
J. BRUCE GEMMELL
Introduction
Low- and intermediate-sulphidation epithermal deposits
have produced significant quantities of gold and silver,
along with minor amounts of base metals, and continue
to be a major target for precious metal explorers. As well
as research on ancient deposits, investigations of their
modern analogues, active geothermal systems, have led to
many new concepts in the understanding of epithermal
deposits which aid in the development of genetic and
exploration models.
The salient geologic and genetic features of low- and
intermediate-sulfidation gold-silver and gold-silver-lead-
zinc deposits (Table 1) are outlined here, as Hedenquist
et al. (2004) cover the characteristics of high-sulfidation
deposits. Information presented in this abstract is based
on the author's own observations and selected papers
that summarise the geologic and genetic characteristics
of epithermal deposits (e.g., Buchanan, 1981; Heald et
al., 1987; Reyes, 1990; Sillitoe, 1993, 1997; Hedenquist
and Lowenstern, 1994; White et al., 1995; White and
Hedenquist, 1990, 1995; White and Poizat 1995;
Hedenquist et al., 2000; Cooke and Simmons, 2000;
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Einaudi et al., 2003;
Simmons and White, in review).
Classification
Since the early 1900s epithermal Gold and Ag deposits of
both vein and bulk-tonnage styles have been characterised
by a myriad of terms, but recently they have been are
classified into high-, intermediate-, and low-sulfidation
Centre for Ore Deposit Research, University of Tasmania,
Private Bag 79, Hobart, Australia 7001
57
types (Hedenquist et al., 2000). This classification was
initially based on the oxidation state of sulfur in the fluid
(Hedenquist, 1987) but this proved to be an impractical
way of interpreting deposits in the field. Currently the
classification is based on the sulfidation states of observed
hypogene sulfude assemblages (Hedenquist et al., 2000;
Sillitoe and Hendequist, 2003). Low-sulfidation deposits
contain pyrite-pyrrhotite-arsenopyrite and high Fe
sphalerite while intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
deposits contain an assemblage of pyrite-tetrahedrite/
tennantite-chalcopynte and low Fe sphalerite (Hedenquist
et al., 2000). A further subdivision of low-sulfidation
deposits is based on the associated magmatic rocks (e.g.,
alkalic-type low sulfidation-deposits). However to many
economic geologists working in the epithermal realm,
intermediate-sulfidation deposits are considered a subset
of low-sulfidation deposits and not a separate deposit
type-
Classic examples of low-sulfidation epithermal deposits
are Hishikari and Kushikino (Japan), Waihi and Golden
Cross (New Zealand), Pajingo-Vera Nancy (Australia),
Round Mountain, McLaughlin, Midas, Bullfrog and
Sleeper (USA), El Penon (Chile), and Cerro Vanguardia
and Esquel (Argentina). Ladolam and Porgera (Papua
New Guinea), Cripple Creek (USA), and Emperor (Fiji)
are alkalic-type, low-sulfidation epithermal deposits.
Examples of intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
deposits are Fresnillo, Guanajuato and Pachuca-Real de
Monte (Mexico), Rosia Montana (Romania), Baguio
and Victoria (Philippines), Creede and Comstock Lode
(USA) and Kelian and Mt Muro (Indonesia).
Tectonic setting and distribution
Most low-sulfidation deposits are associated with subaenal
bimodal (basalt-ryholite) volcanic suites in a broad
spectrum of extenstional tectonic settings, including
/. Bruce Gemmell

Table 1 Geologic and genetic characteristics of low- and intermediate-sulfidation deposits.

Characteristics low-sulfidation deposits alkalic-type low-sulfidation deposits intermediate-sulfidation deposits
Tectonic setting extensional continental and island extensional island and continental extensional continental and
arcs arcs compressive
intra-, near-, back-arc, post- island arcs
collisional
Genetically related calc-alkaline, alakaline, calc-alkaline,
igneous rocks rhyolite—basalt (bi modal) basalt-trachyte andesite—rhyodacite, locally rhyolite
Typical host rocks domes, volcaniclastic & sedimentary domes, volcaniclastic & sedimentary lava flows, pyroclastic, basement,
units units diatremes
Metal signature Au-Ag, Au-Ag, Ag-Au, Zn, Pb, Cu
(Pb, Zn, Cu, Mo, As, Sb, Hg) (Te, Zn, Pb, Cu, Mo, As, Sb, Hg) (Sb, As, Mo, Te, Se, Hg)
Au content <1 to > 1000 (t) 70 to > 1000 (t) <1 to 700 (t)
Ag/Au 0.5-20 0.1-1 10-1500
Tonnage and Au grade low tonnage, high grade mid-high tonnage, low grade mid-high tonnage, low grade
Deposit style veins, stockwork, vein breccia, veins, vein breccia, breccia infill veins, vein breccia, breccia infill,
breccia infill, disseminations stockwork, disseminations stockwork, disseminations
Ore minerals electrum, acanthite, Ag-sulfosalts, electrum, acanthite, tellurides, electrum, acanthite, Ag-sulfosalts,
sphalerite (high Fe), galena, sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite- sphalerite (low Fe), galena,
tetrahedrite- tetrahedrite-
tennantite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite tennantite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite tennantite, chalcopyrite, selenides,
pyrrhotite, selenides, tellurides pyrrhotite tellurides
Ore mineral abundance <l-2vol. % 2-10 vol. % 5-20 vol. %
Gangue minerals quartz, chalcedony, calcite, adularia quartz, chalcedony, calcite, barite quartz, chalcedony, calcite ±
illite, chlorite, minor fluorite celestite, fluorite Mn carbonate, adularia, barite,
Mn-silicates
Mineral textures crustiform, colloform, cockade, crustiform, colloform, cockade, crustiform, colloform, cockade, comb,
comb, comb,
carbonate replacement carbonate replacement
Proximal alteration quartz, illite, smectite, adularia roscoelite, illite, adularia quartz, sericite (illite), adularia
Fluid Inclusions 150°-300°C, <2 wt % NaCl equiv. 15O°-3OO°C, 3-10 wt % NaCl 200°-300°C, 0-23 wt % NaCl equiv.
equiv.
Depth of formation shallow, 0-300 m shallow, 0-300 m deep, 300-800m (rarely >1000 m)
Fluid characteristics meteoric + magmatic, meteoric + magmatic meteoric + magmatic
near-neutral, reduced near-neutral, reduced-oxidised near-neutral, reduced
Examples Hishikari, Japan; Golden Cross, NZ; Ladolam & Porgera, Papua New Fresnillo & Pacucha-Real del Monte,
Guinea; Mexico;
McLaughlin, USA; Cerro Emperor, Fiji; Cripple Creek, USA
Vanguardia, Creede, USA; Baguio, Philippines;
Argentina; Pajingo, Australia
Kelian & Mt Muro, Indonesia
Data from Buchanan (1981), Hedenquist et al. (2000), Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003), Hedenquist et al. (2004); Simmons and White (in
review).

intra-, near-, and back-arc, as well as postcollisional rifts.
In contrast, intermediate-sulfidation deposits occur in a
spectrum of calc-alkaline andesite-dacite arcs characterised
by near-neutral stress states or mild extension, but
commonly do not show a close connection with porphyry
Cu deposits as do many high-sulfidation deposit which
form in broadly similar tectonic environments (Sillitoe
and Hedenquist, 2003). However, igneous rocks as silicic
as rhyolite are related to a few intermediate-sulfidation
deposits. Irregardless of the tectonic setting, low- and
intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits can be
hosted in a variety of host lithologies including volcanic,
volcaniclastic, sedimentary and basement metamorphk
rocks. Low- and intermediate-sulfidation deposits are
primarily located in modern and ancient subduction-
related environments, principally throughout the circum-
Pacific region and Europe-central Asia.

58

A subset of low-sulfidation deposits is associated
with extensional-related, alkaline magmatism (Richards,
1995; Jensen and Barton, 2000; Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
2003). Many alkalic-type epithermal deposits, such as
Cripple Creek (Colorado), Emperor (Fiji), and Porgera
and Ladolam (Papua New Guinea), are hosted within or
adjacent to alkalic intrusive rocks and related volcanic
structures (diatremes or calderas). This is one difference
commonly observed between typical calc-alkalic, low-
sulfidation systems and alkalic-type epithermal systems:
the former are commonly distal to potential source
intrusions, and are often thought to be unrelated to
magmatic hydrothermal activity as a consequence
(Richards, 1995). In most respects however, alkalic-type
epithermal deposits differ little from low-sulfidation
epithermal deposits associated with calc-alkalic magmas.
Although it is generally considered that epithermal
mineralisation forms in subaerial environments, there
are examples of epithermal mineralisation forming in
submarine environments (Hannington et al., 1999).
One such example is Conical seamount, a submarine
alkalic volcano located 10 km south of Lihir island in
the Tabar-Feni island chain, eastern Papua New Guinea.
Polymetallic (Zn-Pb-Ag—Au-As-Sb) vein mineralisation
and associated pyritic stockwork located on the summit
of Conical seamount (Herzig et al., 1995, 1998) is an
example of submarine gold-rich mineralisation with
a number of mineralogical, chemical, and textural
characteristics in common with some subaerial low-
sulfidation epithermal systems (Petersen et al., 2002).
Gold concentrations in samples from Conical seamount
reach 230 ppm Gold with an average of 25 ppm (n =
40) and are the highest yet discovered on the modern
sea-floor (Herzig et al., 1999; Petersen et al., 2002). The
epithermal mineralisation and alteration assemblage
observed on Conical seamount are similar to those at the
Ladolam deposit on Lihir island.
Grade and tonnage
Low-sulfidation deposits contain gold and silver as
the main metals with minor amounts of zinc, lead,
copper, molybdenum, arsenic, antimony and mercury.
Intermediate-sulfidation deposits contain silver-gold,
zinc, lead and copper as the main metals with minor
molybdenum, arsenic and Sb. In general, intermediate-
sulfidation deposits are silver- and base-metal-rich compared
to the gold-rich low-sulfidation deposits (Hedenquist
et al., 2000). Gold-grade vs tonnage plots of epithermal
deposits (e.g., Fig. 9 of Hendenquist et al., 2000) indicates
that low- (including intermediate-) sulfidation deposits
commonly have a higher, average gold grade but lower
tonnage compared to high-sulfidation deposits, which
often have a higher tonnage but lower gold grade.
59
Low- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits
Figure 1 shows 58 low- and intermediate-sulfidation
deposits (4 are alkalic-type low-sulfidation, 36 are low-
sulfidation and 18 are intermediate-sulfidation) in terms
of total gold and silver content. Sixteen deposits (4-
alkalic, 7-intermediate, 5-low) have a total gold content
exceeding 200 tonnes (Fig. 1A). All of the alkalic-type
low-sulfidation deposits contain greater than 200 tonnes
gold, with Ladolam containing the greatest amount of
gold (1190 tonnes) of all the low- and intermediate-
sulfidation deposits.
Most descriptions of the metal contents of epithermal
deposits concentrate on the gold content and tend to
overlook the importance of silver. Figure IB lists the silver
content of the 58 deposits and illustrates that the top 11
deposits are all of the intermediate-sulfidation type. Five
of the top six are from Mexico, with the Pacucha-Real
del Monte district containing the highest total Ag (over
45,000 tonnes). Total silver content is generally one to
two orders of magnitude greater than the gold content
for low- and intermediate-sulfidation deposits, with Ag/
Au values of 1 to over 1000 (Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
2003; Simmons and White, in review). Mexico is the
world's premier epithermal silver province. It contains
silver-dominant (Fresnillo), silver-gold (Pachuca-Real
del Monte and Guanajuato) and gold—silver (Tayoltita)
intermediate-sulfidation deposits (Albinson et al.,
2001).
Form and mineralogy
Epithermal deposits are extremely variable in form, and
much of this variability is caused by strong permeability
differences in the near-surface environment, resulting
from lithologic, structural, and hydrothermal phenomena
(Hedenquist et al., 2000). Low- and intermediate-
sulfidation deposits typically vary from vein through
stockwork to disseminated and breccia forms. Open space-
filling crustiform, colloform cockade and comb textures
are common in both low-and intermediate-sulfidation
deposits. Lattice textures comprising aggregates of platy
calcite and their quartz pseudomorphs are a common and
diagnostic feature of low- and intermediate-sulfidation
deposits (Cooke and Simmons, 2000).
Economic mineralisation may occur over a 100 m up
to =1 km vertical interval, and may extend up to several
kilometres along strike for a single vein. The vertical
interval of low-sulfidation ore zones typically averages
about 300 m (Buchanan, 1981), but may be as large as
600—1000 m for intermediate sulfidation-state deposits,
or in the case of high-grade, low-sulfidation deposits,
may be as little as 100-150 m (Hedenquist et al., 2000).
The areal extent of individual deposits ranges from < 10
to > 200 km2 (Simmons and White, in review).
/. Bruce Gemmell

Au (tonnes) Ag (tonnes)

Figure 1 Total contained gold (A) and Ag (B) in tonnes for 58 low- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits. Color code: purple
low-sulfidation deposits, yellow- alkalic-type low-sulfidation deposits, green - intermediate-sulfidation deposits. Data from Sillitoe (1997'.
Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) and Simmons and White (in review).

Gangue minerals in low- and intermediate-sulfidation
deposits are essentially the same and consist of quartz
and/or chalcedony with lesser and variable amounts of
adularia, carbonate (calcite, rhodocrosite) illite, chlorite
and pyrite (Simmons and White, in review). Barite,
fluorite, and celestite are common locally (Sillitoe and
Hedenquist, 2003). Many alkalic epithermal deposits
contain roscoelite and/or fluorite (Richards, 1995).
In both low- and intermediate-sulfidation epitherma.
deposits, gold typically occurs as electrum and ran
tellurides. Silver occurs as electrum, acanthite or a varier
of silver-sulfosalts ('ruby silvers'; Gemmell et al., 1988
1989). Selenide minerals are rare but commonly moti
abundant in low-sulfidation deposits. In low-sulfidatiot
deposits the precious metal-bearing minerals as;
commonly accompanied by minor amounts of sphalerite

60

galena, tetrahednte-tennantite, pyrite and chalcopyrite
with minor to very minor arsenopyrite and/or pyrrhotite.
In contrast, intermediate sulfidation deposits contain
substantially greater quantities of sphalerite, galena,
tetrahedrite-tennantite, chalcopyrite and pyrite (Sillitoe
and Hedenquist, 2003; Simmons and White, in review).
Typically total sulfide content is < 2 vol. % in low-
sulfidation deposits, up to 10 vol. % in alkalic-type low-
sulfidation deposits, and > 20 vol. % in intermediate-
sulfidation deposits (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
In the vertically attenuated deposits, mineralogical and
textural zonation is generally observed, with deep-level
vein mineralisation characterised by coarse euhedral
textures, and by abundant carbonates and base metal
sulfides. Shallow-level systems tend to be more siliceous,
have finer-grained vein material and are associated with
clay-bearing assemblages (illite and smectite). Phreatic
breccias are common in some systems; in others, vein
mineralisation is intimately associated with dilational
structures.
Alteration
Both low-and intermediate-sulfidation deposits have
similar alteration mineralogy and zonation. Alteration
mineralogy, assemblages and zonation are best determined
using a combination of surface mapping, drill hole
logging, thin section petrology, SWIR (PIMA), XRD
and potassium feldspar staining. Propylitic (chlorite,
calcite ± epidote) alteration forms at deep levels and gives
way upward to increasing amounts of clay (smectite/
mixed-layer clay ± chlorite), carbonate and zealoites,
whereas quartz, adularia, illite and pyrite form proximal
alteration enveloping ore bodies (Buchanan, 1981;
Hedenquist et al., 2000, Cooke and Simmons, 2000;
Simmons and White, in review). The alteration halos to
the zone of ore, particularly in vein deposits, include a
variety of temperature-sensitive clay minerals that can
help to indicate locations of paleofluid flow (Hedenquist
etal.,2000).
Distinct zonation of alteration assemblages is
much more pronounced in the mafic-intermediate
composition-hosted deposits as compared to the
felsic composition-hosted systems. In the mafic and
intermediate composition-hosted systems the distal
propylitic alteration is better developed compared to the
felsic systems. Supergene blankets of advanced argillic
alteration occur above some low- and intermediate
sulfidation systems, forming by the condensation of gases
that initially separated from deep boiling chloride waters
into the shallow groundwater table.
Alteration zones in low- and intermediate-sulfidation
epithermal districts are commonly larger than the
related ore deposit and consequently the recognition of
61
Low- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits
mineralogical, chemical or isotopic zonation within areas
of alteration may provide a basis for developing vectors
to the ore deposit.
Genesis
The distinct differences between epithermal deposit
types, specifically the ore mineralogy and metal
complement, are largely controlled by the composition
of the ore fluid (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). In
general, low- and intermediate-sulfidation mineralisation
is precipitated in the shallow crustal environment ( 0 - 1
km) by near-neutral (pH « 6), reduced (H2S > SC>4~2),
variable salinity, moderate temperature (» 150°—300°C),
boiling, gassy (CO 2 - and H2S-rich) fluids. Essentially the
main difference between the fluids responsible for low-
or intermediate epithermal mineralisation is salinity.
Low-sulfidation deposits generally have salinities <5
wt % NaCl equiv., whereas intermediate-sulfidation
deposits have salinities of 0—20 wt % NaCl equiv.
(Albinson et al., 2001; Simmons and White, in review).
Simmons (1995) and Albinson et al. (2001) used the
fluid inclusion salinity data from Mexican deposits to
highlight the distinct correlation between fluid salinity
and metal complement: Zn-Pb-silver deposits (12 to 23
wt % NaCl equiv.), silver-Zn-Pb deposits (7.5 to 12 wt
% NaCl equiv.), silver-rich deposits (3.5 to 7-5 wt %
NaCl equiv.), and gold-rich deposits (<3.5 wt % NaCl
equiv.). Thus, there is a clear relationship between low
salinities and low Ag/Au ratios, as well as low base metal
contents (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). Interestingly,
the fluid responsible for quartz and gangue deposition
in intermediate-sulfidation vein deposits is commonly
much lower in salinity than the ore and related minerals
(Simmons, 1991; Albinson et al., 2001
Alkalic-type low sulfidation epithermal deposits
contain fluid inclusions with salinities of <5 to 10 wt
% NaCl equiv. (Richards, 1995; Simmons and White,
in review). Although the salinity of fluids forming the
alkalic-type low sulfidation deposits are similar to many
intermediate-sulfidation deposits they are intriguingly
gold dominant and deficient in silver and base metals.
There is substantial mineralogical, fluid inclusion,
and stable isotope evidence for boiling in low- and
intermediate-sulfidation epithermal systems, and it can be
a highly effective process for precious metal deposition.
Fluid mixing is less likely to be important for ore formation.
Mixing within the ore zone is genrally restricted to late-
stage collapse of the hydrothermal system, which allows
descent of steam-heated waters into the mineralised
environment and produces barren carbonate or sulfate
gangue (Cooke and Simmons, 2000).
Stable isotope (S,C,O,H) data for most low-and
intermediate-sulfidation epithermal deposits indicate
/. Bruce Gemmell
ore-forming solutions are mainly composed of deeply
circulated meteoric water, with small but variable inputs
of magmatic fluid (Cooke and Simmons, 2000; Simmons
and White, in review). Stable isotope data for the alkalic-
type low-sulfidation deposits suggest a greater input of
magmatic fluids (Richards, 1995; Simmons and White,
in review).
Low sulfidation deposits and modern subaerial
geothermal systems such as Broadlands, New Zealand
form via convection of near-neutral pH chloride waters
(Henley and Ellis, 1983; White and Hedenquist, 1990).
Numerous insights into the processes that operate in
the low- and intermediate-sulfidation environment have
been gained from studies of modern geothermal systems.
For example, boiling and fluid mixing are known to be
important processes that drive mineral deposition in the
subsurface environment of geothermal systems, and these
processes are inferred to be the major mechanisms for
gold and silver deposition in the low- and intermediate-
sulfidation epithermal environment.
Despite a broad spectrum of volcanotectonic settings,
the salinity of fluids in geothermal systems is limited to
<2 wt % NaCl equiv., even at depths of 3 km (Hedenquist
and Henley, 1985; Giggenbach, 1995; Simmons, 1995;
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). However the salinities in
the intermediate- and alkalic low-sulfidation epithermal
deposits are considerably higher, in excess of 20 wt %
NaCl equiv. These higher salinity fluids have been
considered to be produced by the presence of a saline fluid
associated with syn-hydrothermal dike intrusion, phase
separation at the solvus, direct exsolution from magma,
and a basinal evaporotic source (Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
2003). While there is no general consensus for the source
of these high salinity fluids there is considerable evidence
for the presence of a brine reservoir at depth in these
systems (e.g., Simmons, 1991).
There is evidence for a spatial, and in some cases
genetic, relationship between high- and intermediate-
sulfidation deposits (Sillitoe, 1999; Hedenquist et al.,
2000), and therefore the two deposit types may be
considered as being potentially transitional (Einaudi et
al., 2003). Evidence for a spatial or genetic relationship
between low- and intermediate-sulfidation epithermal
deposits is lacking as they largely form in distinct tectonic
settings (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). However,
within some of these deposits particular stages of ore-
gangue precipitation can oscillate between mineralogies
that can be defined as low- and intermediate sulfidation
(e.g., Fresnillo, Gemmell et al., 1988), primarily due to
rapid changes in fluid chemistry.
62
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63
 The Kelian gold deposit — exploration history,
critical factors and deposit summary
ANDREW G.S. DAVES, THEO M. VAN LEEUWEN, DAVID R. COOKE, J. BRUCE GEMMELL
Introduction
The Kelian Gold Deposit (KGD) is the largest of several
ore deposits that define a northeast-trending belt in East
Kalimantan (Table 1). These ore deposits are associated
with Tertiary magmatic centres. With a total resource of
92.1 Mt @ 2.61 g/t Au (-240 metric tonnes contained
gold; P. Cesare, pers comm., 2002) Kelian is Indonesia's
largest gold-only ore deposit. Kelian is located in the
province of East Kalimantan, Indonesia on the island
of Borneo (Fig. 1). Borneo is surrounded by three
marginal ocean basins (the Celebes, Sulu and South
China Seas), Indochina, Peninsular Malaysia and several
microcontinental fragments (Moss et al., 1997). The
geological elements that comprise Borneo range in age
from Palaeozoic to Tertiary, and record several episodes
of continental rifting and amalgamation, subduction and
accretion, and major basin formation. In broadest terms,
Borneo consists of several Palaeozoic to Mesozoic crustal
blocks, joined to remnant ocean basins and overlain by a
sequence of Cretaceous turbidites in the northwest, and
Tertiary marine and terrestrial basins in the south and
east (Fig. 1). The Cretaceous and Tertiary evolution was
punctuated by several magmatic events of which Miocene
magmatism has been the most productive for generation
of epithermal gold mineralisation.
In addition to being a giant ore deposit (>200 t Au;
Laznicka, 1983), Kelian is significant as it belongs to a
subclass of important, yet seldom documented, base-
metal-rich epithermal deposits. These have been described
as sulfide and base-metal-rich low sulfidation epithermal
deposits (Sillitoe, 1989), carbonate-base-metal gold
deposits by Corbett and Leach (1998) and intermediate-
Email: andrew_g_davies@hotmail.com
65
sulfidation epithermal deposits by Hedenquist et al.
(2000). Previous work at Kelian (van Leeuwen et al.,
1990) identified many characteristics, which are consistent
with low-sulfidation epithermal deposits (e.g., White and
Hedenquist, 1990); however, Kelian also displays many
features that are not common in many low-sulfidation
epithermal systems (e.g., abundant base metals, low quartz
abundance, high temperature and moderate salinity fluid
inclusions; van Leeuwen et al., 1990; Corbett and Leach,
1998; Davies, 2002). It is associated with a wide range
of pre- and intra-mineral breccias, some of which have
been interpreted as phreatomagmatic (diatreme) breccias
(van Leeuwen et al., 1990; Sillitoe, 1997; Davies et al.,
1999), and is intimately associated with coeval andesitic
and rhyolitic intrusions (van Leeuwen et al., 1990).
There are few descriptions of the geology of Kelian
in the public domain. Brief accounts were provided by
Ferguson (1986), Hawke (1992) and Corbett and Leach
(1998). van Leeuwen et al. (1990) presented a study of
the host rocks, exploration geochemistry, mineralogy
and paragenesis, fluid inclusion and stable isotope data
available from the deposit prior to the start of mining.
The current paper summarises the exploration history
presented by van Leeuwen et al. (1990), provides an
update with the addition of exploration advances made
during mining of the KGD (1991—2003) and a summary
of key factors contributing to exploration success at
Kelian. The reader is referred to van Leeuwen et al. (1990)
for in depth discussions of geophysical and geochemical
results and to Ferguson (1986) and van Leeuwen et al.
(1990) for discussion of the early geological models, of
which many features have stood the test of time. A brief
overview of the current geologic model for the KGD,
largely extracted from the summary of Davies et al.
(2003), is also included.
 The Kelian gold deposit — exploration history, critical factors and deposit summary
Geologic Setting
The KGD is located within the Tertiary Kutai Basin,
near the northern end of a structurally uplifted zone of
sedimentary and volcaniclastic rocks (Fig. 2). This uplift
zone is located at a flexure on a northerly-trending,
regional scale strike slip fault zone and is split roughly
north-south by a second strike-slip fault (the West
Prampus Fault). On the west side of the West Prampus
Fault is a sequence of intensely faulted carbonaceous
sedimentary units (the western sedimentary succession).
To the east of the West Prampus Fault is the core of
the uplifted zone, which consists of distinctive felsic
volcaniclastic rocks. These rocks are not known from
other locations in the Kelian area. Extents of the felsic
units (approximately 1.5 km east—west and > 10 km
north-south) are poorly constrained away from the
KGD. To the east of the Kelian River, the volcaniclastic
rocks appear to be conformably overlain by a sequence
of shallowly southeast- to northeast-dipping, non-
volcanic, Mahakam Group sedimentary rocks. Within
the uplifted zone, numerous faults have disrupted
bedding orientations and complicated the distribution of
sedimentary units. Miocene, intermediate (andesite and
diorite) to felsic (rhyolite) stocks and dykes have intruded
67
Plio-Pleistocene volcanics
Oligocene - Early Miocene
Crocker and Temburong flysch
Tertiary basins and Recent
sediments
Eocene volcanics (including Kelian
volcanics)
Turbiditic sedimentary rocks - Rajang Group;
melange zones; gabbroic / basic complexes
Schwaner Mountains - Early to Late Cretaceous
granite, tonalite intruded into Paleozoic rocks
Semitau Ridge Early to Middle Cretaceous
Selangkai Formation and melange zones
Meratus Mountains and Laut Island - Early
Cretaceous volcanic arc and ophiolite sequence
Ophiolite, basic / uitrabasic units
Triassic-Jurassic metamorphics & volcanics;
Late Triassic sediments & Embuoi Complex -
Permo-Triassic granites and metamorphics
Major lineament, fault or fold
Figure 1 Simplified geology of Borneo
(modified after Moss and Chambers,
1999).
sedimentary and felsic volcaniclastic units (van Leeuwen
et al., 1990) within and to the west of the structural inlier.
Plio-Pleistocene mafic lava flows and volcaniclastic units
are widespread, particularly to the northwest of Kelian.
These mafic units unconformably overlie the intrusive,
sedimentary and felsic volcanic units. Kelian sits to the
southwest of several mafic volcanic cones and several
voluminous plateau basalt flows.
Exploration history
Discovery
Geologists from Rio Tinto Indonesia (RTI), a subsidiary
of CRA Exploration at the time, first entered the upper
Mahakam River in 1974 in search of reported alluvial
gold occurrences in several tributaries. Small alluvial gold
deposits were identified in the lower Kelian River and
recommendations were made to conduct evaluations
further upstream. Indigenous Dayaks had first discovered
alluvial gold at Kelian in the 1950s (van Leeuwen et al.,
1990). Follow-up work in 1975 indicated that the alluvial
deposits in the Kelian River were too small to be of interest
to RTI; however, it was noted that the alluvial gold grains
had juvenile characteristics and that potential existed for
Andrew G.S. Davies, Theo M. van Leeuwen, David R, Cooke, J. Bruce Gemmell

Figure 2 Local geology of the Kelian area. Geology modified after Hartshorn (1994), van Leeuwen et al. (1990) and Ferguson (1986).

68
 The Kelian gold deposit — exploration history, critical factors and deposit summary
a nearby bedrock gold source. These characteristics and
high placer grades maintained exploration interest in the
Kelian River area (van Leeuwen et al., 1990). In 1976
RTI geologists reached the Prampus area, now the site
of the Kelian Gold Deposit (KGD), and collected the
first bedrock samples from veins and altered volcanic
rocks. These samples returned values up to 100 g/t Au
and, significantly the altered volcanic rocks yielded values
between 1 and 2 g/t Au.
Early exploration and drilling
A major phase of surface exploration followed in 1977
with detailed mapping, soil sampling, deep auger
sampling and trenching. The majority of the main
mineralised zones did not outcrop in drainages or jungle
exposures (van Leeuwen et ah, 1990) and were initially
defined by soil geochemistry. The soil program identified
a -I km2 > 0.5 ppm Au in soil anomaly, which contained
several strongly anomalous areas in excess of 2 ppm Au
(Fig. 3). The highest priority anomalies were tested in
1978 with a six hole drilling program. With a gold price
of US$200—250 it was thought that an average grade of
4 g/t would be required for an economic gold deposit in
the Kelian area (van Leeuwen et ah, 1990). The combined
results from trench and drill data failed to define a viable
economic target.
With a sharp rise in gold price and a favourable re-
evaluation of data by CRAE geologists in 1978/1979,
interest was renewed in Kelian and a further 38 holes were
drilled between 1980 and 1981. These holes delineated a
resource of 25 Mt @ 2—3 g/t and prompted an application
for a Contract of Work with the Indonesian Government
in 1981 (van Leeuwen et ah, 1990). Exploration activity
was limited to deep soil auger sampling to evaluate
oxide ore potential during until early 1985 when the
Government signed the Contract of Work.
The tail of a giant
With the contract of work signed, RTI embarked on a
major exploration program consisting of: trenching, a
mercury in soil sampling programme (to identify blind
mineralisation), an induced polarisation (IP) survey and
diamond drilling. A broad Hg anomaly (>100 ppb) was
defined and in general coincided with the >0.2 ppm Au
in soil anomaly and the limits of hydrothermally altered
rocks (van Leeuwen et ah, 1990). Strong Hg anomalies
(>1000 ppb) overlie the main axis of the East Prampus
ore body, defined by what are now known as the 255,
393 and 394 ore zones and parts of the West Prampus
ore body (Fig. 4). The IP program delineated a broad
frequency effect anomaly, which corresponded to the Au
in soil anomaly and zone of hydro thermal alteration, and
69
several strong frequency effect and coincident resistivity
anomalies (van Leeuwen et al., 1990). Two main areas of
potential, East and West Prampus (Fig. 4), were defined
and drilled initially to a depth of 100 m. Metallurgical
test work on samples from drilling through to early 1987
showed poor recoveries from sulfide ore and insufficient
oxide resources existed for a stand-alone oxide deposit.
Consideration of a float-roast process for gold
extraction prompted further drilling of sulfide ore and
ultimately lead to drilling of hole K255. This hole
intersected 14 m @ 30 g/t Au at what was believed to
be the base of the East Prampus ore body and lead to
definition drilling of what is now referred to as the '255
zone' (Fig. 4). Identification of this ore zone marked a
turning point in the exploration of Kelian. High grade,
breccia-hosted mineralisation had been identified and
the occurrence of free gold suggested that improved
recoveries might be achieved. Success with drilling in the
255 zone led to metallurgical test drilling in 1988 and a
six-hole reconnaissance deep drilling program. Three of
the deep holes intersected high-grade mineralisation and
directly led to discovery of the K383 and K394 zones. By
mid-1989, 454 drill holes had been completed for a total
of 60,000 m of drilling. A resource of 75 Mt @ 1.8 g/t
Au had been delineated and a final feasibility study was
commissioned (van Leeuwen et al., 1990).
Early production and in-pit drilling
Mining commenced in 1991 and gold was first poured in
January 1992, 17 years after the first rock samples were
collected at Kelian. Production and grades from the KGD
exceeded predictions in the early stages of mining and
prompted an extensive in-pit drilling program to close
the drill spacing, to drill off section. In-pit drilling in
1992 and 1996 significantly improved grade estimation,
upgraded the gold content of several known ore zones,
discovered the Water Tank zone (Fig. 4) and increased the
depth potential of the KGD. Results of drilling in 1992
closed off the East Prampus ore body and were sufficient
to justify diversion of the Kelian River to permit access to
extensions of the 393 and 394 ore zones at depth beneath
the Kelian River channel.
Deep exploration
Drilling for deep reserves beneath the Kelian pit in 1997
and 2000 confirmed the occurrence of moderate-grade,
but uneconomic gold mineralisation at depths in excess of
600 m below the pre-mining surface (Fig. 4, 339 zone).
Although these drilling campaigns were unsuccessful,
they highlighted the vertical extent (>600 m) of gold
mineralisation in this class of epithermal ore deposit.
Furthermore, breccia dykes and thin, (1 mm to 2 cm)
Andrew C.S. Davies, Theo M. van Leeuwen, David R. Cooke, J. Bruce Gemmell

Kenan Deeps ore

zone (concealed at
700 mRL)

339 ore zone

f (concealed at 600
mRL)

Figure 3 Mine geology (1996/1997 exposures) compiled from unpublished Kelian Equatorial Mine mapping, unpublished RioTinto
Indonesia exploration data and Davies (2002) mapping data. East Prampus exploration drilling grid line 630N is shown for reference.
Contours of gold in soil geochemistry are shown for comparison with the main intrusion, breccia and structural elements. Compare with
distribution of ore zones illustrated in Figure 4 (modified after Davies, 2002).

70
 The Kelian gold deposit — exploration history, critical factors and deposit summary

Figure 4 1998 mine geology and ore zone boundaries. The primary ore zone (>0.5 g/t Au cut-off) is shown by the pale blue domain (red
border) that encloses most of the high-grade ore zones. Refer to Figure 3 for legend (modified after Davies, 2002).

71
Andrew G.S. Davies, Theo M. van Leeuwen, David R. Cooke,J. Bruce Gemmell

fault-controlled, veins occur within essentially unaltered
andesite intrusions greater 500—600 m above concealed
mineralisation. These veins and breccias are auriferous,
utilise the same structural controls as deep mineralisation
and are the only indication of gold potential at depth.
With the benefit of hindsight, similar intercepts occur
above several of the concealed ore zones at the KGD.
These observations highlight the commonly subtle,
peripheral alteration and mineralisation signatures in
this class of epithermal system and the importance of
rigorous data collection and integration as exploration
and/or mining progress.
Geologic model
When Kelian was originally discovered in the late 1970s,
textures and mineralogy consistent with classic low-
sulfidation gold mineralisation (e.g., laminated quartz
veins, cockade banding, cinnabar and adularia) were
recognized in the West Prampus area. As exploration
advanced it became apparent that features inconsistent
with classic low-sulfidation systems were also abundant
(e.g., widespread base-metal sulfides, lack of large,
continuous vein systems, widespread low-grade gold).
CRA and RTI were encouraged to pursue exploration
in part due to application of a porphyry gold model
which, although ultimately incorrect, assisted with
driving exploration for a large, bulk-mineable deposit. As
exploration and mining advanced, genetic concepts were
developed and modified with significant contributions
being made by Ferguson (1986), van Leeuwen et al.
(1990), Sillitoe, (1993); Corbett and Leach (1998) and
many other RTI, CRAE and Kelian Equatorial Mining
geologists. The recognition of diatreme breccias, related
felsic intrusions and application of maar-diatreme
(Sillitoe, 1993) and subsequently porphyry-related
carbonate-base-metal epithermal gold models (Corbett
and Leach, 1998) marked major advances in the
understanding of the KGD. The following brief deposit
summary has been extracted from Davies et al. (2003)
and represents the evolution of the understanding of the
KGD built through the efforts of many geologists during
exploration and mining at Kelian.
Hydrothermal activity at Kelian began when
feldspar-hornblende-phyric andesite intrusions were
emplaced into rhombic, extensional domains defined
by northwest- and northeast-striking faults (Figs 3, 4) at
around 22 Ma. Subsequent intrusion of quartz-phyric
and quartz-feldspar-phyric rhyolite into the already-active
hydrothermal system at Kelian triggered widespread
phreatomagmatic and hybrid phreatomagmatic-phreatic
explosions and eruptions. The subsurface facies and
remnants of the eruptive facies of a maar-diatreme
complex, and genetically related, mineralised phreatic
and hydraulic breccias have been delineated at Kelian
and are intimately related to mineralisation (Fig. 5). The
Kelian Breccia Complex records the effects of magma
intrusion into an active hydrothermal system and the
ensuing disruption, reorganisation and enhancement
of that system. The root zones of the phreatomagmatic
explosions are preserved and provide direct textural
evidence of magma-water interaction. Widespread
phreatic explosions were triggered by the catastrophic
disruption of the hydrothermal system caused by
magma emplacement and diatreme formation. The
return towards steady state conditions is recorded by the
progression from explosive phreatic breccias, to in situ
hydraulic breccias.
Gold mineralisation occurs in a combination of
sheeted and conjugate veins, breccias and disseminations
and was controlled by structure, lithological contacts,
zones of increased permeability and physical and chemical
processes in the hydrothermal system. In contrast to
many low-sulfidation epithermal gold deposits, quartz
is a minor infill component and base-metal sulfides are
abundant at Kelian. A paragenetic sequence consisting
often mineralisation stages (1A, IB, 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B,
3C, 3D, 4, 5) has been defined for the Kelian system
(Davies, 2002). There is an overall progression through
the paragenetic sequence from pyrite-dominated to base
metal-sulfide-dominated and finally sulfosalt dominated
mineralisation. Gangue minerals also change, from
adularia and/or quartz, to quartz—illite and finally to
carbonate dominant. Stage 1 mineralisation consists
of proximal illite—pyrite—quartz cemented veins and
breccias and distal calcite-quartz ± epidote veins. Stage
2 mineralisation consists of pyrite-quartz—illite and
minor base metal sulfides in the northern Kelian area,
and adularia—quartz—pyrite in the south. A transition
to abundant base-metal sulfides (galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite) occurs between stages 2 and 3A. In addition
to base-metal sulfides, stage 3A mineralisation contains
ubiquitous pyrite, local sulfosalts and abundant native
gold. Stage 3B mineralisation was coeval with stage 3A,

OPPOSITE: Figure 5 Comparison of structural geology and gold (head grade) distribution on East Prampus Grid section 630N
(refer to Fig. 3 for section location). Gold distribution in the 393 zone consists of subvertical trends which correspond to the location of
hydrothermally cemented phreatic and hydraulic breccias (the 393 Breccia) and linear trends within the breccias that correspond to NE, NW
and NNE fault traces. The 383 ore zone is associated with the NW-striking 383 fault. The Tepu ore zone is located at the intersection of the
Tepu Fault, East Prampus Fault and the Tepu Breccia contact. The northern margin of the 255 ore zone is located within a hydrothermally
cemented breccia near the surface between the Eastern Andesite and Burung Breccia (modified after Davies, 2002).

72
The Kelian gold deposit — exploration history, critical factors and deposit summary

Basalt

Polymict and monomict, hydrothermaliy cemented breccia

Polymict carbonaceous breccia

Monomict, carbonaceous breccia

73
Andrew G.S. Davies, Theo M. van Leeuwen, David R. Cooke, J. Bruce Gemmell
but occurred at depth and on the flanks of the Kelian
system. It consists of base-metal sulfides along with
pyrrhotite-marcasite-melnikovite. Widespread boiling
is indicated by abundant bladed carbonate in stage 3C.
Stage 4 mineralisation consists of sulfosalts and sulfides
intergrown with laminated and bladed rhodochrosite.
Gold deposition occurred throughout stages 1 to 4, but
was most significant during stage 3 and 4. Native gold
principally occurs as inclusions within and intergrown
with pyrite, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, quartz,
bladed carbonate and sulfosalts (Davies et al., 2003).
Hydrothermal alteration is zoned about contacts,
faults, breccias and veins. Within andesite intrusions,
alteration grades from proximal quartz-illite—pyrite
(QIP) through illite-carbonate-pyrite (ICP) and illite-
chlorite—carbonate (ICC) to distal chlorite—calcite-illite
(CCI) assemblages. Alteration zonation in volcaniclastic
host rocks grades from proximal QIP to distal smectite—
illite (SMI) alteration. Local, intense adularia—quartz-
illite (AQI) and/or carbonate alteration assemblages
are spatially associated with adularia and carbonate in-
fill respectively. Alteration distribution is controlled
by lithology, structure and host-rock permeability.
Variations in illite crystallinity and composition have
been qualitatively assessed through the use of a portable
short wave infrared mineral analyser (PIMA). Illite
crystallinity increases systematically with increasing gold
grades (Davies et al., 2003).
Fluid inclusion analyses from Davies (2002), Simmons
and Browne (1990) and other workers (summarised in
van Leeuwen et al., 1990) have revealed the presence of
anomalously saline fluid inclusions, in particular in stages
3A and 3C, during which the bulk of gold and base
metals were deposited. The salinity and homogenisation
temperature arrays suggest that isothermal mixing of
low-salinity (^0 to 2 % eq. wt.% NaCl) with moderate-
salinity fluids (10 to 25 % eq. wt.% NaCl), rather than
boiling, resulted in the spread in salinity values for
sphalerite, carbonate and quartz (stage 3). Salinities of
^4 to 6 eq. wt.% NaCl for adularia, quartz (stages 2B
and 4), rhodochrosite and proustite—pyrargynte may also
reflect a component of mixing with the moderate salinity
fluid.
S and C—O isotopes results from Kelian are consistent
with a magmatic source for S (Davies, 2002) and C (van
Leeuwen et al., 1990). The origin of the mineralising
brine cannot be confirmed from the data available, but a
magmatic source is inferred (Davies et al., 2003).
Conclusions
The KGD location, emplacement of intrusions, breccia
localisation and mineralisation were fundamentally
controlled by district- to deposit-scale structure. At the
74
deposit-scale, medium to small-scale faults were critical
in controlling deposition of low to medium (>2—5 g/t
Au) and high (>5 g/t) grade gold mineralisation (Fig. 5)
through controls on fluid flow, vein development, ore
shoot localisation within breccia bodies and structural
intersections and at fault-lithologic contact intersections,
Many subtle structural controls were not obvious in drill
core and their importance was not fully appreciated until
blast hole, section and structural mapping and drill core
data were integrated.
The observed mineralogy, stable isotopic compositions,
temperatures and salinities are consistent with a reducing
(mH2S >> mSO42"), H2S-rich, and saline mineralising
fluid at Kelian. Gold was most likely transported as a
bisulfide complex (Au(HS),"), and Pb and Zn transported
as chloride complexes. Gold deposition is inferred to
have resulted from a combination of: (1) boiling; (2)
desulfidation due to stripping of H 2 S by base metal sulfide
deposition; (3) isothermal mixing between a reduced,
sulfur-rich, saline fluid and a reduced, sulfur deficient,
dilute fluid; and (4) wall rock sulfidation. Permeability
enhancement by phreatic brecciation provided the
focus for hydrothermal fluid flow. This environment
promoted widespread boiling and fluid mixing, resulting
in formation of the giant gold resource (Davies et al,
2003).
The exploration history and progressive increases in
identified contained gold resources summarized in this
overview emphasize the difficulties involved in and effort
required to bring even world-class gold systems from
prospects to mine status. With the benefit of hindsight,
the experience of those involved in KGD exploration
and recent work at the Kelian mine (Davies, 2002) it is
possible to highlight key factors involved in exploration
success and information that in hindsight may have
fundamentally assisted exploration.
Exploration at Kelian began in 1974 and ultimately
led to mine production in 1992; however, the true size
of the deposit was not fully defined until 1996 by which
time over 750 drill holes had been completed. The history
of exploration at Kelian is one of persistence, flexibility
and hard work in a frontier environment.
Key factors in the successful exploration of the KGD
were:
• Willingness to explore in remote, frontier areas.
• Recognition of initial clues — juvenile gold grains in
lower reaches of the Kelian River.
• Good fundamental concepts and models at outset.
• Flexible exploration models during exploration,
Although ultimately incorrect, an early-stage bulk-
mineable porphyry gold model kept ideas and the
exploration approach flexible when classic, high-
grade, low-sulfidation veins were not encountered.
• Extensive use of soil, trench, auger sample am
 The Kelian gold deposit — exploration history, critical factors and deposit summary
pit geochemistry to identify shallowly concealed
mineralisation, delineate the main mineralised bodies
and the margins of the altered and mineralised
system.
• Reconnaissance deep drilling after the discovery of
the 255 zone. Six holes led to the discovery of two
additional high-grade ore zones (383 and 394 zones).
• Extensive drilling during mining. The main mineralised
zones of the East Prampus ore body were named for
their respective discovery holes (K255, K339, K383,
K393, K394 drill holes and ore zones). These key zones,
in addition to the West Prampus, Sungai Jiu and Tepu
zones, were discovered prior to 1991 when mining
commenced; however, their collective gold content was
significantly upgraded during mining and extensive
in-pit infill drilling programs. This point emphasizes
the difficulties in delineation of gold resources despite
good drill densities even in deposits that are large,
low-grade and bulk-mineable. The detailed structural
control on grade distribution at the KGD was difficult
to appreciate in drill core due to the minor expression
of critical, grade-controlling faults; chaos imparted
by overprinted brecciation, veining and faulting; and
subtle structural information provided by apparently
random networks of fine (typically less than l-5mm)
veins (Davies 2002).
• Having the right exploration team with abilities to
recognise key features of a system that did not fit
conventional exploration models and to manage a
difficult and prolonged exploration program.
• PERSISTENCE.
References
Carlile, J. C, and Mitchell, A. H. G., 1994, Magmatic arcs and
associated gold and copper mineralisation in Indonesia:
Journal of Geochemical Exploration, v. 50, p. 91-142.
Corbett, J. G., and Leach, T. M., 1998, Southwest Pacific
Rim gold-copper systems: Structure, alteration,
mineralisation: Society of Economic Geologists Special
Publication, v. 6, p. 237.
Davies, A.G.S., 2002, Geology and Genesis of the Kelian
Gold Deposit, East Kalimantan, Indonesia: PhD thesis
(unpublished), University of Tasmania, 404 p.
Davies, A. G. S., Cooke, D. R., and Gemmell, J. B., 1999,
Characteristics, timing and formation of diatreme
breccias at the Kelian gold deposit, East Kalimantan,
Indonesia: PACRIM, 1999, p. 718.
Davies, A.G.S., Cooke, D.R. and Gemmell, J.B., 2003, The
Kelian Breccia Complex: a giant epithermal gold-silver
deposit in Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Eliopoulos, D. et
al., Mineral Exploration and Sustainable Development
- Proceedings of the Seventh Biennial SGA Meeting:
Millpress, Rotterdam, v. 1, p. 465-468.
Ferguson, K. J., 1986, The Kelian gold prospect, Kalimantan
Indonesia: Volcanism, hydrothermal systems and
75
related mineralisation, Hamilton, New Zealand, 1986,
Proceedings, p. 41—46.
Hartshorn, G. K., 1994, Kelian Local Geology Map:
Unpublished, report, PT Kelian Equatorial Mining,
lp.
Hawke, M.M., 1992, The Kelian gold deposit, East
Kalimantan, Indonesia; the exploration history of
a disseminated gold ore body, Epithermal gold in
Asia and the Pacific, 6. Mineral Concentrations and
Hydrocarbon Accumulations in the ESCAP Region:
Bangkok, Thailand, United Nations Economic and
Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, p. 125—
132.
Hedenquist, J.W., Arribas, A.R., Gonzalez-Urien, E., 2000,
Exploration fot epithermal gold deposits: Reviews in
Economic Geology, v. 13, p. 245—247.
Laznicka, P., 1983, Giant ore deposits: a quantitative approach:
Global Tectonics and Metallogeny, v. 2, p. 41—63.
Moss, S.J., and Chambers, J.L.C., 1999. Tertiary facies
architecture of the Kutai Basin, Kalimantan, Indonesia:
Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 17, p. 157—181.
Moss, S.J., Chambers, J., Cloke, I., Satria, D., Ali, J.R., Baker,
S., Milsom, J., and Carter, A., 1997, New observations
on the sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the
Tertiary Kutai Basin, East Kalimantan: Geological
Society Special Publications, v. 126, p. 375-496.
Moyle, A. J., Bischoff, K., Alexander, K. R., and Hoogvlier,
H., 1996, Mt Muro gold deposit, Indonesia: Potphyry
Related Copper and Gold Deposits of the Asia Pacific
Region, Cairns, 1996, p. 7.1-7.9.
Sillitoe, R. H., 1997, Characteristics and controls of the largest
porphyry copper-gold and epithermal gold deposits in
the circum-Pacific region: Australian Journal of Earth
Sciences, v. 44, p. 373-388.
Sillitoe, R. H., 1993, Comments on geological models and
exploration at Kelian, East Kalimantan: Unpublished
Confidential Report, Indonesia, PT Kelian Equatorial
Mining, 7 p..
Sillitoe, R. H., 1989, Gold deposits in Western Pacific island
arcs: The magmatic connection: Economic Geology, v.
Monograph 6, p. 274-291.
Simmons, S. E, and Browne, P. R. L., 1990, Mineralogic,
alteration and fluid-inclusion studies of epithermal
gold-bearing veins at the Mt. Muro Prospect,
central Kalimantan (Borneo), Indonesia: Journal of
Geochemical Exploration, v. 35, p. 63-103.
Thompson, J. F. H., Abidin, H. Z., Both, R. A., Martosuroyo,
S., Rafferty, W. J., and Thompson, A. J. B., 1994,
Alteration and epithermal minetalization in the
Masupa-Ria volcanic center, Cenrral Kalimantan,
Indonesia: Journal of Geochemical Exploration, v. 50,
p. 429-456.
van Leeuwen, T. M., 1994, 25 years of mineral exploration
and discovery in Indonesia: Journal of Geochemical
Exploration, v. 50, p. 13—90.
van Leeuwen, T M., Leach, T. M., Hawke, A. A., and Hawke,
M. M., 1990, The Kelian disseminated gold deposit,
East Kalimantan, Indonesia: Journal of Geochemical
Exploration, v. 35, p. 1—61.
Andrew G.S. Davies, Theo M. van Leeuwen, David R. Cooke, J. Bruce Gemmell

Wake, B., 1991, Gold mineralisation at the Muyup Prospect,

East Kalimantan, Indonesia: World Gold'91, Cairns,
Australia, 1991, p. 271-277.
White, N. C, and Hedenquist, J. W, 1990, Epithermal
environments and styles of mineralization: Variations
and their causes, and guidelines for exploration: Journal
of Geochemical Exploration, v. 36, p. 445-474.

76
 Geology and mineralisation characteristics of
the Victoria and Teresa gold deposits, Mankayan
mineral district, north Luzon, Philippines
JOEYS. GARCIAJR
The Mankayan mineral district in the Central Cordillera
of northern Luzon is one of the richest mining districts in
the Philippines in terms of economic value, abundance
and diversity of hydrothermal ore deposits. Within an
area of less than 25 km2, the district contains epithermal
precious and base metal deposits as well as several
porphyry Cu—Au deposits (e.g., Far Southeast). The
epithermal deposits range from low sulfidation (Teresa
Mine), to intermediate sulfidation (Victoria Mine) and
to high sulfidation (Enargite Mine; Fig. 1).
The characteristics of the Victoria and Teresa deposits
are as follows:
1. Of the known ore deposits in the Mankayan Mineral
district, Teresa appears to be the first to be formed
(c. 1.74 Ma). This is followed by the Far Southeast
gold-copper deposit (1.45-1.22 Ma) which is
contemporaneous with the Enargite-Luzonite deposit
(1.58-1.17 Ma). Victoria appears to be late at 1.55-
1.14 Ma.
2. In terms of structural fabric of mineralisation, Victoria
is controlled by east-northeast shears and east-west
and northwest tension fractures. Teresa is controlled
by north—south shears and northeast tension fractures.
Teresa is dominated by breccia textures while Victoria
predominantly exhibits comb and crustiform banded
textures. These features are results of two contrasting
structural stress regimes active during their formation.
Teresa was deposited during a period of compression
while Victoria formed during a tensional stress
regime.
Chief Geologist, Lepanto Consolidated Mining Company, Philippines.
77
3. The petrologic composition and ages of the host rocks
hosting the two ore bodies are distinct from each other.
Teresa is hosted predominantly in older sandstones,
conglomerates and andesite porphyries while Victoria
is hosted predominantly in younger dacite pyroclastics
and porphyries.
4. The mineralising fluid of Victoria may have
originated northeast from the Far Southeast porphyry
deposit/Bulalacao porphyry prospect. Teresa fluids
may have originated from the north—south trending
Palidan-Nayak-Buaki porphyry copper belt. Based
on fluid inclusion studies, Victoria fluid is transitional
between magmatic and meteoric waters, while Teresa
is predominantly heated meteoric waters.
5. All metals of interest (gold, silver and copper) are
present in all four economic deposits. However, their
concentration varies widely, as shown for copper and
gold in Table 1.
The Mankayan Mineral District is currently subject
to an ongoing joint research between CODES, Colorado
School of Mines and Lepanto Consolidated Mining
Company.
Reference
Hedenquist J.W., Izawa E., Arribas A. and White N.C.,
1996, Epithermal gold deposits: Styles, characteristics
and exploration: Society of Resource Geology, Special
Publication 1, 2-sheet poster, 16 p. booklet (with
Spanish, French, Japanese and Chinese translations,
70 p).
Joey S. Garcia Jr

Figure 1 (A) Locality map showing the Mankayan and Baguio districts, Northern Luzon, Philippines. (B) Geology and mineral deposits of the ;
Mankayan district, Philippines (modified after Hedenquist et al., 1996).

Table 1 Gold and copper grades of selected mineral deposits in the Mankayan district, Philippines.

Type Au (g/t) Cu (%) Associated sulfides Gangue

range range minerals

Low sulfidation (Teresa) 4—10 0.0-0.15 Very minor base metal sulfides Sulfates (gypsum, anhydrite

Porphyry copper 0.5-3.0 0.3-3.0 Chalcopyrite, bornite Biotite, magnetite,

(Far Southeast) chlorite, sericite

High sulfidation (Enargite) 1-10 1.5-10.0 Enargite, luzonite Silica, alunite

barite

Intermediate sulfidation 6.0-30.0 0.3-2.0 Sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena Carbonates-silicates

(Victoria) (rhodochrosite-rhodonite)

78
 Spectrum of gold-rich VMS deposits from the
Archaean to the present
M. D. HANNINGTON
Abstract
Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits (VMS) contain
variable amounts of gold, with average grades of 0.1 g/t
Au to more than 10 g/t Au. The range of gold grades
implies that there are a number of different factors
that, individually or in combination, influence gold
enrichment. These may include tectonic setting and host
rock geochemistry, generative processes responsible for
the ore-forming fluids and aspects of ore fluid evolution
(e.g., magmatic contributions, different P-T paths for
the fluids, redox controls, and fluid—rock interaction),
different precipitation mechanisms (e.g., conductive
cooling, mixing, oxidation, and boiling), and post-
depositional processes (e.g., hydrothermal reworking and
zone-refining, overprinting by later hydrothermal fluids,
seafloor weathering, and metamorphism). Examples
from the Archaean to the modern seafloor illustrate the
wide range of conditions and environments of formation
of gold-rich VMS.
Classification and distribution
Gold-rich VMS deposits can be divided into two groups:
deposits from which gold is recovered as a by-product of
base metal mining and deposits in which gold is a primary
commodity. Deposits of the first group typically have
modest gold grades but large tonnages (e.g., 180t Au at
Flin Flon, Manitoba). Deposits of the second group are
true gold deposits in a strict economic sense (Poulsen et
al., 2000). Several have been 'world-class' gold producers
(>100t Au at grades of more than 1 g/t). Four subtypes
are recognised: (1) large tonnage copper-gold deposits,
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada
79
(2) pyritic gold deposits, (3) auriferous polymetallic
sulfide deposits, some with epithermal characteristics,
and (4) ordinary VMS. They occur in a variety of
volcanic and tectonic settings from the Archaean to the
present, including both extensional environments in
back-arc rifts and arc volcanic complexes. Many occur
in settings where conventional base metal deposits would
not normally be expected (e.g., volcanic fronts of arcs or
shallow submarine environments).
In Canada, gold-rich VMS have accounted for
up to 10% of total gold production. Among the most
important examples in terms of total contained gold are
the large Precambrian copper-gold deposits at Home and
Quemont in Noranda, Quebec (400t Au), the pyritic gold
deposits of the Bousquet—LaRonde district, Quebec (270t
Au), and the high-grade auriferous polymetallic massive
sulfide deposit at Eskay Creek in British Columbia (ca.
80t Au). The Home, Quemont, Bousquet, and LaRonde
deposits occur within a relatively small part of the southern
Abitibi greenstone belt, within 35 km of each other, and
have combined past production, current reserves and
inferred resources of more than 750t Au, accounting for
95% of all the gold in Abitibi VMS (>80 deposits and
>500 Mt). The origin of this remarkable concentration
of gold remains one of the outstanding questions in
economic geology in Canada. One argument is that the
high gold contents reflect the proximity of the deposits to
the Cadillac Break, a major controlling structure for later
Archaean lode gold mineralisation, and that the gold was
introduced during a late syntectonic event. However, a
number of compelling arguments in each of the deposits,
including metal zonation, alteration characteristics, and
the unique gold geochemistry and mineralogy, suggest
that the majority of the gold belongs to the VMS systems
(Poulsen and Hannington 1996, Poulsen et al., 2000).
Other examples include the Early Proterozoic Boliden
copper—gold—arsenic deposit in the Skellefte district
M. D. Hannington
of Sweden (128 t Au), the gold-rich VMS deposits of
the Cambrian Mount Read volcanic belt (c. 1001
Au, collectively, at Rosebery, Hercules, Que River and
Hellyer), the nearby Mount Lyell copper—gold deposits
(40 t Au), and possibly the Paleozoic Mount Morgan
deposit of Queensland (240 t Au). Significant gold is also
contained in several large-tonnage, low-grade (c. 1 g/t)
deposits in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (e.g., Aljustrel, Tharsis,
and the giant Cerro Colorado gossan overlying the Rio
Tinto deposit) and in several deposits of the southern
Urals (e.g., Uchaly).
Most of the gold production from VMS has come
from deposits that have a close spatial and temporal
association with anomalous concentrations of rhyolite
and associated felsic subvolcanic intrusions. In the
classification scheme of Barrie and Hannington (1999),
felsic-dominated, bimodal volcanic successions, which
account for only about 20% of the total tonnage of VMS
worldwide, contain more than 40% of the VMS-hosted
gold. Few gold-rich VMS occur in mafic-dominated
volcanic successions. A similar association of gold-rich
VMS with felsic volcanic rocks has been noted on the
modern seafloor (Herzig and Hannington, 1995). Such
deposits may derive their gold via direct contributions
from felsic magmas (see below). Tonalitic to granitic
subvolcanic intrusions are spatially associated with the
deposits at Home (Flavrian—Powell), Bousquet (Mooshla
intrusion), Boliden (Jarn granitoids), and Mount Lyell
(Cambrian granites). In some cases, the intrusions are
hydrothermally altered and contain vein- and stockwork-
type mineralisation that locally constitutes significant
gold ore in itself (e.g., Doyon deposit near Bousquet:
Poulsen, 1995; subeconomic porphyry copper—gold
mineralisation in the Boliden area: Allen et al., 1996).
However, the temporal relationships of different phases
of the intrusions to the overlying volcanic packages are
generally not well known.
In nearly all cases the tectonic setting is inferred to be
that of island arcs, rifted arcs, or nascent back-arc rifts.
An association with older continental crust also appears
to have been important for a number of deposits, both
on the modern seafloor and in ancient volcanic belts
(e.g., Okinawa Trough, Boliden, Eskay Creek). On the
modern seafloor, deposits in island arc settings or those
associated with the early stages of arc rifting have higher
gold contents than deposits on the mid-ocean ridges or in
mature back-arc basins in the advanced stages of opening.
This may reflect a fundamental petrogenetic control on
gold enrichment or greater contributions of magmatic
volatiles associated with near-arc magmas. A number of
gold-rich VMS have been found along the active volcanic
fronts of modern arcs (e.g., Izu Bonin arc and Southern
Kermadec arc). This setting contrasts with the majority of
ancient VMS, which formed in back-arc rifts, and raises
80
the possibility of a direct genetic link with high-level
magmatic-hydrothermal systems commonly associated
with andesitic arc volcanoes. However, the uncertain
preservation potential of deposits in this environment is
an important consideration.
Deposit characteristics
Most gold-rich VMS, like other VMS deposits, are
stratabound, occurring within or along-strike of well-
defined volcanic and sedimentary packages. Individual
deposits may comprise stratiform lenses (e.g., Eskay
Creek, LaRonde), however, many pyritic gold and
copper-gold deposits formed as subseafloor replacements
underlain by substantial stockwork mineralisation and,
strictly speaking, may not have been exhalative in origin
(e.g., Boliden). Some stockwork-type deposits lack
massive sulfide mineralisation and are capped only by
cherty exhalite or bedded barite. Other deposits may have
formed in transitional shallow submarine-to-subaerial
settings and have a number of important attributes in
common with epithermal gold deposits. The large size
and relatively high Cu/Cu+Zn ratios of some gold-rich
VMS, such as Home and Mount Lyell, distinguish
these deposits from other massive sulfide deposits in
the same district and likely reflect processes that were i
also responsible for the primary enrichment of gold. It
is noteworthy that Home and LaRonde, in addition to
having the highest gold grades, are among the largest of :
any VMS in the Abitibi greenstone belt (only Kidd Creek I
is larger).
A common feature of the older, metamorphosed
deposits is a strong foliation subparallel to the regional
lithologic trend and complete transposition of bedding,
with the possibility of dislocation of the ore lenses from
their altered host rocks. The development of tectonic
fabrics that overprint the mineralisation in some cases
has caused significant remobilisation of gold into faults
and shear zones adjacent to the original massive sulfide
lenses. This has led to considerable debate about possible |
syntectonic versus synvolcanic origins for the deposits
and their contained gold. A definitive conclusion about
the timing of mineralisation with respect to deformation
and metamorphism is often impossible. However, the
presence of obvious exhalative mineralisation is an
important distinguishing feature.
Two main geochemical associations are evident in
gold-rich VMS: a copper-gold association, typical of
pyritic gold and copper—gold stockwork deposits, and a
zinc-gold association, typical of auriferous polymetallic
sulfides. A strong gold-barite association is also present
in many Phanerozoic auriferous polymetallic sulfide
deposits. The mineralogy of the gold-bearing ores is
typically more complex than in gold-poor massive sulfides

(e.g., the Boliden deposit contained nearly 50 different
ore minerals). The gold-rich ores commonly include a
suite of complex sulfosalts, high-sulfidation Cu-minerals,
abundant gold-silver—bismuth-tellurides or selenides, or
an unusual abundance of arsenopyrite (e.g., 6.8 wt% As
at Boliden). A number of deposits are distinguished from
ordinary VMS by strong enrichments in the epithermal
suite of elements (e.g., Ag, As, Sb, and Hg at Eskay Creek),
and some auriferous polymetallic deposits contain rare
minerals such as orpiment, realgar, stibnite, and cinnabar
that are not normally found in VMS. However, not all
deposits with distinctive epithermal characteristics are
gold-rich (e.g., Selbaie, northwestern Quebec). Pyritic
gold and copper-gold deposits typically have much
higher Au/Ag ratios than auriferous polymetallic sulfides
and may also possess notable copper—gold-bismuth—
tellurium (±Se±In±Sn) associations similar to those of
many intrusion-related gold deposits. In copper-gold
deposits, the gold is present mainly as the native metal
and as Au-tellurides; auriferous polymetallic sulfides
typically contain electrum, which may be silver-rich or
mercurian. In some deposits, arsenic-rich pyrite and
arsenopyrite are the principal gold hosts. This gold may
be refractory (present as submicroscopic inclusions or
structurally bound in the crystal lattice), but in older,
metamorphosed deposits the recrystallisation that
accompanies deformation may result in reconcentration
of this gold in a recoverable form at grain boundaries
(e.g., brecciated arsenopyrite ore at Boliden).
Bornite is especially common in some deposits,
including both copper—gold deposits (e.g., Bousquet No.
2) and auriferous polymetallic sulfides (e.g., Dumagami-
LaRonde). Similar bornite-rich ores in ordinary VMS
are also sometimes gold-rich, and may reflect similar
conditions of mineralisation (e.g., HW-Myra Falls and
some Kuroko deposits). The presence of distinctive high-
sulfidation sulfide minerals, including bornite-pyrite,
enargite-tennantite, luzonite, chalcocite, and digenite
in some deposits may be analogous to that of high-
sulfidation copper—gold deposits. The ore zones of these
deposits are commonly hosted by distinctive aluminous
alteration, including kaolinite, diaspore, pyrophyllite,
and alunite or their metamorphosed equivalents
(quartz-pyrite—andalusite—muscovite schists at Boliden
and Bousquet—LaRonde). The aluminous nature of this
alteration is interpreted to reflect strong acid leaching
of a type normally associated with high-sulfidation
epithermal systems. Zones of advanced argillic alteration
are found in closest proximity to the ore, whereas chlorite—
sericite alteration more typical of seawater-dominated
hydrothermal systems may be present at the margins.
The outward zonation from advanced argillic to chloritic
alteration most likely reflects mixing of highly acidic ore
fluids with seawater adjacent to the upflow zones. In
81
Spectrum of gold-rich VMS deposits from the Archaean to the present
some highly deformed and metamorphosed regions, it
may be difficult to distinguish between aluminosilicate
assemblages derived from acid-leached volcanic rocks and
those produced by metamorphism of unalteredpelitic rocks
(e.g., Carolina Slate Belt). A lack of biotite (±cordierite
±garnet±anthophyllite) in the aluminosilicate-rich zones
usually indicates that the metamorphic assemblage did
not form from pre-existing sericite—chlorite alteration.
Recognition of this type of alteration and mineralisation
in the VMS environment has important implications for
exploration, as the volatiles from a high-level degassing
magma may contribute substantially to the gold content
of the mineralising system. However, aluminosilicate-
rich alteration is also found in association with gold-
poor massive sulfides (e.g., Sturgeon Lake), and some
aluminosilicate-rich alteration zones are found with little
or no sulfide mineralisation at all. This situation may
be analogous to subaerial epithermal systems, in which
volatile-rich fluids readily escape to the surface, causing
widespread argillic and advanced argillic alteration, while
metal-rich fluids reside at greater depths. Other gold-rich
VMS of the auriferous polymetallic type (Eskay Creek,
Que River) have alteration that more closely resembles
the quartz—adularia—sericite assemblages found in low-
sulfidation epithermal gold deposits. And other gold-
rich VMS have discordant alteration pipes that are not
noticeably different from those of ordinary massive
sulfide deposits (e.g., Home). The result is a wide range
of alteration types that must be considered during
exploration.
Controls on gold enrichment
The range of different deposit types and the variability in
gold grades implies that there are a number of different
factors that influence gold enrichment. Tectonic setting
and host-rock geochemistry appear to be important first
order controls. Second order controls include aspects of
the ore fluid evolution and precipitation mechanisms,
which, irrespective of the source of gold, dictate whether
gold can be transported in the hydrothermal fluids and
whether it is likely to be concentrated with other metals
at the seafloor. Different P—T paths for the fluids, redox
controls, and fluid—rock interaction can affect the ability
of the fluids to transport gold to the seafloor, and different
processes such as conductive cooling, mixing, oxidation,
and boiling can affect the efficiency of gold deposition.
Third order controls include post-depositional processes
such as hydrothermal reworking and zone refining
(including possible over refining), seafloor weathering,
supergene enrichment, overprinting by later hydrothermal
fluids, and metamorphism. Although processes by
which gold may become geochemically enriched in
ordinary VMS are generally known, it seems unlikely

(e.g., the Boliden deposit contained nearly 50 different
ore minerals). The gold-rich ores commonly include a
suite of complex sulfosalts, high-sulfidation Cu-minerals,
abundant gold—silver—bismuth—tellurides or selenides, or
an unusual abundance of arsenopyrite (e.g., 6.8 wt% As
at Boliden). A number of deposits are distinguished from
ordinary VMS by strong enrichments in the epithermal
suite of elements (e.g., Ag, As, Sb, and Hg at Eskay Creek),
and some auriferous polymetallic deposits contain rare
minerals such as orpiment, realgar, stibnite, and cinnabar
that are not normally found in VMS. However, not all
deposits with distinctive epithermal characteristics are
gold-rich (e.g., Selbaie, northwestern Quebec). Pyritic
gold and copper—gold deposits typically have much
higher Au/Ag ratios than auriferous polymetallic sulfides
and may also possess notable copper-gold—bismuth-
tellurium (±Se±In±Sn) associations similar to those of
many intrusion-related gold deposits. In copper-gold
deposits, the gold is present mainly as the native metal
and as Au-tellurides; auriferous polymetallic sulfides
typically contain electrum, which may be silver-rich or
mercurian. In some deposits, arsenic-rich pyrite and
arsenopyrite are the principal gold hosts. This gold may
be refractory (present as submicroscopic inclusions or
structurally bound in the crystal lattice), but in older,
metamorphosed deposits the recrystallisation that
accompanies deformation may result in reconcentration
of this gold in a recoverable form at grain boundaries
(e.g., brecciated arsenopyrite ore at Boliden).
Bornite is especially common in some deposits,
including both copper—gold deposits (e.g., Bousquet No.
2) and auriferous polymetallic sulfides (e.g., Dumagami-
LaRonde). Similar bornite-rich ores in ordinary VMS
are also sometimes gold-rich, and may reflect similar
conditions of mineralisation (e.g., HW—Myra Falls and
some Kuroko deposits). The presence of distinctive high-
sulfidation sulfide minerals, including bornite—pyrite,
enargite-tennantite, luzonite, chalcocite, and digenite
in some deposits may be analogous to that of high-
sulfidation copper-gold deposits. The ore zones of these
deposits are commonly hosted by distinctive aluminous
alteration, including kaolinite, diaspore, pyrophyllite,
and alunite or their metamorphosed equivalents
(quartz-pyrite—andalusite—muscovite schists at Boliden
and Bousquet—LaRonde). The aluminous nature of this
alteration is interpreted to reflect strong acid leaching
of a type normally associated with high-sulfidation
epithermal systems. Zones of advanced argillic alteration
are found in closest proximity to the ore, whereas chlorite—
sericite alteration more typical of seawater-dominated
hydrothermal systems may be present at the margins.
The outward zonation from advanced argillic to chloritic
alteration most likely reflects mixing of highly acidic ore
fluids with seawater adjacent to the upflow zones. In
81
Spectrum of gold-rich VMS deposits from the Archaean to the present
some highly deformed and metamorphosed regions, it
may be difficult to distinguish between aluminosilicate
assemblages derived from acid-leached volcanic rocks and
thoseproducedbymetamorphism of unalteredpelitic rocks
(e.g., Carolina Slate Belt). A lack of biotite (±cordierite
+garnet±anthophyllite) in the aluminosilicate-rich zones
usually indicates that the metamorphic assemblage did
not form from pre-existing sericite-chlorite alteration.
Recognition of this type of alteration and mineralisation
in the VMS environment has important implications for
exploration, as the volatiles from a high-level degassing
magma may contribute substantially to the gold content
of the mineralising system. However, aluminosilicate-
rich alteration is also found in association with gold-
poor massive sulfides (e.g., Sturgeon Lake), and some
aluminosilicate-rich alteration zones are found with little
or no sulfide mineralisation at all. This situation may
be analogous to subaerial epithermal systems, in which
volatile-rich fluids readily escape to the surface, causing
widespread argillic and advanced argillic alteration, while
metal-rich fluids reside at greater depths. Other gold-rich
VMS of the auriferous polymetallic type (Eskay Creek,
Que River) have alteration that more closely resembles
the quartz—adularia-sericite assemblages found in low-
sulfidation epithermal gold deposits. And other gold-
rich VMS have discordant alteration pipes that are not
noticeably different from those of ordinary massive
sulfide deposits (e.g., Home). The result is a wide range
of alteration types that must be considered during
exploration.
Controls on gold enrichment
The range of different deposit types and the variability in
gold grades implies that there are a number of different
factors that influence gold enrichment. Tectonic setting
and host-rock geochemistry appear to be important first
order controls. Second order controls include aspects of
the ore fluid evolution and precipitation mechanisms,
which, irrespective of the source of gold, dictate whether
gold can be transported in the hydrothermal fluids and
whether it is likely to be concentrated with other metals
at the seafloor. Different P—T paths for the fluids, redox
controls, and fluid-rock interaction can affect the ability
of the fluids to transport gold to the seafloor, and different
processes such as conductive cooling, mixing, oxidation,
and boiling can affect the efficiency of gold deposition.
Third order controls include post-depositional processes
such as hydrothermal reworking and zone refining
(including possible over refining), seafloor weathering,
supergene enrichment, overprinting by later hydrothermal
fluids, and metamorphism. Although processes by
which gold may become geochemically enriched in
ordinary VMS are generally known, it seems unlikely
M. D. Hannington
that the spectacular gold contents of some deposits can
be adequately explained by precipitation from highly
undersaturated ore fluids. The very high gold-to-base
metal ratios in these deposits require an inherently gold-
rich fluid and an efficient means of concentrating gold at
the seafloor. Clues to the origin of this enrichment lie in
the fact that the most gold-rich deposits have a number
of attributes, apart from their high gold contents, that
clearly distinguish them from ordinary VMS (e.g.,
atypical ore mineral assemblages and alteration).
Temperature-dependent solubility controls, in large
part, account for the two main geochemical associations
of gold found in VMS (i.e., high-temperature Cu—Au
associations and lower temperature Zn—Pb-Ag—Au
associations: Hannington et al., 1999; Huston 2000).
However, the wide range of co-enrichments in other
trace elements (e.g., Cu—Co—Bi—Se—Te±Sn±In in some
Cu-Au assemblages and Ag—As—Sb—Hg±Tl in some Z n -
Au assemblages) suggests that other factors may also be
important. The distinctive epithermal-like characteristics
of some deposits may be related to formation in shallow
water and subseafloor boiling, whereas the presence of
high-sulfidation copper-minerals and advanced argillic
alteration may indicate contributions from a magmatic
source deeper in the system (e.g., magmatic brine). The
recent findings of copper-rich magmatic fluid trapped
in melt inclusions from andesite in the Eastern Manus
Basin provide important clues to additional sources of
metal, including gold, that might be present in the deep
parts of some seafloor hydrothermal systems (Yang and
Scott, 1996). Thus many of the factors considered to
be important for the formation of volcanogenic gold
deposits in the porphyry-epithermal environment may
also be important for enrichment of gold in VMS (e.g.,
Sillitoe 1995, Hedenquist et al., 2000).
A number of the deposits forming in modern arc
environments are transitional in character between
deep-sea hydrothermal vents and subaerial hot springs
and exhibit characteristics of both VMS and epithermal
gold-depositing systems. This comparison is supported
by the fact that many active gold-depositing systems on
emerging arc volcanoes of the western Pacific are close
to sea level and that similar volcanic and hydrothermal
activity commonly extends offshore into nearby shallow
submarine environments. Here, boiling is an important
mechanism for sulfide deposition because of cooling of
the fluids during decompression and the large increase in
pH andyO that accompanies the loss of dissolved gases.
As a boiling fluid rises to the seafloor and cools, the base
metals carried as chloride complexes at high temperatures
may be precipitated within a vertically-extensive stock-
work zone, whereas gold, which is transported as an
aqueous sulfur complex, may be effectively separated
from the base metals and concentrated along with other
82
volatile species (As, Sb, Hg) above the boiling zone.
The extent of boiling is therefore a major control on
the bulk composition of the deposits that are likely to
form at the seafloor. A simple model, which equates
fluid temperatures with pressures on the boiling curve
for seawater, illustrates this point (Fig. 1). Although
water depth is an important consideration in the VMS-
epithermal transition, deposits with similarities to high
sulfidation-type epithermal systems may form at any
water depth (Sillitoe et al., 1996).
Sources and sinks for gold in VMS systems
Evidence from modern seafloor vents indicates that simple
hydrothermal convection of seawater and leaching of the
underlying volcanic rocks can deliver significant amounts
of gold to the seafloor. Gold concentrations in the
quenched products of high-temperature (35O°C) black
smoker fluids at mid-ocean ridges indicate end-member
fluid concentrations of about 0.1 |xg/kg or 0.1 ppb Au
(Hannington et al., 1991). At these concentrations, a
black smoker vent field with a total mass flux of 100-
500 kg/s of high-temperature fluid can transport more
than 1 million oz. Au (>30 t Au) to the seafloor in less
than 10 years. In the open oceans, most of this gold
is lost to a diffuse hydrothermal plume. As with other
metals, construction of a sulfide mound on the seafloor
or precipitation of the sulfides below the seafloor is
necessary to capture this gold. However, the efficiency
of this process is very low. An important exception is the
precipitation of metals from metalliferous brines of the
Atlantis II Deep in the Red Sea, which have deposited
90 Mt (dry weight) of metalliferous mud with an average
gold grade of 0.5 g/t Au. The amount of gold contained
in the Atlantis II Deep (45 t Au) is close to that which
would be expected from 100% efficiency of deposition
from a typical mid-ocean ridge black smoker system (see
Hannington et al., 1991, and references therein).
Cu-rich sulfides in black smoker chimneys on
the mid-ocean ridges contain about 200 ppb Au
(Hannington et al., 1995). This is close to the measured
Au concentrations in the quenched products of high-
temperature fluids emanating from the same chimneys,
Similar high-temperature, copper-rich sulfides in some
black smoker chimneys from volcanic arcs in the western
Pacific contain orders of magnitude more gold than in
samples from the mid-ocean ridges (e.g., >10 ppm Au
in Cu-rich chimneys from Suiyo Seamount on the Izu-
Bonin arc and in the Pacmanus deposits in the Eastern
Manus basin: Watanabe and Kajimura 1994, Moss
and Scott 2001). If these copper-rich samples similarly
reflect the composition of the highest temperature end-
member fluids, then gold concentrations in vent fluids
from arc volcanoes may be on the order of 10 [Ag/kg or
 Spectrum of gold-rich VMS deposits from the Archaean to the present

Figure 1 Schematic model of the VMS-epithermal transition. In subaerial hot spring, boiling of the hydrothermal fluids results in a highly
telescoped system. Base metals are deposited as polymetallic veins at depth, with high-grade gold and silver concentrated above the boiling zone
(after Buchanan 1981). In submarine hot springs, fluids will rise to the seafloot along the boiling curve for seawater and fractionate base and
precious metals duting cooling, depositing Cu and Zn at depth while transporting Au, As, Sb and Hg to seafloor. Submerging the hydrothermal
system in deeper water will compress the boiling zone, limit the separation of base and precious metals, and reduce the vertical extent of
mineralization. Polymetallic ore is deposited, together with gold, as auriferous massive sulfide on the seafloor (cf. Eskay Creek). If the water is
too deep, boiling does not occur, and the high-temperature fluids arrive at the seafloor to form black smoker vents. In this case, much of the gold
may be lost to a diffuse hydrothermal plume.

10 ppb Au. At these high concentrations, the fluids may
deposit gold at much higher temperatures, producing the
observed Cu-Au association in some deposits. The origin
of the high gold concentrations remains uncertain but
probably reflects contributions to the high-temperature
end-member fluids from magmatic sources.
Certain trace elements, such as Bi and Te, that are
closely associated with gold in ancient copper-gold
deposits have not been detected in mid-ocean ridge
black smoker fluids. However, high concentrations
of Bi (up to 200 ppm) and Te (up to 150 ppm) have
been found in some Cu—Au-rich chimneys in western
Pacific arc settings (e.g., Watanabe and Kajimura 1994,
Moss and Scott 2001), possibly indicating a link to
a felsic magmatic source similar to that suggested for
Cu-Co—Bi-Se—Te±Sn±In-Au associations in subaerial
magmatic-hydrothermal systems. Isotopically distinct
fluids at several modern seafloor vents in the western
Pacific provide positive evidence for the presence of
magmatic volatiles in the hydrothermal fluids (see review
in Hannington et al., 1999). Such volatiles are considered
to be the primary source of metals in a number of high-
level magmatic-hydrothermal systems in andesitic arc
volcanoes such as White Island, New Zealand, which has
been shown to be emitting significant quantities of Cu,
Au and Bi (e.g., 110,000 kg/yr Cu, 2190 kg/yr Bi and
>36 kg/yr Au: Le Cloarec et al., 1992; Hedenquist et al.,
1993). Similar quantities of metal can be expected to be
available to seafloor hydrothermal systems in submarine
arc volcanoes. In just 10,000 years, the amount of Cu and
Au that might be delivered to the seafloor via a magmatic
vapor plume, similar to that at White Island, would be
on the order of 1 Mt Cu and 360 t Au (Hedenquist
and Lowenstern, 1994) — an amount of metal roughly
equivalent to that contained in the Home deposit or the
entire Bousquet district.
Significance for exploration
As a group, gold-rich VMS deposits possess a number of
characteristics that are important for exploration:
(1) Gold-rich deposits may occur in any base metal
district, including established mining camps where no
such deposits are presently known. In many cases, they

83
M, D. Hannington
co-exist with other massive sulfide deposits that do not
contain anomalous gold.
(2) Gold-rich VMS occur in the same volcanic
sequences that host other massive sulfide deposits but are
commonly associated with large volumes of rhyolite and
high-level felsic intrusions.
(3) Stratiform massive sulfides typically comprise at
least some of the ore, although many pyritic gold and
copper-gold deposits consist mainly of disseminated or
pipe-like stockwork zones (e.g., subvolcanic replacement
deposits). Because of their large dimensions and consistent
ore grades, these stockworks may be amenable to open
pit mining.
(4) Barren pyrite lenses and siliceous or barite-rich
caps are commonly present. In some cases, gold-bearing
ores are found stratigraphically below large deposits of
relatively gold-poor massive sulfides (e.g., No. 5 Zone at
Home).
(5) The ores may contain complex assemblages of
minerals, including abundant sulfosalts, bornite-pyrite,
enargite-tennantite, arsenopyrite, or tellurides. They are
commonly enriched in the epithermal suite of elements
(e.g., Ag, As, Sb, Hg) or other elements such as cobalt,
bismuth, tellurium, selenium, indium and tin. By analogy
with high-sulfidation copper-gold gold deposits, some
gold-rich VMS may have formed by direct contributions
of metals from magmatic volatiles or a related brine phase
derived from a feslic subvolcanic intrusion.
(6) At the mine scale, the presence of advanced
argillic alteration or aluminosilicate-rich rocks may be a
particularly useful guide to exploration, as the volatiles
from a high-level degassing magma that cause this
alteration may also contribute substantially to the gold
content of the mineralising system. However, it is an
important observation that similar alteration may occur
in areas where productive mineralisation is absent, and
not all gold-rich deposits possess aluminous alteration
assemblages (e.g., Home, Eskay Creek).
(7) Deposits in older volcanic terranes may be
significantly upgraded as a result of structural and
metamorphic redistribution and reconcentration of gold.
Although a spatial association with late structural breaks
or other intense zones of deformation is often found, this
should not be regarded as essential for exploration.
(8) In modern volcanic settings, gold-rich VMS
are most common in rifted-arc and incipient back-arc
environments rather than mature back-arc spreading
centers. An association with rifted continental crust and
continental margin arcs may be particularly important
in some cases (Okinawa Trough, Boliden, Eskay Creek).
In ancient volcanic belts, these settings can be readily
identified by volcanic geochemistry.
(9) The occurrence of some high-grade gold deposits
in areas of transitional subaerial-to-submarine volcanism
84
suggests that this setting may be particularly important
for gold-rich VMS. Such shallow-water environments are
underexplored and may be targeted for a wide range of
epithermal gold-base metal deposits.
(10) Uniquely gold-rich systems may result from
superposition of multiple mineralising events (e.g.,
epithermal-style mineralisation superimposed on pre-
existing massive sulfides), making these hybrid deposits
particularly attractive for exploration. Overlapping styles
of alteration and mineralisation within a single volcanic
complex may reflect multiple intrusive events or changing
environmental conditions (e.g., gradual emergence or
submergence of an arc volcano). The result is a wide
range of potential targets that cannot be readily assigned
to a single genetic model.
References
Allen, R.L., Weihed, P., and Svensson, S-A., 1996, Setting of
Zn-Cu-Au-Ag massive sulfide deposits in the evolution
and fades architecture of a 1.9 Ga marine volcanic arc,
Skellefte district, Sweden. Economic Geology, 91: 1022-
1053.
Barrie, C.T. and Hannington, M.D., 1999. Chapter 1.
Classification of volcanic-associated massive sulfide
deposits based on host-rock composition. Reviews in
Economic Geology, 8: 1—11.
Buchanan, L.J., 1981. Precious metal deposits associated
with volcanic environments in the Southwest. Arizona
Geological Society Digest, 14: 237—262.
Hannington, M.D., Herzig, P.M. and Scott, S.D., 1991.
Chapter 8. Auriferous hydrothermal precipitates o the
modern seafloor. In R.P. Foster (ed.), GoldMetallogenj
and Exploration, Glasgow, Blackie and Son: 249-282.
Hannington, M.D., Jonasson, I.R., Herzig, P.M. and Petersen,
S., 1995. Physical and chemical processes of seafloor
mineralization at mid-ocean ridges. AGU Monograph
5>7: 115-157.
Hannington, M.D., Poulsen, K.H., Thompson, J.F.H. and
Sillitoe, R.H., 1999. Chapter 14. Volcanogenic gold in
the massive sulfide environment. Reviews in Economic
Geology, 8: 325-356.
Hedenquist, J.W., Arribas, A.R. and Gonzalez-Urien, E.., 2000.
Chapter 7. Exploration for epithermal gold deposits.
Reviews in Economic Geology, 13: 245-277.
Hedenquist, J.W., Simmons, S.E, Giggenbach, W.E and
Eldridge, C.S., 1993. White Island, New Zealand,
volcanic hydrothermal system represents the
geochemical environment of high-sulfidation Cu and
Au ore deposition. Geology, 21: 731-734.
Herzig, P.M. and Hannington, M.D., 1995. Polymetallic
massive sulfides at the seafloor: A review. Ore Geology
Reviews, 10: 95-115.
Huston, D.L., 2000. Chapter 12. Gold in volcanic-hosted
massive sulfide deposits: Distribution, genesis, and
exploration. Reviews in Economic Geology, 13: 401-
426.
Le Cloarec, M.F., Allard, P., Ardouin, B., Giggenbach, W.E
 Spectrum of gold-rich VMS deposits from the Archaean to the present

and Sheppard, D.S., 1992. Radioactive isotopes and

trace elements in gaseous emissions from White Island,
New Zealand. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 108:
19-28.
Moss, R. and Scott, S.D., 2001. Geochemistry and mineralogy
of gold-rich hydrothermal precipitates from the
Eastern Manus Basin, Papua New Guinea. Canadian
Mineralogist, 39: 957-978.
Poulsen, K.H. and Hannington, M.D., 1995. Volcanic-
associated massive sulfide gold. In Eckstrand, R.O.,
Sinclair, W.D. and Thorpe, R.I. (eds.), Geology of
Canadian Mineral Deposit Types. DNAG Vol. P-l,
Geology of Canada, No. 8: 183-196.
Poulsen, K.H., Robert, F. and Dube, B., 2000. Geological
classification of Canadian gold deposits. Geological
Survey of Canada Bulletin 540: 106 pp.
Sillitoe, R.H., 1995. The influence of magmatic-hydrothermal
models on exploration strategies in volcanoplutomc
arcs. Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course,
23:511-525.
Sillitoe, R.H., Hannington, M.D. and Thompson, J.F.H.,
1996. High-sulfidation deposits in the volcanogenic
massive sulfide environment. Economic Geology, 91:
204-212.
Watanabe, K. and Kajimura, T, 1994. The hydrothermal
mineralization at Suiyo Seamount in the central part of
the Izu-Ogasawara arc. Resource Geology, 44: 133-140.
Yang, K. and Scott, S.D., 1996. Possible contribution of a
metal-rich magmatic fluid to a seafloor hydrothermal
system. Nature, 383: 420-423.

85
 Agnico-Eagle's LaRonde mine — a world-class
gold-rich VMS deposit
GUYGOSSELIN
Since the beginning of the 20th century, exploration in
the Abitibi Greenstone Belt has lead to the discovery of
significant gold and base metal deposits. In the Quebec
portion of the belt, the world-class Au-rich Home VMS
deposit (54 Mt @ 2.2% Cu and 6.1 g/t of Au; >10 Moz
Au) was discovered in the Rouyn-Noranda camp in
1920. In the Val d'Or camp, the structurally controlled
vein system of the Sigma-Lamaque deposit (>46 Mt @
6 g/t of Au; 9 Moz Au) was discovered in 1933 along the
Cadillac-Larder Lake Break.
Cheif Geologist, Mine Office-LaRonde Division
P.O. Box 400, Cadillac, Quebec JOY ICO
87
The LaRonde mine lies between these two major
mining camps, within the prolific 25 Moz Au Bousquet
mining camp (Fig. 1). Prior to the 1970s, small deposits
were put into production along the Cadillac—Larder Lake
Break in the Cadillac area. However, the emergence of
the Bousquet camp took place in the late 1970s and now
it is the most important gold camp in Quebec and one of
the most important in Canada.
Since the beginning of mining at LaRonde in 1988,
Agnico-Eagle Mines Ltd has produced more than 2.4
Moz of gold, 13.5 Moz of silver, 0.051 Mt of copper
and 0.180 Mt of zinc from 14.2 Mt of ore. Proven and
probable reserves stand at 37.8 Mt @ 4.1 g/t Au, 56.2
g/t Ag, 0.33% Cu and 2.6% Zn for 5.0 Moz of Au and
Figure 1 Location map
showing the Abitibi Sub-
Province of the Canadian
Shield. Modified from
Daigneault et al. (1990).
Guy Gosselin
resources at 17.2 Mt grading 5.8 g/t Au, 36.5 g/t Ag
0.34% Cu and 1.0 % Zn for 3.2 Moz Au (Fig. 2). Total
production-reserves and resources are now estimated at
69 Mt hosting 10.6 Moz Au, 102 Moz Ag, 0.23 Mt Cu
and 1.34 Mt Zn on the LaRonde property.
Exploration work on the LaRonde property goes
back to the 1930s when outcrop stripping and trenching
led to the discovery of quartz—sulfide veins and massive
sulfide mineralisation in 1937 near the western limit of
the property. In 1960s and 1970s sporadic exploration
campaigns took place on the property. In 1985, a 435 m
exploration shaft was sunk to allow underground drifting,
sampling and diamond drilling as surface exploration
continue to progress.
The turning point in the exploration program on the
LaRonde property occurred in 1986 when the West zone
was discovered at Shaft #1 intersecting 7.76 g/t Au over
9.1m at 854 m depth. The exploration campaign that
followed that discovery hole led to a positive feasibility
study. Shaft #1 was deepened to 975 m, a mill facility
was constructed and the mine was put into production in
October 1988 at a rate of 1360 tons per day.
In 1990, an aggressive exploration program was
initiated. This covered the unexplored eastern portion
88
of the property on surface and from underground along
an exploration drift located at a depth of 860 m. The
surface program resulted in the discovery of three new
surface to sub-surface lenses: zone 4 (1991), and zones 6
and 7 (1992). Underground exploration led to the major
discovery of new sulfide lenses at depth (zones 6, 7, 20
North Gold, 20 North Zinc and 20 South) in 1992-
1993.
In 1994, development of zones 6 and 7 was initiated
at Shaft #2, while major underground exploration and
development of the deep resources started with the sinking
of the Penna Shaft. In 2000, the mine and mill facilities
were expanded to reach the daily production rate of 4500
tons per day and the Penna shaft was commissioned. At
2250 m depth, this is the deepest single lift shaft of the
western hemisphere (Fig. 3). A subsequent expansion
project in 2002 brought the LaRonde mine and mill
complex to the actual production rate of 7000 tons per
day.
Since 1999, exploration work has moved to new
depths and is now taking place along an exploration
drift situated on level 215 (2150 m depth). A major
exploration program is presently ongoing below the
bottom of the Penna Shaft between 2 and 3 km below
Figure 2 Longitudinal view of the
LaRonde mine property with reserve and
resources outline and past production.

Figure 3 Surface facilities at LaRonde Pcnna Shaft
installation.
surface. The program is focused on the deep extension of
the deposit where reserves stand at 18.3 Mt (3.4 Moz Au)
and resources at 16.3 Mt (3.1 Moz Au).
Geologically, the LaRonde property is located within
the Archaean (2.7 Ga) Abitibi Sub-Province (near it's
southern boundary with the Pontiac Sub-Province) of the
Superior Province of the Canadian Shield (Goodwin and
Ridley, 1970). The most important regional structure is
the Cadillac—Larder Lake break, which marks the contact
between the Abitibi and the Pontiac sub-provinces,
located approximately 2 km to the south of the LaRonde
property.
The geology that underlies the LaRonde mining
property consists of three east-trending, steeply south-
dipping and southward-facing regional lithological units.
These units are, from north to south: (1) the Kewagama
Group which is made up of thick bands of interbedded
wacke; (2) the Blake River Group, a volcanic assemblage
which hosts all the known economic mineralisation on the
LaRonde property and the massive sulfide deposits of the
Noranda mining camp; and (3) the Cadillac Group, made
up of thick bands of wacke interbedded with pelitic schist
and minor iron formations (Dimroth et al., 1982).
At LaRonde, the Blake River Group is composed
of the Hebecourt and Bousquet Formations (Fig. 4).
The regional sequence shows a basement of basalt flows
overlain by andesitic to rhyolitic flows, domes and
fragmental rocks associated with local volcanic centres
(Lafrance et al., 2003). Three members present on the
property have been identified regionally, from north to
south: (1) the Northern Tholeiitic Basalt member within
the Hebecourt Formation, (2) the Lower Transitional
member, and (3) the Upper Felsic member within the
Bousquet Formation.
The Upper Felsic member, which hosts all the
significant gold and base metal mineralisation on the
LaRonde property, varies in thickness from 150 m in
89
Agnico-Eagle's LaRonde mine — a world-class gold-rich VMS deposit
the vicinity of shaft no. 1 to over 550 m in the Penna
shaft area. This stratigraphic interval is characterised by
a dominance of quartz and feldspar phyric rhyodacitic
to rhyolitic flows and coarse to fine-grained flow breccia
deposits. Andesitic to dacitic flows and flow breccia
deposits are common in the northern part of the unit,
whereas blue and grey-quartz phyric horizons occur in
the southern portion of the unit. Minor andesite flows or
sills horizons have also been observed (Mercier-Langevin
etal., 2004).
Regional scale alteration zones hosts steeply dipping,
east-trending, anastomosing shear zone structures
(Marquis et ah, 1992;Tourigny et ah, 1988). These high-
strain zones comprise a larger structure, the Doyon-
Dumagami Structural Zone, which has been traced over
10 km within the Blake River Group from the LaRonde
property westward to the Doyon—Mouska properties.
Among the most important deposits of the camp,
the LaRonde deposit (10.6 Moz Au), the Doyon deposit
(8 Moz Au) and the Bousquet deposit (5 Moz Au) host
most of the known reserves and resources (Fig. 5). Several
other small occurrences are also known along the belt.
At the LaRonde mine, more than a dozen economic
massive to disseminated polymetallic sulfide lenses are
known. These vary in size from 50,000 t to >20 Mt and
are hosted within four different mineralised horizons.
The mineralised zones are generally east-trending and dip
steeply to the south (parallel to the geological fabric). The
most important lens, the 20 North zone, has thicknesses
that can reach up to 40 m along the north-trending axis,
600 m along the east-trending axis and can be traced over
2.3 km along its steeply dipping southwest-trending long
axis.
Strong alteration zones at LaRonde are typically
associated with the different mineralised zones (Fig. 6).
Rhyodacite occurs in the footwall of the most important
lens, the 20 North zone. It is characterised by a banded
quartz-garnet—biotite-sericite major alteration zone.
The second most important lens, the 20 South zone, is
most commonly hosted within andesitic flows or sills
characterised by a quartz—sericite-green micas-titanite
alteration zone (Dube et al., 2004).
The 20 North lens is a south facing sequence that
contains two types of mineralisation: a gold-copper-
rich portion (the 20 North Gold Zone) at the bottom
and a zinc—silver—lead-rich upper portion (the 20 North
Zinc Zone; Fig. 7). In the higher portion of the deposit
(closer to surface), the gold—copper-rich mineralisation
is mostly restricted to the highly transposed sericitised
pyrite-chalcopyrite stinger zone at the bottom of the lens
whereas the zinc—silver—lead-rich mineralisation is located
within the massive sulfide lens in a 'low sulfidation'
volcanogenic massive sulfide environment (Dube et al.,
2004).
 Agnico—Eagle's LaRonde mine — a world-class gold-rich VMS deposit

Figure 5 Aerial view looking west of the Bousquet mining camp.

Figure 6 Alteration zonation surrounding the sulfide lenses of the LaRonde deposit. From Dube et al. (2004).

91
Guy Gosselin
With increasing depth, the sericitised pyrite—
chalcopyrite stringer zone and a progressively increasing
portion of the massive sulfide type mineralisation become
more gold—copper rich. Below 2 km from surface, an
increasing abundance of kyanite-andalusite porphyro-
blasts associated with a more strongly developed silica
alteration zone suggest a transition toward a 'high-
sulfidation' volcanogenic massive sulfide environment of
mineralisation, similar to that encountered in LaRonde
zone 5—Bousquet 2 ore lens (Dube et al., 2004).
Since the late 1970s, the Bousquet mining camp has
become one of the most important mining camps in
Canada, with production reserves and resources estimated
to near 25 Moz Au and a significant amount of base metal
within a wide range of sulfide associated synvolcanic
mineralisation. The LaRonde mine presents diverse and
distinct alteration and mineralisation characteristics that
are of great interest for the understanding of gold-rich
type of VMS deposits.
References
Daigneault, R., Archambault, G., 1990, Les grands couloirs
de deformation de la Sous-Province de l'Abitibi. In:
Rive, M., Verpaelst P., Gagnon, Y., Lulin, J.M., Riverin,
G. and Simard, A., Eds., The Northwestern Quebec
Polymetallic Belt: A summary of 60 years of mining
exploration: The Canadian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Special Volume 43, p. 43-64.
92
Dimroth, E., Imreh, L., Rocheleau, M., and Goulet, N.,
1982, Evolution of the south-central part of the
Archean Abitibi belt, Quebec. Part I: stratigraphy and
paleogeographic model: Canadian Journal of Earth
Sciences, 19, p. 1729-1758.
Dube, B., Mercier-Langevin, P., Hannington, M. D., Davis.
D. W., Lafrance, B., 2004, Le gisement de sulfures massifs
volcanogenes auriferes LaRonde, Abitibi, Quebec:
alteration, mineralisation genese et implications pour
l'exploration : Ministere des Ressources Naturelles,
Quebec, MB 2004-03, 112 p.
Goodwin, A.M., and Ridley, R.H., 1970, The Abitibi orogenic
belt. In: A.J. Baer, (Ed.), Symposium on basins and
geosynclines of the Canadian Shield: Geological Survey
of Canada, Paper 70-40, p. 1-30.
Lafrance, B., Moorhead, ]., Davis, D.W., 2003, Cadre
geologique du camp minier de Doyon-Bousquet-
LaRonde : Ministere des Ressources Naturelles,
Quebec; ET 2002-07, 45 p. et cartes ET 2002-07-
C001 au 1 :20 000.
Marquis, P., Hubert, C, Brown, A.C., Scherkus, E., Trudel, E
and Hoy, L.D., 1992, Geologie de la mine Donald J.
LaRonde (Dumagami), Cadillac Quebec : Ministere de
l'Energie et des Ressources du Quebec, ET 89-06.
Mercier-Langevin, P., Dube, B., Hannington, M. D., Davis,
D.W., Lafrance, B., 2004, Contexte geologique et
structural des sulfures massifs volcanogenes auriferes du
gisement LaRonde, Abitibi : Ministere des Ressources
Naturelles, Quebec; ET 2003-03, 47 p.
Tourigny, G., Hubert, C, Brown, A.C., and Crepeau, R..
1988, Structural geology of the Blake River at the
Bousquet mine, Abitibi, Quebec: Canadian Journal of
Earth Sciences, 25, p. 581-592.
Figure 7 Proposed model for the formation
of the Bousquet and LaRonde deposits. From
Dube et al. (2004).
 Recent gold-rich VHMS discoveries at Gossan Hill
PETER PRING
The Golden Grove Project is located approximately
225 km east of the port of Geraldton and 375 km north-
northeast of Perth, Western Australia (Fig. 1). The 100%
Newmont Australia owned mine is located in the southern
Murchison Province of the Archaean Yilgarn Craton.
Mineralisation was first identified at Gossan Hill in
1971 and 4 km to the north at Scuddles in 1979. Copper
and zinc production commenced from Scuddles in 1990
and from Gossan Hill in 1998. The Golden Grove mill
has the capacity to treat 1.4 Mt of ore per annum with the
zinc and copper concentrates transported by road train to
Geraldton. From there the concentrates are shipped to
overseas smelters primarily in Asia.
At June 2001, the total resource was 10 Mt grading
14.9% Zn, 1.9% Pb, 121g/t Ag 2g/t Au and 14.6 Mt
grading 3.7% Cu 0.5g/t Au. Because it is principally a
base-metals mining operation, few studies have been
undertaken on gold at Golden Grove.
Mineralisation is hosted by rhyolitic to dacitic
volcaniclastic rocks of the Golden Grove Formation
(members GG1-GG6; Fig. 2). The footwall Gossan
Valley Formation (GVL-GV4) consists of rhyolitic and
andesitic flows and volcaniclastic rocks. The hanging wall
Scuddles Formation (SCI—SC4) is dominated by coherent
felsic lavas, together with volcanic breccias and minor
syn volcanic sediments. The sequence has a subvertical to
steep westerly dip and forms part of the eastern limb of a
regional syncline in the northwest-trending greenstones
of the Yalgoo—Singleton Greenstone Belt. The volcanic
hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) mineralisation has been
shown to be syngenetic with deposition of the host
Golden Grove Formation (Sharpe, 1999).
Newmont Golden Grove Operations Pty Ltd
peter.pring@newmo nt.com
93
Units GG1 and GG2 have undergone pervasive
silica and chlorite alteration (Fig. 2). The magnetite and
sulfide mineralisation in GG4 is thought to have formed
by replacement and is surrounded by localized silica and
chlorite alteration. Banded silica, chlorite and carbonate
alteration of GG6 is associated with massive sulfides.
The banded style of alteration is less developed in other
well banded horizons (Sharpe, 1999). The hanging wall
(SC2) adjacent to the GG6 mineralisation at Gossan Hill
has been strongly sericite altered.
Zinc mineralisation in GG6 at Gossan Hill is
stratabound and contained primarily within the same
horizon of bedded siltstone, sandstone and polymict
breccia. The main sulfide types are pyrite, sphalerite,
galena and chalcopyrite with minor tetrahedrite and
trace arsenopyrite, cassiterite and bismuthinite.
Copper mineralisation at Gossan Hill is contained
within the bedded siltstone, sandstone and volcanic
quartz rich pebble breccia of GG4 in a footwall position
to GG6. Sulfides in this zone are associated with massive
fine grained magnetite and include pyrite, chalcopyrite,
lesser sphalerite and pyrrhotite towards the hanging wall.
Stringer chalcopyrite beneath the zinc provides some
copper resources within GG6 at Gossan Hill.
Gold at Golden Grove typically occurs as electrum
with varying amounts of silver. Most commonly electrum
occurs within the zinc and lead mineralisation. In hand
specimen electrum forms 1-2 mm clots in the massive
zinc and lead sulfides, or remobilised into fractures within
larger quartz veins. Petrographic observations show that
electrum occurs together with galena and chalcopyrite
within microfractures through the sphalerite and pyrite
or associated with 'chalcopyrite disease' through the
iron-poor sphalerite (Everett, 1990). Minor electrum
in the copper zone is associated with bismuthinite and
has a notably higher fineness than electrum seen in the
zinc zone (Everett, 1990). Electrum in the zinc zone
Peter Pring
Figure 1 Locality map.
has a lower more variable fineness than that seen in the
copper zone. This is thought consistent with the metal
zonation at Golden Grove, with high temperature sulfide
mineralisation at depth (Cu—Fe—Au) passing upwards to
lower temperature sulfide mineralisation (Zn-Pb-Ag—
Au) near the palaeo-seafloor position (Sharpe, 1999).
An oxide gold resource occurs in gossanous remnants
of the massive sulfldes in the weathered zone above the
GG6 primary zinc mineralisation of the Gossan Hill.
In 1998 a program of systematic deep diamond
drilling was initiated beneath and to the north of Gossan
Hill. Drilling before 1998 was primarily in the top 400 m
(vertical) with scattered holes down to 800 m. The main
focus of this work was to identify extensions to the known
zinc mineralisation in areas of thicker GG6 and possible
copper mineralisation in the footwall.
Prior to the 1998 drilling, mineralisation was
presumed to be confined to the GG6 horizon. With the
new drilling major zinc and gold intersections were made
in previously poorly tested hanging wall and footwall
positions (Figs 3, 4). Recognition of the 'poddy' nature
of the GG6 mineralisation also gave encouragement to
follow up small uneconomic drill intersections or zones
of intense alteration as they may potentially represent
a 'near miss' to an economic zone. Some of the larger
crosscutting dacites may have intruded along the
mineralising fluid conduits (Sharpe, 1999). Consequently,
holes that intersect dykes in the target horizon contain
no mineralisation yet may be within metres of massive
94
sulfide. Surface and downhole electrical geophysics have
been used to help define massive sulfides, however these
methods do not highlight massive sphalerite.
Historical gold grades to 2000 were in the order of
1 g/t for both Scuddles and Gossan Hill. Recent
discoveries beneath and to the north of Gossan Hill
indicate a substantial increase in GG6 gold grades with
depth. The discoveries also show two new positions of
higher grade gold mineralisation:
1. Pods of higher grade gold associated with pyrite in the
GG6 footwall position of some of the zinc deposits such
as Amity and Catalpa (Figs 3, 4). This mineralisation
is associated with trace Co-Bi—In, characteristic of
higher temperature magmatically derived copper-
rich conduits seen in contemporary seafloor systems
(McConachy et al., 2002). These deposits grade
around 5.5 g/t Au with individual assays up to
350 g/t.
2. High gold grades associated with lead in zinc mineral-
isation in siltstones and sandstones of the Scuddles
Formation (SC3) above GG6 at the Hougoumont
deposit (Fig. 3, 4). This mineralisation is associated
with trace Cd-Sb—As—Ba suggesting a low temperature
association similar to that seen in modern seafloor
systems (McConachy et al 2002).This mineralisation
grades 6.1 g/t Au and 347 g/t Ag with individual assays
upto lOOg/t Au and 570g/t Ag.
At June 2001, the total zinc sulfide resource was 9.97
Mt grading 14.9% Zn, 1.9% Pb, 121 g/t Ag 2g/t Au and
 Recent gold-rich VHMS discoveries at Gossan Hill

Figure 2 Gossan Hill stratigraphic column (Martyn ,2001). plag = plagioclase, comp. = composition.

95
Peter Pring

Figure 3 Gossan Hill geological model showing the relative position of gold mineralisation (Sharpe, 1999). cp = chalcopyrite. GG1-6, SC2-3
and DAC are stratigraphic units — see Figure 2 for detailed descriptions.

Figure 4 Gossan Hill long section showing massive sulphide deposits and their average gold grades.

96
 Recent gold-rich VHMS discoveries at Gossan Hill

the copper sulfide resource wasl4.6 Mt grading 3.7% Cu

0.5g/t Au.
Due in part to the new discoveries, the total contained
gold at Golden Grove is now approximately 1.4 Moz
(including past production).
The identification of significant gold resources at
Golden Grove greatly aid the economics of the project.
That mineralisation can occur outside the traditional
GG6 horizon has implications for future exploration
along the Golden Grove belt.

References
EverettjC.E., 1990, The Siting and Timing of Gold
Mineralisation and its Relation to Base Metals in the
Gossan Hill Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposit
of the Murchison Province, University of Western
Australia Honours Thesis (unpublished), llOp.
McConachy, T.F., Yeats, C.J., Parr, J.M., Binns, R.A., Fraser,
S.J., 2002, Characterisation of Gold Mineralisation
at Hougoumont and Amity, Golden Grove, Western
Australia., CSIRO Exploration and Mining Report
971C (unpublished), 72p.
Martyn, J., 2001, Gossan Hill to Scuddles Geology, Outcrop
and Interpretation. Unpublished map.
Sharpe, R., 1999, The Archaean Cu-Zn Magnetite Rich Gossan
Hill VHMS Deposit, Western Australia, University of
Tasmania PhD Thesis (unpublished) 371 p.

97
 Characteristics of and exploration for high-
sulfidation epithermal gold-copper deposits
JEFFREY W. HEDENQUIST, RICHARD H. SILLITOE2 AND ANTONIO ARRIBAS JR3
Introduction
Epithermal gold and silver deposits of both vein and
bulk-tonnage styles may be broadly grouped into high-
sulfidation (HS), intermediate-sulfidation (IS), and low-
sulfidation (LS) types based on the sulfidation states of
their hypogene sulfide assemblages (Hedenquist et al.,
2000; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003; Einaudi et al.,
2003). This presentation examines the processes that
lead to the formation of HS ore deposits, and reviews
their volcanic setting (Fig. 1) and characteristics (Sillitoe,
1993a, 1999; Arribas, 1995; Hedenquist et al., 2000;
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003), including the nature and
zonation of alteration. Diagnostic criteria that are useful
during exploration for and assessment of such deposits
are discussed.
Terminology
Early classification schemes for volcanic-hosted
epithermal deposits, almost all of vein type, were based on
their dominant elements and minerals (Emmons, 1918;
Lindgren, 1933). Even earlier, however, several distinctive
epithermal vein varieties had been noted (Lindgren,
1901), with documentation of type examples of gold—
alunite (Goldfield, Nevada; Ransome, 1907) and gold-
telluride deposits (Cripple Creek, Colorado; Lindgren
and Ransome, 1906) being especially important.
During the last 25 years or so, two principal epithermal
deposit types (Sillitoe, 1977; Haybaetal., 1985; Bonham,
1986; Heald et al., 1987; Hedenquist, 1987) have been
recognised widely in both vein and bulk-tonnage style
1
99 Fifth Avenue, Suite 420, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5P5, Canada,
Hedenquist@aol.com
2
27 West Hill Park, Highgate Village, London N6 6ND, England
3
Placer-Dome Exploration, Reno, Nevada, USA
99
deposits. These are referred to by several synonyms, and
with subtypes noted (Table 1). More recent study of
the variations in deposit style, from tectonic setting to
mineralogy, has led to three environments being identified
(Sillitoe, 1989, 1993a; Albino and Margolis, 1991; John
etal., 1999; John, 2001; Table 1). Herein, we use the most
widely employed nomenclature: high-sulfidation (HS),
intermediate-sulfidation (IS), and low-sulfidation (LS).
These terms were introduced by Hedenquist (1987), with
the IS term added more recently as our understanding
grew (Hedenquist et al., 2000). HS deposits contain
sulfide-rich assemblages of high sulfidation state, typically
pyrite—enargite, pyrite-luzonite, pyrite-famatinite, and
pyrite-covellite (Einaudi et al., 2003; Fig. 2), hosted
by leached silicic rock with a halo of advanced argillic
minerals. In contrast, LS deposits contain the low-
sulfidation pair, pyrite-arsenopyrite. The latter sulfide
mineral is typically present in only relatively minor
quantities, within banded veins of quartz, chalcedony,
and adularia plus subordinate calcite. Very minor
amounts of copper (typically < 100—200 ppm) are largely
present as chalcopyrite or, less commonly, tetrahedrite-
tennantite (Einaudi et al., 2003). Pyrrhotite is present in
trace amounts in only some LS deposits (e.g., northern
Nevada rift; John and Wallace, 2000; John, 2001). As
the name implies, IS deposits possess sulfidation states
between those of the HS and LS types, typically with
stability of chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite—tennantite, and
FeS-poor sphalerite, but lacking appreciable arsenopyrite
and pyrrhotite (Einaudi et al., 2003).
Like the early classification schemes for epithermal
deposits, the current one is also based on mineralogic
criteria although we use hypogene sulfide mineral
assemblages to classify the deposits, rather than gangue
minerals. We interpret the equilibrium sulfide mineral
assemblages in terms of sulfidation state (Barton and
Skinner, 1967; Barton, 1970) which is defined in terms
Jeffrey W. Hedenquist, Richard H. Sillitoe and Antonio Arribas Jr

Figure 1 Schematic section of end-member voicanotectonic setting and associated HS epithermal and related mineralisation types (Sillitoe,
1973; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003). Calc-alkaline volcanic arc with neutral to mildly extensional stress state showing relations between HS
and IS epithermal and porphyry deposits (note that the complete spectrum need not be present everywhere). Early magmatic volariles are
absorbed into groundwater within the volcanic edifice (shown here as a stratovolcano, but it may also be a dome setting) to produce acidic
fluid for lithocap generation, over and/or supra-adjacent to the causative intrusion. Later, less-acidic IS fluid gives rise to IS mineralisation,
both adjacent to and distal from the advanced argillic lithocap. Where the IS fluid flows through the leached lithocap environment, it evolves
to an HS fluid (Einaudi et al., 2003) to produce HS veins or disseminated mineralisation, depending on the nature of the structural and
lithologic permeability. The HS fluid may evolve back to IS stability during late stages, supported by paragenetic relationships and lateral
transitions of HS to IS mineralogy.

of the sulfur fugacity and temperature of the mineralising
fluid. Barton and Skinner (1967) and Barton (1970), along
with subsequent workers, subdivided sulfidation state of
mineral assemblages into very low, low, intermediate,
high and very high. (Fig. 2). Very low and very high
sulfidation states are not common in the epithermal
environment, whereas low, intermediate, and high
sulfidation state sulfide assemblages characterise three
styles of epithermal deposits that are also distinguished
on the basis of other criteria such as tectonic setting,
magmatic affiliation, and alteration assemblage (Table 2;
Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003, and references therein).
Here we use sulfidation state to classify epithermal
deposits, and it is fairly straightforward to reinterpret the
early classifications in the context of the current scheme
(Table 1). Any scheme is acceptable, as long as there is a
consistency and proper division of terminology, to allow
a reader to understand what the writer is referring to.
In this respect, there is much to be said for using 'type'
examples to group deposits, as long as the observer is
familiar with the characteristics of the type deposit, as
these characteristics will not change even if a genetic
interpretation does (White and Hedenquist, 1995).
Setting and origin
Most HS deposits are generated in calc-alkaline andesitic-
dacitic arcs characterised by near-neutral stress states
or mild extension. A few major deposits also occur
in compressive arcs characterised by the suppression
of volcanic activity (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
Rhyolitic rocks generally lack appreciable HS deposits.
Due to this volcanic affiliation, the origins of HS deposits
have an intimate relationship with the syn-magmatic
intrusions that lie at depth (Hedenquist and Lowenstern,
1994).
Highly acidic fluids (i.e., condensates of magmatic
vapor; Ransome, 1907) that contain HC1 and SO,
produce a leached core of residual silica with a halo of
advanced argillic alteration (Steven and Ratte, I960).
Where this residual silicic and advanced argillic alteration
is hosted by a lithologic unit that overlies the causative

100
 Characteristics of and exploration for high-sulfidation epithermal gold—copper deposits

Figure 2 Log sulfur fugacity versus t e m p e r a t u r e diagram s h o w i n g the variety of sulfide assemblages in epithermal deposits t h a t reflect
sulfidation state, from very low a n d low t h r o u g h intermediate to high and very high. C o m p o s i t i o n a l fields of arc volcanic rocks, high-
temperature volcanic fumaroles, m a g m a t i c - h y d r o t h e r m a l fluids, and geothermal fluids shown, as discussed by E i n a u d i et al. (2003). Simplified
by Sillitoe a n d H e d e n q u i s t (2003) from E i n a u d i et al. ( 2 0 0 3 ; see their figure 4 for mineral abbreviations).

Table 1 N o m e n c l a t u r e for epithermal deposit types

Goldfield type Ransome (1907)

Alunitic kaolinic gold Sericitic zinc-silver veins Gold-silver-adularia veins Emmons (1918)
veins Fluoritic tellurium-adularia
gold veins
Gold-alunite deposits Gold-quartz veins in andesite Lindgren (1933)
Argentite-gold quartz veins
Argentite veins
Base metal veins
Gold-quartz veins in rhyolite
Gold telluride veins
Gold selenide veins
Acid Sillitoe (1977)
Alkaline
Epithermal Buchanan (1981)
Enargite-gold Ashley (1982)
Hot-spring type Giles and Nelson (1982)
High sulfur Low sulfur Bonham(1986)
Acid sulfate Adularia-sericite Haybaetal. (1985),
Healdetal. (1987)
High sulfidation Low sulfidation Hedenquist (1987)
Alunite-kaolinite Adularia-sericite Berger and Henley (1989)
Type 1 adularia-sericite Type 2 adularia-sericite Albino and Margolis (1991)
High sulfidation High sulfide + base metal, Low sulfide + base metal, Sillitoe (1989, 1993a)
low sulfidation low sulfidation
HIGH INTERMEDIATE SULFIDATION LOW SULFIDATION Hedenquist et al. (2000)
SULFIDATION

Note: CAPITALISED names used in this paper

Modified from Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003), with references therein.

101
Jeffrey W. Hedenquist, Richard H. Sillitoe and Antonio Arribas Jr
intrusion, hypogene leaching can create a lithocap
(Sillitoe, 1995). The early-formed lithocap itself is
essentially barren of metals (Hedenquist et al., 1998,
2000), although in places the lithocap appears to have up
to 100 ppb or more gold added during the leaching stage.
However, such advanced argillic lithocaps may form prior
to HS mineralisation, which itself is due to higher-pH,
relatively low-salinity fluids.
Early lithocap-forming fluids display clear evidence
for a close genetic relationship to magmatism (Rye et
al., 1992; Arribas et al., 1995; Hedenquist et al., 1998).
Although the linkage is less well-defined, later HS fluids
that introduce copper and arsenic, as well as the late
fluids responsible for much of the gold (and Bi, Sn, Mo,
Te, etc.) introduction, also seem to owe much to their
magmatic parentage (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
Where ascending IS fluids enter lithocaps, they can
evolve to HS fluids as the result of cooling in a quartz-
rich environment that lacks buffering capacity (Einaudi
et al., 2003). Eventual neutralisation and lowering of
sulfidation state by wallrock interaction can convert HS
back to IS fluids (Einaudi et al., 2003), as confirmed by
both spatial and paragenetic transitions from HS to IS
mineralisation (Jannas et al., 1990, 1999; Claveria, 2001;
Fig. 1).
Features of HS deposits, with examples
Reviews by Arribas (1995), White et al. (1995), and
Sillitoe (1999) of 43 HS deposits highlighted their typical
affiliations and host rocks (Tables 2, 3). Of 43 deposits in
the circum-Pacific region, half are affiliated spatially with
volcanic domes, although the domes themselves typically
are not hosts, as they generally have a syn-mineral timing.
A quarter of the deposits are affiliated with central vent
volcanoes (marginal IS veins are common in this setting),
whereas about 10% each occur in caldera and diatreme
settings. There is insufficient information to deduce the
setting of about a quarter of the deposits. In contrast to
their affiliation, the actual host rock to lithocaps and
subsequent HS mineralisation is most typically andesitic
to dacitic flows, breccias, and pyroclastic rocks, the latter
variably welded. Intrusions and sedimentary sequences
locally are hosts, particularly where deeper portions of
the deposit are exposed.
The form of HS deposits varies from disseminated or
replacement ore to veins, stockworks and hydrothermal
breccia bodies (Sillitoe, 1993a; Table 2). Lithologic and
structural controls determine the individual deposit
form (Sillitoe, 1999) from porphyry to deep and shallow
epithermal levels. In particular, there is a diversity in
styles of HS ore that is controlled largely by the changing
nature of the permeability from the surface to > 1 km
depth. The largest, though lowest grade, deposits formed
102
mainly at shallow depths, where the system mushroom;
into permeable lithologies such as volcaniclastic rocks,
lacustrine sediments and, in particular, pyroclastic units,
The pyroclastic host rocks exhibit varying degrees of
welding, but where welded, they are brittle and fracture
easily, and may host disseminated mineralisation. High-
grade vein deposits typically have massive accumulations
of pyrite and sulfosalt minerals, and are structurally
controlled. HS ore deposits commonly show a large
degree of structural control, even within the massive
zones of vuggy quartz and disseminated sulfides, as the
result of their fracture-related roots. These fractures reflect
regional-scale features in some cases, whereas in other
cases, the fractures appear to be caused by emplacement
of the shallow intrusions to which HS deposits are related
(Sillitoe, 1999; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
Gold mineralisation in HS ore deposits is associated
most commonly with enargite or its lower temperature
dimorph, luzonite. Such high sulfidation-state coppet
sulfides (Fig. 2) typically form early in the paragenesis,
with relatively low contents of gold, and are cut by
sulfides associated with gold ore (e.g., El Indio, Chile
and Lepanto, Philippines; Jannas et al., 1990, 1999;
Claveria, 2001). The post-enargite gold ore is associated
with pyrite, tennantite—tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite and
tellurides. These sulfides have an intermediate sulfidation
state (Fig. 2), in contrast to the high sulfidation state of
the precursor enargite. By contrast, in some HS deposits,
e.g., Summitville, there is a transition from tetrahedrite
to enargite with decreasing depth (Stoffregen, 1987),
Thus, it appears that the roots of HS deposits contain
sulfides of intermediate sulfidation state which evolve
upward to high sulfidation state due to cooling (Fig. 2),
whereas in the late stages, the high sulfidation state of the
fluid evolves to an intermediate sulfidation state (Fig. 2),
perhaps due to the influence of the rock buffer (Einaudi
et al., 2003). Intermediate sulfidation state sulfides are
typical in most epithermal veins hosted by volcanic arcs,
They evolve to high sulfidation states only when cooling
in rock with no buffering capacity, e.g., in lithocaps.
Sides of HS deposits: One of the most common
characteristics of HS deposits is the alteration zoning
outward from the ore body, as first characterised in an
alteration section for the Summitville deposit, Colorado
(Steven and Ratte, 1960). Alunite is commonly an early
alteration and gangue mineral, whereas anhydrite and
barite are relatively late. Ore is hosted by rock consisting
of quartz recrystallised from residual silica, with grades
decreasing sharply at the edge of the silicic core. This silicic
core is locally vuggy in texture, depending on the texture
of the original rock. Outwards from the core alteration
zone is a zone of advanced argillic alteration, consisting
of quartz-alunite and the kaolin minerals (Fig. 3),
including kaolinite, nacrite, or dickite. Pyrophyllite or
Characteristics
of and exploration for high-sulfidation epithermal gold—copper deposits

able 2 Principal fie d-oriented characteristics of epithermal types and subtypes

High sulfidation Intermediate sulfidation Low sulfidation
Oxidised magma (Reduced Oxidised magma Subalkaline magma Alkaline magma
magma) '
Typical examples Lepanto, Potosi, Bolivia Baguio, Victoria, Philippines; Midas, Sleeper, Ivanhoe, Emperor, Fiji;
Philippines; Kelian, Indonesia; Rosia Mule Canyon, Nevada; Porgera Zone VII,
Chinkuashih, Montana, Romania (Au-rich); Hishikari, Japan; El PNG
Taiwan; El lndio, Comstock, Nevada (Ag-rich); Penon, Chile; Cerro
Chile; Goldfield, Casapalca, Peru; Creede, Vanguardia, Esquel,
Nevada (vein); Colorado (Ag-base metal rich) Argentina (vein); Round
Yanacocha, Peru; Mountain (disseminated)
Pascua, Chile
(disseminated)
Genetically Mainly andesite to Rhyodacite Principally andesite to Basalt to thyolite Alkali basalt to
related rhyodacite rhyodacite, but locally rhyolite trachyte
volcanic rocks
Typical host rocks Lava flows and pyroclastic units, Lava flows and pyroclastic units, Domes, volcaniclastic and sedimentary units
diatremes, porphyries basement, diatremes
Deposit form Replacement, dissemination, and Vein, breccia body (disseminated) Vein, vein swarm, stockwork, disseminated in
breccia bodies, massive veins lithologic host
Notable features Common steam-heated blanket, Up to 800 m vertical extent, Sinter if paleosurface Limited
vuggy quartz host with steep variable top and bottom of preserved, steam-heated development of
outcrops; structural controls to ore zones in district; locally blanket, basal chaldedony early quartz veins
feeder and high-grade ore; typically associated with lithocap ± HS ore horizon; flat top and base
underlain by porphyry system, of ore horizon, 100 to 300
locally overprinted on porphyry m vertical extent
features
Key proximal Quartz-alunite/ Quartz- Sericite; adularia generally Illite/smectite-adularia Roscoelite-illite-
alteration minerals APS; quartz- alunite/APS; uncommon; variable chlorite, adularia
pyrophyllite/ quartz-dickite hematite
dickite at depth at depth
Silica gangue Massive fine-grainec silicification Vein-filling crustiform and comb Vein-filling crustiform Vein-filling
and vuggy residual quartz quartz and colloform chalcedony crustiform
and quartz; carbonate- and colloform
replacement texture chalcedony and
quartz; quartz
deficiency common
in early stages
Carbonate gangue Absent Common, typically including Present, but typically Abundant, but not
manganiferous varieties minor and late, commonly manganiferous
bladed
Other gangue Barite common, typically late Barite and manganiferous Barite uncommon; Barite, celestite,
silicates present locally fluorite present locally and/or fluorite
common locally
Sulfide abundance 10-90 vol %, early pyrite dominant 5->20 vol. %, base-metal sulfides Typically <l-2 vol % 2-10 v o l %
can be dominant; Au-rich with (but up to 20 vol % pyrite
low (< 10-20) Ag/Au ratio may if hosted by basalt); <300
have <300 ppm Cu+Pb+Zn ppm Cu+Pb+Zn
Ore textures Massive replacement, ore-cemented Coarse banding Finely banded botryoidal quartz (with
breccias, late veins (some bonanza) bonanza), coxcomb, crustiform, brecciation
Key sulfide species Enargite, luzonite, Acanthite, Low-Fe sphalerite, galena, Minor to very minor pyrite arsenopynte
famatinite, covellite stibnite tetrahedrite-tennantite, ± pyrrhotite, naumannite ; minor high-Fe
chalcopyrite sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite-tennantite,
chalcopyrite
Main metals Au-Ag, Cu, As-Sb Ag, Sb, Sn Ag-Au, Zn, Pb, Cu Au±Ag
Ag/Au ratio 1-10 (some >20) 1000 < 10-20, 40-100, >200 for Au- -0.5-5
Ag, Ag-Au ± BM, BM + Ag,
respectively
Minor metals Zn, Pb, Bi, W, Mo, B i , W Mo, As, Sb Zn, Pb, Cu, Mo, As, Sb, H
Sn, Hg
Tc and Se species Tellurides None known, Tellurides common locally; Selenides common; Tellurides
common; but few data selenides uncommon tellurides present locally abundant; selenides
selenides present uncommon
locally

APS, aluminum-phosphate-sulfate minerals; BM, base metals

:
This lithocap-hosted style of mineralisation does not appear to contain high sulfidation-state sulfides
Modified from Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003).

103
Jeffrey W. Hedenquist, Richard H. Sillitoe and Antonio Arribasjr

Table 3 Features of selected HS epitherma) deposits

Deposit Au or Ag/ Age, Deposit style Metal Spatially Genetically Tectonic Reference
location (Ag) Au Ma signature related deposits related setting
content, Ratio igneous
metric rock
tonnes
Yanacocha, 868 6-20 11.5- Disseminated Au, Cu, Underlying Andesite- Extensional Harvey
Peru 10.9 bodies As porphyry dacite continental- et al.
deposits tuffs and margin arc (1999)
domes
Goldfield, 160 <1 21 Fault- Au, Cu, Rhyodacite Extensional Ashley
Nevada controlled Sb, As, domes continental- (1974)
ledges Te, Se, margin arc
Bi, Sn
Bor, 150 7 -85 Massive sulfide Cu, Au, Nearby Andesite Extensional Jankovic ct
Serbia bodies and Ag, As, Madenpak lavas and continental- al. (2002)
stockworks Zn, Pb porphyry tuffs margin arc
Chelopech, 195, Low 78-74 Massive Au, Cu, Andesite Extensional Bonev et al.
Bulgaria 108.5 sulfide and As, Sb, lava continental- (2002)
Rr, 34.5 breccia bodies, Bi, Se, and tuff+ margin arc
P pipes, and Te, Ag, andesite-
stockworks Zn, Pb dacite
minor
intrusions
La Coipa, 96 60 24-20 Vuggy quartz Ag, Au, Puren HS Dacite Neutral- Oviedo
Chile bodies and Cu deposit, 4 pyroclastics stress et al.
breccias kmN and dome continental- (1991)
margin arc
Pascua- 509 -30 9.4- Stockwork- Au, Ag, Veladero HS None Compressive Bissig et al.
Lama, 8.1 disseminated Cu,As deposit, 5 km known continental- (2002)
Chile- bodies SE margin arc
Argentina
El Indio, >300 -10 7.6- Veins Au, Ag, Rio del Medio, None Compressive Jannas et al.
Chile 6.2 Cu, Te, IS veins, 5 known continental- (1990)
As, Bi, kmN margin arc
W
Lepanto, 123 3.2 1.5- Fault- Cu, Au, Subadjacent Dacite Compressive Hedenquist
Philippines 1.2 controlled Ag,Te, Far Southeast diatreme island arc et al.
vuggy quartz, Se, Zn, porphyry; and plug (1998)
massive Bi Victoria-Teresa
sulfide, and IS veins, 1 km
breccia bodies SE
Pueblo 1364 5.5 -130 Stockwork- Au, Ag, Dacite Primitive Russell and
Viejo, or -77 disseminated Zn, Cu, porphyry island Kesler
Dominican bodies Pb, As, plug arc or (1991)
Republic Te, Hg normal
continental-
margin
neutral-stress
arc

n.d., no data. Modified from Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003), with references therein.

diaspore may occur at greater depths, reflecting a higher
paleotemperature. In some deposits, the silicic zone is
absent, and gold ore is hosted by quartz—pyrophyllite,
such as at Pueblo Viejo and in smaller Australian examples
such as Peak Hill and Gidginbung (Russell and Kesler,
1991; White, 1991; White et al., 1995). This advanced
argillic assemblage may also occur in patches within the
silicic zone, possibly preserved from complete leaching by
local zones of lower permeability. The total thickness of
the zone of advanced argillic alteration can be as narrow
as 1 m but may be as wide as 100 m. The silicic and
advanced argillic altered core is enclosed by an argillic
alteration zone of illite or interstratified clays, and by
an outermost zone of propylitic alteration that includes
chlorite. This pattern of alteration zonation indicates
progressive neutralisation outward along the fluid flow
path (Hemley et al., 1969, 1980; White, 1991).

104
 Characteristics of and exploration for high-sulfidation epithermal gold—copper deposits
Tops of HS deposits: Many HS deposits formed at
shallow depth, near domes and stratovolcano edifices
(Sillitoe, 1999). Both volcanic environments may host
acid lakes, either in summit craters or as moats around
the margins of domes. The ponding of acid water leads to
the formation of laminated siliceous deposits interbedded
with lacustrine sediments (e.g., Yanacocha; Harvey et al.,
1999; Sillitoe, 1999).
Where the paleosurface is nearly preserved (e.g., at
La Coipa, Pascua and Tambo, Chile, plus Yanacocha,
Peru; Sillitoe, 1999), a blanket of bleached, friable
opaline quartz (originally cristobalite)-kaolinite-alunite
alteration is common (Fig. 3). This blanket formed from
steam-heated waters (Schoen et al., 1974), generated by
H2S oxidation where vapors condense within the vadose
zone (Fig. 4); native sulfur is common. Distinguishing
this style of acidic alteration from hypogene quartz-
alunite ± dickite-pyrophyllite must be done on textural
observations and field occurrence, rather than on
mineralogy alone, as the mineralogy of steam-heated and
some hypogene alteration overlaps. Although pyrophyllite
typically forms at high temperature in porphyry deposits,
it can form at <150°C when the concentration of silica
exceeds that of quartz solubility (Hemley et al., 1980).
Hence, pyrophyllite by itself cannot be used to indicate
paleotemperatures and thus paleodepth. A chalcedony
blanket may form at the base of the vadose zone along
the water table, beneath the blanket of steam-heated
alteration.
Bottoms of HS deposits: HS deposits typically are
located above or marginal to intrusions, some associated
with porphyry copper ± gold deposits. Well-known
porphyry systems are recognised beneath Lepanto
in the Philippines, Bor in Serbia, and Lahoca in the
Matra mountains of Hungary. Also, a porphyry system
was recently found beneath Yanacocha, Peru (Table 3).
Porphyry systems also occur below or adjacent to other
similar HS deposits (Sillitoe, 1999).
Drilling beneath some HS ore bodies (Hedenquist et
al., 1994; Arribas et al., 1995), indicates that the silicic
and advanced argillic zones commonly pinch downward
(Stoffregen, 1987; Sillitoe, 1999).The roots can be narrow,
unmineralised quartz—pyrite veins with narrow to broad
halos of sericitic alteration (Fig. 3), in some instances
with variable amounts of pyrophyllite (Hedenquist et
al., 1998). Although pyrophyllite is an advanced argillic
mineral, it is not restricted to forming only as a halo of
the silicic and quartz-alunite advanced argillic alteration.
This mineral can also form by cooling of a sericite—stable
fluid (Hemley and Hunt 1992), explaining the common
upward transition of sericite to pyrophyllite over the
tops of porphyry deposits, but below the quartz-alunite
lithocaps (Hedenquist et al., 1998).
105
Characteristics of alteration mineral assemblages
Various styles of silica deposition occur in the epithermal
environment (Table 4), reflecting the rapid decrease in
the solubility of the various silica polymorphs as the
temperature decreases below 300°C. However, the
principal style of silicic alteration in the lithocap and
HS environments is due to the residue of silica that
remains following leaching a silicate rock by an acidic
fluid. As noted above, the texture of this residual silica,
when it recrystallises to quartz, reflects the texture of the
original rock. This texture may be vuggy if phenocrysts
or rock fragments were present, or it may be a massive
silicic rock if the precursor was fine-grained. Subsequent
silicification, even of an originally leached, vuggy rock,
may also lead to a massive silicic texture. As the residual
silica style of alteration at the core of the system is the
principal host to ore where subsequent HS mineralisation
occurs, recognition of this unique style of alteration is
essential during exploration.
Similarly, recognition of the origin of advanced argillic
alteration, hypogene, steam-heated, and/or supergene
assemblages (Fig. 4) is also critical. This is necessary
to ensure that an assemblage of alunite plus kaolinite
is hypogene in origin, and is not due to steam-heating
within the vadose zone, or possibly caused by supergene
oxidation of sulfides in any environment (Table 5).
Alteration morphology, mineral assemblages, and mineral
textures (Table 5) are typically sufficient to determine the
origin(s) of the advanced argillic alteration.
Discussion
Major auriferous HS deposits occur in andesitic-dacitic
arcs characterised by neutral to weakly extensional
stress states, although compressive arcs characterised
by extremely limited coeval volcanic products are
also capable of generating them. In such compressive
settings, much older, non-volcanic units may act as the
immediate host rocks. IS deposits, typically of small
size but locally economically important (such as the
Victoria deposit at Lepanto, Claveria, 2001; Table 3),
share the same spectrum of arc settings. Modestly sized
porphyry copper-gold or copper-molybdenum deposits
commonly occur in the same arc terranes as the HS
deposits, as observed in the Cajamarca belt of northern
Peru, the Maricunga belt of northern Chile, Nevados
del Famatina—La Mejicana in northwestern Argentina,
Recsk-Lahoca in the Carpathians of Hungary, and
Zhijinshan, China (as compiled by Sillitoe, 1999). In
contrast, the largest and highest-grade porphyry copper
deposits are favored by regionally compressive arc regimes
(Sillitoe, 1998), albeit with stress relaxation coinciding
with deposit emplacement (e.g., Tosdal and Richards,
Jeffrey W. Hedenquist, Richard H. Sillitoe and Antonio Arribasjr

Figure 3 Schematic section of a lithocap with halo of hypogene advanced argillic alteration, formed by condensation of magmatic vapor (i.e.,
Fig. 4a); in some cases this may be overlain by a blanket of steam-heated alteration (Fig. 4b). The lithocap forms in the initial stage and is
essentially barren of metals. If a subsequent mineralising liquid, typically of intermediate sulfidation state, ascends from porphyry depths to
the level of the lithocap, cooling in the silicic zone will cause formation of high sulfidation-state sulfides (Fig. 2); this is commonly followed
by Au mineralisation. For a disseminated HS Au deposit of low grade, say 1 g/t Au, to be economically mined, the sulfides must be largely
oxidised by supergene processes (Fig. 4c). Modified from Sillitoe (1999), based on the Yanacocha ore bodies (Harvey et al., 1999).

Figure 4 Schematic illustration of the environment of formation of the three types of acid waters, hypogene, steam-heated, and supergene
(Sillitoe, 1993a). In (A), acidity derives from ascending and cooling HC1 and SO2, the latter after it has been condensed into water and has
formed sulfuric acid. In (B), acidity derives from oxidation of H2S gas that condenses within the vadose zone. By contrast, in (C), acidity
derives from post-hydrothermal oxidation of pyrite within the vadose zone. Ail three sources of acidity may have been present during
generation of a supergene oxidised HS deposit, although only the hypogene variety may have occurred in deeply formed, sulfide-rich vein
deposits.

106
 Characteristics of and exploration for high-sulfdation epithermal gold—copper deposits

Table 4 Types of silicic alteration

Type Formation Where? Significance Metals Deposit
type
Sinter From near-neutral pH Only at surface Paleosurface, topographic Var. As, Sb, Hg, Tl LS only
hot springs (hydrologic) depression, focus (Au, Ag if flared
i of upflow vent)
Residual silica Moderate leaching, pH In vadose zone Steam-heated origin, above Hg, unless LS, IS, or
(opaline) - 2 , 80-90% SiO, paleowater table overprint HS
Chalcedony Silica remobilised At water table, up Paleowater table, may be distal Hg if only steam- LS, IS, or
horizon from steam-heated to 1-2+ km from from source heated, As, Sb, Au, HS
zone; deep fluid may source Ag if deep fluid
contribute to outflow
Chalcedony veins, From low-T fluid, Shallow depth, <200°C, rapidly cooling As, Sb, Se, Au, Ag LS or late
colloform bands; colloids; recrystallised <150m fluid, boiling at depth; HS
crypto-crystalline from gel cryptocrystalline at -200°C
veins
Quartz veins, vugs From cooling solution > 150 m depth >200°C Au, Ag, base IS, deep
metals LS, late
HS
Residual silica Extreme leaching at pH Core of volcanic- Permeable core, principal host Barren, or Cu, HS only
(massive or vuggy <2, >95% SiO 2 hydrothermal system to HS ore As, Au, Ag if later
quartz) introduced

Silicification From cooling water Surface to 500 m, Shallow portion of system, Trace Au, Ag LS, IS,
massive < 150 m pervasive flow late HS
depth

From Hedenquist et al. (2000).

liable 5 Characteristics of three types of acid alteration, including altinite, and their distinction

Hypogene chloride-sulfate Steam-heated sulfate (Schoen et Supergene

al., 1974)
Genetic terminology (Rye et Magmatic-hydrothermal Steam-heated Supergene
al., 1992)
Origin Condensation of high-T magmatic Atmospheric oxidation of H 7 S Atmospheric oxidation of
vapor with HC1 + SO 2 ascending in vadose zone above water table fine-grained sulfide within
surficial weathering zone
Temperature 300-350° to 100°, ascending 100-120°, up to 150+, 20-40, overprinting
range (°C) hypogene fluid descending fluid descending fluid
Assemblages Quartz, alunite, kaolinite, dickite, Kaolinite, alunite, opal, Kaolinite, halloysite, jarosite
diaspore, pyrophyllite, zunyite cristobalite, native sulfur
Relationship to ore Potentially ore-bearing, typically Barren, above ore or overprint Unrelated to sulfide ore,
forms envelope to ore related to oxide ore
Alunite texture and crystal Coarse to fine-grained crystalline Fine (<20-50 um) powdery Chalky, porcellaneous
habit aggregates; tabular or bladed crystals aggregates, chalky, porcellaneous masses and fine (<20-50
masses; rhombohedral crystals um) powdery aggregates;
with nearly cubic angles rhombohedral crystals with
nearly cubic angles
Alunite color Colorless, pink, white, cream, Generally white White, cream, yellow-brown
yellow, tan, brown (jarosite staining)
Alunite isotopic composition 5MS alunite » 534S associated S34S alunite -6 34 S associated S34S alunite = 634S of
(see Rye et al., 1992) sulfide sulfide precursor sulfide
(e.g., 20 vs 0 permil) (e.g., 3 and 2 permil)

From Hedenquist et al. (2000), with teferences therein.

107
Jeffrey W. Hedenquist, Richard H. Sillitoe and Antonio Arribas Jr
2001). Such tectonic settings generally appear to lack
major HS deposits, although they contain widespread
barren advanced argillic lithocaps. Lithocaps are an
integral part of porphyry development (e.g., Hedenquist
et al., 1998). However, subsequent HS mineralisation
depends on the hydrothermal system hydrology, which
is apparently not favorable in many compressive regimes,
and may also be related to the nature of later stage
magmatic crystallisation. Where reduced, ilmenite-series
volcanic sequences occur, silver rather than gold is the
dominant precious metal deposited in lithocaps, but to
date such systems appear to be preserved only in the tin-
silver belt of Bolivia (Sillitoe et al., 1998).
Exploration activity for epithermal ores in andesitic-
dacitic arcs should be focused on HS and potentially
related IS deposits containing gold and/or silver. In some
cases, the latter may be marginal, and at lower palaeo-
elevations, to barren lithocaps. Where not oxidised by
supergene processes due to the lack of an appropriate
tectonic and climatic history, copper in high sulfidation
state sulfides (enargite, covellite) may be a possible
target as well, with or without gold, if present in high-
grade veins (>2—3%). These veins are typically shallow
indicators of deeper porphyry deposits (e.g., Butte,
Montana; Resolution, Arizona; OyuTolgoi, Mongolia).
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 Geology and exploration at Pueblo Viejo
STEPHEN E. KESLER
Introduction
This information supplements the reprint (Kesler et al.,
2003) reproduced, with permission, in this volume. The
reprint deals with the trace-element geochemistry of
Pueblo Viejo and contains a summary of the more recent
thoughts on the geology of the deposit. The only new data
obtained since that time are U-Pb ages for zircon and
Ar-Ar ages for illite from the deposit and surrounding
rocks, which are still in review (Kesler et al., 2004a, b)
and will be discussed during the workshop. Information
is presented here on the geology of the Pueblo Viejo
deposit, especially the paragenesis and zoning of alteration
minerals, and the history of exploration and mining up
to the departure of Rosario Dominicana in 1989.
Overall alteration mineralogy and zoning
The original study of Kesler et al. (1981) showed that
the deposit contained deep alunite, overlain by a zone
of extensive pyrophyllite, which was followed upward by
kaolinite, with the entire system capped by rocks that were
completely silicified (essentially 100% SiO2) (Fig. 1).
The funnel-shaped zone of advanced argillic alteration
clearly cut and overprinted the surrounding calcite-stable
alteration, which had formed during circulation of
seawater through the Los Ranchos volcanic pile.
The presence of alunite at the bottom of the alteration
zone is unusual, but was well documented by contouring
the depth to first alunite in core holes at Moore, which
showed a clearly defined dome (Fig. 2). Within this
domal area, alunite forms clearly stable assemblages with
pyrite and quartz (Fig. 3), indicating coexistence of sulfate
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
MI USA 48109
111
and sulfide in the hydrothermal solution. Stable isotope
compositions suggest temperatures of about 260°C for
this assemblage (Muntean et al., 1990).
Muntean et al. (1990) showed that the overall
alteration pattern shown in Figure 1 was actually the result
of a two-stage process. The first stage involved formation
of a deep alunite—pyrite—quartz assemblage that was
succeeded upward by a shallow kaolinite-quartz-pyrite
assemblage (Fig. 4). This was overprinted by a second
stage of alteration involving widespread pyrophyllite
with local diaspore, which was overlain by a zone of
silicification (Fig. 5).
Relations between kaolinite and pyrophyllite were
not clear when the original alteration zoning (Fig. 1) was
worked out and it was suggested that the kaolinite was
supergene in origin (Kesler et al., 1981). Further thin
section study showed that this is not correct and that
pyrophyllite replaced kaolinite (Fig. 6) (Muntean et al.,
1990).
Pueblo Viejo is distinct from most high-sulfidation
deposits in lacking large and obvious zones of vuggy
silica, and the deep vuggy silica shown in Figure 4 is
schematic, at best. Highly silicified rock is widespread
in the uppermost part of the deposit and some parts of
it look like vuggy silica to the casual observer (Fig. 7).
However, the holes (vugs) in this rock do not appear
to be dissolved phenocrysts such as are found in vuggy
silica zones at Summitville. Furthermore, the siliceous
zones that contain these features are found at the top of
the deposit and appear to have formed from silica that
appears to have completely replaced all previous minerals,
including quartz.
Silica in the upper part of the deposit was released
when pyrophyllite replaced quartz in lower parts of the
deposits. Figures 8 and 9 show grains of quartz that were
partly replaced by pyrophyllite. Silica released by this
replacement reaction formed the extensive silica caps
Stephen E. Kesler

Figure 1 Summary of alteration zoning through the central part of the Moore deposit showing funnel-shaped zone of advanced
argillic alteration cutting calcite-stable alteration.

Figure 3 Coarse-grained assemblage of alunite(A), pyrite (P) and

quartz (Q) from the deep part of the Monte Negro deposit.

Figure 2 Elevation (above sea level) of first alunite (metres) in core

holes at the Moore deposit (from Kesler et al., 1981).

112
 Geology and exploration at Pueblo Viejo

Figure 4 Revised Stage 1 alteration zoning at Moore (see discussion of vuggy silica below).

Figure 5 Revised Stage 2 alteration zoning at Moore.

Figure 6 Kaolinite (K) cut and partly replaced by pyrophyllke (P) Figure 7 Possible vuggy silica from the upper part of the Monte
I in matrix of fine-grained silica. Negro ore body (scale shown by hammer handle in upper right).

113
Stephen E. Kesler

over the deposits (Fig. 1), producing rocks that consist of

essentially 100% SiO2 (Fig. 10).
Precious metal mineralisation accompanied this
alteration sequence in at least two stages. During Stage
1, most mineralisation was disseminated, whereas
during Stage 2, mineralisation was concentrated in late
veins (Fig. 11). The veins are thought to have formed
by hydrofracturing related to overpressuring beneath an
impermeable silica cap (Kesler et al., 1981). One of the
key factors leading to this suggestion was the apparent
irregular orientation of the veins. However, the veins
were visible in only a few parts of the deposit at the time
of this study and this needs to be reevaluated now that
veins are well exposed at the base of the oxide zone.
Figure 8 Quartz grain partly replaced by pyrophyllite.
Two other aspects of the mineralisation require
further evaluation. First, is the possibility that significant
amounts of gold were scavenged from early disseminated
mineralisation to form the later vein mineralisation, as
originally suggested by Muntean et al. (1990). Second, is
the exact relation between mineralisation and alteration.
In many high-sulfidation deposits, it has been suggested
that mineralisation followed alteration and was, in fact,
related to later, more nearly neutral solutions. We did not
see evidence for this at Pueblo Viejo, where some veins
contain pyrophyllite and most have a strong, though
narrow, silicification envelope.

History of exploration and development

Pueblo Viejo is on the eastern edge of the Maimon-Hatillo

district (Koschmann and Gordon, 1950), which includes Figure 9 Almost complete replacement of quartz by pyrophylliti
the large Falcondo nickel laterite operation, VMS copper
prospects at Barbuito, Cerro de Maimon, and Loma la
Mina, contact-localised magnetite deposits at Hatillo and
Las Lagunas, and the Los Hojanchos gold prospect (Fig.
12). Among these deposits, Pueblo Viejo has the longest
history of exploration and mining attempts. According
to O'Kelly (1973) Pueblo Viejo might have been worked
by Arawak Indians, whose rock carvings were found in
the area, and it was probably visited by Don Alonso de
Ojeda during Columbus' second voyage to Hispaniola in
1494. By 1505, Spanish workings were in place at Pueblo
Viejo and work continued until at least 1525 when it
was stopped by a labor shortage caused by a declining
Indian population due to forced labor and European
diseases. Workings, probably from this early period, were
encountered during early open-pit mining in the 1970s.
Reference to Pueblo Viejo was made in writings from
1690, 1825 and 1840, but the magnitude and nature of
Figure 10 Silicified porphyritic volcanic rock from north of Monte
activity at these times is not clear. Negro showing preservation of textures in rock that now consists of
The district was largely forgotten by the time of 100%SiO 9 .
U.S. Geological Survey studies in the early 2O'h century
(Vaughan, 1921; Koschmann and Gordon, 1950). In
1950, however, an effort was made to re-open Pueblo

114
 Geology and exploration at Pueblo Viejo

Figure 11 Distribution of gold and copper values and schematic distribution of veins at Moore.

Figure 12 Distribution of gold and copper values and schematic distribution of veins at
Moore.

115
Stephen E. Kesler
Figure 13 Exploration adit along the west flank of Pueblo Viejo
(Moore deposit) put in by the Zoppis project in the 1950's.
Figure 14 View of Moore deposit from Monte Negro in about
1986 showing oxide (light) on top of hill and sulfide (dark) along
the west flank.
Figure 15 Soil geochemistry of the Pueblo Viejo area, showing loca-
tion of ore bodies. Bench 5 ore body is immediately south of Moore.
116
Viejo, when the Italian geologist Renato Zoppis began a
three-year program supported by Rafael Trujillo, dictator
of the country. Zoppis' group focused on the sulfide
veins along the west flank of the mountain, which were
clearly gold-bearing. They drove eight exploration adits
(Fig. 13), drilled 31 holes and put in a small pilot plant,
but were defeated ultimately by the thin, irregular nature
of the veins.
During the late 1950s and early 1960s several
promoters and companies examined Pueblo Viejo
without success. In the mid-1960s the Dominican
government commissioned a survey from a large
engineering firm, which concluded that no further
exploration by the government was warranted (O'Kelly,
1973). Acting on this recommendation, the government
issued exploration rights to a company controlled by
Leland Johnston, which drilled two holes. At about
this point, David Moore of New York and Honduras
Rosario Mining Company (later Rosario Resources)
sent Vern Garton to examine the property. This led to a
joint venture at Pueblo Viejo involving Rosario, Simplot
Industries and Campbell Chibougamau, which began
drilling in 1969. Their first encouragement came in
1970 when enargite was intersected in DDH-63, leading
to re-evaluation of earlier drill holes, some of which
had copper values (O'Kelly, 1973). At about this time,
Campbell Chibougamau withdrew from the venture,
leaving Rosario and Simplot.
As drilling progressed, interest shifted from the sulfide
to the overlying oxides. Although earlier exploration
had noted the presence of gold and silver values in the
overburden, it was too thin and discontinuous along
the west flank (the only place where sulfides were well
exposed) to be of interest. As drilling moved eastward up
the west flank, overburden thickness reached 80 m along
the top of the hill, confirming potential for a high tonnage
of oxide material (Fig. 14). A shift of interest toward the
oxide potential of the deposit was also encouraged by
reports of difficulty in recovering gold from the sulfide
ores, especially with the abundant arsenic that was
turning up in the sulfides.
By April of 1971, slightly more than 9000 m of drilling
had led to delineation of about 6.5 million tons of oxide
material averaging 0.19 oz/ton Au and 1.48 oz/ton Ag,
as well as 17.7 million tons of sulfide material averaging
0.13 oz/ton Au, 1.12 oz/ton Ag, 2.19% Zn and 0.25%
Cu (Kelly, 1973). After a pause during which Mining
Law No. 146 was passed by the Dominican government
and agreements were completed for a mining concession,
a second program of drilling began. Between July, 1972
and July 1973, another 8400 m of drilling expanded the
oxide material to about 24 million tons averaging about
0.13 oz/ton Au and 0.69 oz/ton Ag (Kelly, 1973). By
September 1973, this had increased to 31 million tons
 Geology and exploration at Pueblo Viejo

averaging 0.128 oz/ton Au and 0.82 oz/ton Ag at a cut-

off grade of 0.025 oz/ton Au (O'Kelly, 1973).
Further exploration of the district was guided
largely by soil geochemistry, which was very effective in
delineating areas with elevated gold values (Fig. 15).
Silver, zinc and copper, which were quantitatively
leached from the oxide zone in most areas, were not useful
in geochemical exploration. As a result of this work, six
separate ore bodies were eventually delineated, including
the largest deposit, Moore, where exploration began, and
its two eastern extensions East Mejita and MejitaTwo, as
well as Monte Negro, Cumba and Bench 5.
Although stream sediment geochemistry was not
used in exploration, samples were collected in the main
drainages around the deposit to determine its signature.
By the time of the sampling in 1979, mining had begun
in the upper part of the oxide zone and streams draining
the immediate area contained fine-grained oxide material
(Fig. 16). The sulfide zone was largely undisturbed,
however. These stream sediment tests were carried out, in
part, because there was no placer gold around the deposit
and it could not be detected by panning stream sediments.
In 15 years of mining, only one megascopically visible Figure 16 Arroyo Margarjita about 0.8 km below Pueblo Viejo
showing brown, sediment-rich water.
grain of gold was found in the deposit.
The main result of stream sediment sampling around
the deposit was recognition that Pueblo Viejo is a strong
pH anomaly with pH of 3 to 4 in all streams draining the
immediate mine area, values of about 5 in streams running
through limestone as much as 1 km downstream from
the deposit, and values of 6.5 about 5 km downstream
from the deposit. During rain storms, dilution of the acid
water resulted in deposition of a gelatinous Fe-hydroxide
precipitate on the top of the sediment (Fig. 17). Because
of the high acidity of the water, weak acid leaches generally
yielded no significant values for Cu or Zn even though
they were obviously weathering and being removed from
the deposit. Evidence for the highly acid and metal-rich
nature of drainage from the deposit was clearly visible
in the pit during later stages of mining when the sulfide
zone had been reached. At that time, water in puddles on
the pit floor was blue and contained so much dissolved
copper that it would coat out on the blade of a knife (Fig.
18).
Additional, regional stream sediment surveys showed Figure 17 Stream sediment with gelatinous precipitate of Fe-hy-
that most zinc anomalies were located where streams droxides resulting from dilution of acid stream water during a storm.
Much of the color of the stream water resulted from this fine-grained
crossed roads. This was interpreted to reflect dissolution material in suspension.
of galvanised steel that was used widely as roofs for local
buildings. During the course of mining, tests of other
experimental exploration methods were carried out. on silicified volcanic rock in the upper Los Ranchos
DIGHEM, which was used in exploration for VMS Formation showed a strong CO 9 anomaly around the ore
deposits in the nearby Maimon Formation, was flown zone (Fig. 19).
over Pueblo Viejo with no significant response. Soil gas Mining of the Moore deposit at Pueblo Viejo began
geochemistry did not show a strong local anomaly over in 1974 as a joint venture of Simplot, Rosario and the
the ore zones. However, fluid inclusion gas measurements Dominican government. The first gold was poured in

117
Stephen E. Kesler
early 1975 in the presence of Joaqufn Balaguer, who
was President of the country. Ore processing concerns
surfaced immediately because of the large variation
in hardness of the ore, due to the upward increase in
silicification. This was particularly important because
much of the high-grade ore was intensely silicified. To
treat this ore, the initial autogenous grinding circuit was
changed to a jaw crushed—semi-autogenous circuit with
4-inch steel balls and routine grinding tests to improve
ore mixing (Argall, 1975; Russell et al, 1981). Routine
testing was also commenced to determine the amount
of clay and pyrophyllite in the ore, which had a strong
effect on flocculation rate of the cyanide slurry (Russell
etal., 1981).
An additional surprise that arose during the casting
of dore bars, was the effect of significant mercury, which
had been recognised in exploration drilling. Installation
of a mercury recovery circuit resulted in weekly recovery
of about 600 pounds of mercury compared to about
7000 ounces of gold. This amounts to a ratio of about
1:1 (weight or atomic), indicating the importance of
mercury to the system. As shown in the paper on trace
elements, which accompanies this report (Kesler et al.,
2003), both gold and mercury are strongly zoned and
increase greatly near the top of the deposits.
In 1979, the government of the Dominican Republic
bought the shares that Rosario and Simplot held in
Figure 18 Copper coating on blade of knife immersed in a puddle
of water in sulfide material on the floor of the Moore pit.
118
Rosario Dominicana (then 27% each) for $35 million
each, and Rosario negotiated an agreement to operate
the mine for the government. Shortly afterward, in
1980, Rosario was bought by Amax, which continued
the operating contract. By 1989, about 46 million tons
of oxide ore had been mined from the district, essentially
depleting oxide reserves and Joaquin Balaguer, who was
newly re-elected to the presidency of the country, stated
that he would not allow the sulfide ore to be developed.
Amax, which had developed a sulfide proposal including a
feasibility study and available financing, then terminated
its contract and left the mine on 31 December 1989.
Prior to their departure, Amax designed and began
construction of a CIL plant to extend the life of the
mine. Contract and payment disagreements delayed the
opening of this plant until 1992. From then until about
1997, the plant treated mixed oxide—sulfide ores, and
after that it treated sulfide ore with very low recoveries.
When it closed in 1999, it had resulted in removal of a
significant amount of high-grade ore near the top of the
system, which might have been used as a sweetener to start
a sulfide operation. The government also constructed a
gold refinery at Pueblo Viejo in the early 1990's, but it
was not operated successfully because Pueblo Viejo did
not supply enough dore feed and no other operation
was willing to ship dore to the middle of the country fot
refining.
Mining of the sulfide ore has been a major objective
of all organisations working on the property since the
early 1970s. Estimates of the magnitude of the sulfide
reserve have varied greatly depending on cut-off gtade
used and assumptions about metallurgy and were last
quoted at about 200 million tonnes containing about
20 million ounces of gold (http://www.placerdome.com/
exploration/presentations.html). After the departure of
Amax, the government of the Dominican Republic made
numerous agreements with a long list of companies to
evaluate the feasibility of mining this reserve. Although
several companies spent millions of dollars on their
evaluation efforts, no organisation reached an acceptable
mining agreement with the government.
Development of the sulfide reserve has been impeded
by a combination of economic conditions imposed by the
government and metallurgical demands of the ore. Early
efforts by Rosario to find a suitable gold-recovery method
focused on recovery from a sulfide mineral concentrate
with production of by-product sulfuric acid. These were
judged to be uneconomic, partly because of the difficulty
of dealing: with the acid. Later efforts focusing on whole-
ore roasting with neutralisation of SO., off-gas also failed
economic hurdles (Ruiz, 2002). Later efforts by MIM and
the Goldfields—El Dorado joint venture emphasised fine-
grinding and bioxidation, respectively, neither of which
led to a valid mining agreement. More recent efforts have

Figure 19 CO content of fluid inclusions in silicified volcanic rocks in the upper Los Ranchos
Formation showing low-CO anomaly over the Moore deposit. Measurements were not made on
silicified material at Monte Negro (from Kesler, 1986).
focused on the metallurgical and economic feasibility of
a sphalerite concentrate combined with bioxidation of
pyrite, enargite and other sulfides that report to tailings
(Ruiz, 2002). No information is available on the fate
of arsenic in these processes, although the abundance
of enargite in the sulfide ore means that it will be an
important factor.
Some have questioned the wisdom of spending so
much money on geological and metallurgical evaluation
of a deposit for which a mining agreement has not yet
been made. While there certainly has been a long and
impressive list of companies to lose their bets so far, the
overall investment that they have made is still reasonable
when compared to the cost of a grassroots discovery of
this magnitude, much less the risk that development of
a discovery in another part of the world might be slowed
or stopped by environmental activism.
119
Geology and exploration at Pueblo Viejo
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Mike Seaward and Norman Russell for
numerous suggestions to correct and clarify the
information in this summary. They and the Rosario staff
are the people who did all the work at Pueblo Viejo, and
I am grateful for the opportunity to have worked with
them through the life of the operation.
References
Argall, C O . , Jr., 1975, How Rosario Dominicana discovered
and mines microscopic gold ore: World Mining,
September, p. 36-86.
Kesler, S.E., 1986, Application of fluid inclusion and rock-gas
analysis in mineral exploration: Journal of Geochemical
Exploration, v. 25, p. 201—215.
Kesler, S.E., Campbell, I.H. and Allen, C, 2004a, Age of
the Los Ranchos Formation, Dominican Republic:
Evidence for Paleozoic Basement in the Central Greater
Antilles: GSA Bulletin, in review.
Kesler, S.E., Campbell, I.H. and Hall, C, 2004b, Age of Pueblo
Viejo and its significance to models for high-sulfidation
mineralization: in review — Economic Geology.
Stephen E. Kesler

Kesler, S.E., Russell, N., Seaward, M. Rivera, J. McCurdy, K.

Cumming, G.L. and Sutter, J.R, 1981, Geology and
geochemistry of sulfide mineralization underlying the
Pueblo Viejo gold-silver oxide deposit, Dominican
Republic: Economic Geology, v. 76, p. 1096-1117.
Kesler, S.E., Russell, N. and McCurdy, K., 2003, Trace-metal
content of the Pueblo Viejo precious-metal deposits
and their relation to other high-sulfidation epithermal
deposits: Mineralium Deposita, v. 38, p. 668-682.
Koschmann, A.H. and Gordon, M., Jr., 1950, Geology and
mineral resources of the Maimon-Hatillo district,
Dominican Republic: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin
964-D, p. 307-359.
Muntean, J.L., Kesler, S.E., Russell, N. and Polanco, J., 1990,
Evolution of Monte Negro acid-sulfate Au-Ag deposit,
Pueblo Viejo, Dominican Republic: Important factors
in grade development: Economic Geology, v. 85, p.
1738-1758.
O'Kelly, E, 1973, Report on history of Pueblo Viejo: internal
report, Rosario Dominicana, 14 p.
Ruiz, J.A., 2002, The extractive metallurgy of Pueblo Viejo:
Pincock Perspectives, issue no. 36, p. 1-4.
Russell, N., Seaward, M., Rivera, J.A., McCurdy, K., Kesler,
S.E. and Cloke, P.L., 1981, Geology and geochemistry
of the Pueblo Viejo gold-silver oxide ore deposit,
Dominican Republic: Institution of Mining and
Metallurgy, v. 90, p. B153-162.
Vaughan, T.W., 1921, A geologic reconnaissance of the
Dominican Republic: Dominican Republic Geological
Survey Memoir 1, 376 p.

120
 The Martabe high-sulfidation epithermal gold
deposits of North Sumatra, Indonesia
BRIAN LEVET
The Martabe high-sulfidation epithermal gold deposits
are hosted in Tertiary volcanic and sedimentary rocks
proximal to the Great Sumatran Fault complex in
Indonesia (Fig. 1). Episodic fault activity, related to
wrench tectonics associated with the oblique subduction
of the Indian Australian plate below the Eurasian
plate, is thought to have been responsible for pulses
of high-level magmatism, development of multi-stage
phreatomagmatic breccias, hydrothermal alteration and
Table 1
Date Event
Youngest Hornblende Andesite
Older
Late stage Phreatomagmatic Diatreme Breccia
Main-Stage High Sulphidation Enargite Luzonite
mineralization
Dacite porhyry
Hydrothermal brecciation
Low sulphidation veining and chalcedonic silica
Main-stage acid-sulphate alteration event
Early Stage Phreatomagmatic Diatreme Breccia
complex
Upper Mudstone/Siltstone
Porphyritic andesite i
Lower Siltstone/Sandstone unit
18-20 Ma Carbonaceous siltstone / mudstone
(fossils)
Basaltic Andesite
209 Ma Granite
Director, Generative Exploration Indonesia and Australia
Newmont Australia Ltd
10 Richardson Street, West Perth, WA
121
gold mineralisation (Figs 2, 3, 4). A detailed description
of the Pernama gold deposit is provided in Levet et al.
(2004). Texturally destructive acid sulfate alteration has
produced extensive zones of tabular vuggy silica which
cross cut lithologies, enhancing the permeability of the
host rocks for later higher grade gold-bearing fluids
(Fig. 5; Table 1).
Empirical Relationship
Cuts all lithologies, unaltered and unmineralised. Negative soil
geochemistry
Clay-altered. Cuts dacite porphyry, not hornblende andesite.
Muddy matrix with clasts of all lithologies except hornblende
andesite. Unmineralized
In fractures, crackle breccias— also in dacite.
Late-stage felsic flow dome intruded into diatreme breccia
column. Flow dome complex developed to the north.
Contains low sulphidation veins and acid sulphate altered clasts.
Cuts and indurates the pervasive acid sulphate silicification
Strong to extreme acid leaching of early phreatomagmatic
breccias and andesite units.
Muddy matrix, clasts of mudstone, siltstones, sandstone and
andesite. Shows facies variation in thicker sequences.
Clear marker unit in the sedimentary sequence.
Uncertain age relationship.
Brian Level

Acknowledgements

The Sydney Mineral Exploration Discussion Group

(SMEDG) are thanked for permission to reproduce the
figures and table from Levet et al. (2004). Please visit
their website (http://www.smedg.org.au/) to view the full
article.

References

Levet, B, Jones, M. and Sutopo, B., 2004, The Purnama gold

deposit in the Martabe district of North Sumatra,
Indonesia: http: //www. sm edg.org. au/Tiger/Purnama.
htm

Figure 1 Location of the Martabe gold deposits, Sumatra,

Indonesia.

Figure 2 Regional geological interpretation of the Martabe district.

122
 Martabe high-sulfidation epithermal gold deposits of North Sumatra, Indonesia

Figure 3 Geological interpretation of the Purnama deposit.

Figure 4 Cross sectional geology of the Purnama deposit.

123
Brian Levet

Figure 5 Section 167200N showing the relationship between lithology, structure, alteration and
mineralisation.

124
 Characteristics of gold skarn deposits
LAWRENCE D. MEINERT
Abstract
Skarns containing Au are present worldwide and in a
variety of geologic settings. These deposits share many
common features such as biotite hornfels, garnet-
pyroxene alteration, clastic- and/or volcaniclastic-rich
protoliths, and a gold—arsenic—bismuth-tellurium
geochemical signature. They also exhibit significant
differences, especially among the four major subdivisions:
(1) reduced gold skarns, (2) oxidised gold skarns, (3)
magnesian gold skarns, and (4) metamorphic gold
skarns. Both reduced and oxidised gold skarns are related
to shallow Phanerozoic plutons with depth estimates of
<5 km. Phanerozoic plutons associated with reduced
gold skarns tend to be ilmenite-bearing mafic diorites and
granodiorites, whereas plutons associated with oxidised
gold skarns tend to be more silicic and magnetite-bearing.
In contrast, magnesian and metamorphic gold skarns do
not necessarily occur with associated igneous rocks and
range in age from Archean to Phanerozoic. Estimates
of pressure for most of these deposits are 2—6 kb, in
contrast to <0.5 kb for gold skarns associated with
hypabyssal intrusions. In most gold skarns, fine grained
biotite ± K-feldspar hornfels forms a distal alteration
zone relative to proximal, relatively coarse-grained garnet
and pyroxene. The proximal skarn zone is internally
zoned from garnet-dominant close to the pluton or fluid
pathway to pyroxene-dominant away from the pluton
or fluid pathway. The relative proportion of garnet
and pyroxene reflects protolith composition, activity
of components in the hydrothermal fluid, and overall
Department of Geology, Smith College, Northampton, MA 01063
Email: Lmeinert@smith.edu
125
oxidation state as influenced by magmatic sources, wall
rock composition and mineral reactions. The silicate,
oxide and sulfide mineral associations of a given skarn
rock tend to reflect the overall oxidation and sulfidation
state of the hydrothermal system. Oxidised gold skarns
typically contain andraditic garnet, diopsidic pyroxene,
tremolite—actinolite, pyrite (± arsenopyrite) and hematite.
Reduced gold skarns typically contain intermediate
grandite garnet, hedenbergitic pyroxene, actinolite-
ferro-actinolite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite ± lollingite, ±
magnetite. Metamorphic gold skarns typically contain
subcalcic garnet with significant almandine—spessartine,
hedenbergitic pyroxene, grunerite-ferro-actinolite,
pyrrhotite, lollingite ± arsenopyrite and graphite. Minor
minerals common to most gold skarn types include native
gold, maldonite (Au2Bi), native bismuth, bismuthinite
(Bi2S3), hedleyite (Bi]4Te6), hessite (Ag2Te), joseite-B
(Bi4Te2S) and tellurobismuthinite (Bi2Te3). There are
transitions from skarns to other gold deposit types that
suggest possible linkages. For example, there are individual
gold skarns that share features with deposits classified as
orogenic, epithermal, Carlin and IOCG. This suggests
that some geological and geochemical processes can
form similar deposit characteristics in diverse geological
settings.
Introduction
Skarn is a relatively simple rock type defined by its
mineralogy, and is usually dominated by calc-silicate
minerals such as garnet and pyroxene (see general reviews
by Einaudi et ah, 1981; Meinert, 1992; or the skarn
Internet site at: www.wsu.edu/-meinert/skarnHP.html).
Skarns occur on all continents and in rocks of almost
all ages. Although the majority of skarns are found in
lithologies containing at least some limestone, they can
form in almost any rock type including shale, sandstone,
Lawrence D. Meinert
granite, iron formation, basalt and komatiite. Skarns
can form during regional or contact metamorphism and
from a variety of metasomatic processes involving fluids
of magmatic, metamorphic, meteoric and/or marine
origin. They are found adjacent to plutons, along faults
and major shear zones, in shallow geothermal systems,
on the bottom of the seafloor, and at lower crustal depths
in deeply buried metamorphic terrains. In addition to
this geologic variability, skarns have been mined for a
variety of metals, including iron, tungsten, copper, lead,
zinc, molybdenum, silver, gold, uranium, REE, fluorine,
boron and tin.
Prior to the dramatic rise in the price of gold in the
early 1970s, most gold produced from skarn deposits came
as a byproduct of the mining of other metals, particularly
copper. The one notable exception was the Nickel Plate
mine in the Hedley district, British Columbia, which
had been mined for high grade gold in skarn from the
turn of the century (Billingsley and Hume, 1941). This
deposit has been intensively studied (Ray and Dawson,
1988, 1994; Ettlinger, 1990; Ettlinger et ak, 1992)
and has served as a de facto exploration model for gold
skarn deposits in combination with the relatively similar
Fortitude deposit in Nevada (Wotruba et ak, 1988; Myers
and Meinert, 1991; Theodore and Hammarstrom, 1991;
Myers, 1994). Subsequent recognition of similar gold
skarn deposits includes: Andorra, Spain (Romer and
Soler, 1995); Bed, Montana (Wilkie, 1996); Buffalo
Valley, Nevada (Seedorff et ak, 1991); Crown Jewel,
Washington (Hickey, 1992); Elkhorn, Montana (Everson
and Read, 1992); Junction Reefs, Australia (Gray et ak,
1995); Marn, Yukon (Brown and Nesbitt, 1987); Redline,
Nevada (Smith, 2001); Ximena, Ecuador (Paladines and
Rosero, 1996).
Numerous other gold skarn deposits have been
discovered in the past several decades which differ in
important ways from the Hedley-Fortitude model. For
example, some are magnesian skarns (Butte Highlands,
Montana, Ettlinger et ak, 1996; Marvel Loch, Australia,
Mueller, 1991, Mueller etak, 1991), some are magnetite-
dominant (Bermejal, Mexico, de la Garza et ak, 1996;
Key East, Washington, Lowe, 1998), some are garnet-
dominant and relatively oxidised (Ban Na Lorn,
Thailand, Pisutha-Arnond et ak, 1984; McCoy, Nevada,
Brooks, 1994; Nambija, Ecuador, Hammarstrom, 1992;
Red Dome, Australia, Ewers and Sun, 1989; Wabu, Irian
Jaya, Allen et ak, 1998), and some occur in iron-rich
rocks in regional metamorphic terrains (Lucky Draw,
Australia, Sheppard et ak, 1995; Lupin, Northwest
Territories, Lhotka and Nesbitt, 1989; Mallapakonda
and Oriental, India, Siddaiah and Rajamani, 1989;
Navachab, Namibia, Norremann et ak, 2001; Nevoria,
Australia, Mueller, 1997, Mueller et ak, 2004; Tillicum,
British Columbia, Ray et ak, 1985).
126
Major gold skarn types and representative
examples
The term 'gold skarn' is used here in the economic
sense suggested by Einaudi et al. (1981) and refers to
ore deposits that are mined solely or predominantly for
gold and which exhibit calc-silicate alteration, usually
dominated by garnet and pyroxene, that is related to
mineralisation. This usage excludes deposits such as Big
Gossan that contain substantial gold (>1 million ounces
and > 1 g/t Au), but which are mined primarily for other
commodities such as copper. It also excludes deposits such
as the Veselyi Mine in the Siniukhinskoe District, CIS
where gold was high-graded from a copper—gold skarn
system due to socioeconomic considerations, but which
would have been mined for copper—gold in most other
societies (Ettlinger and Meinert, 1991). Conversely, this
definition includes deposits such as Bermejal (de la Garza
et al., 1996) and Key East (Lowe, 1998) that contain
large amounts of other metals (such as Fe in the form of
magnetite) that have not been mined, but conceivably
could be recovered in some economic scenarios.
Reduced gold skarns
The highest grade (5—15 g/t Au) gold skarn deposits are
relatively reduced, are mined solely for their gold content,
lack economic concentrations of other metals, and have a
distinctive gold—bismuth—tellurium—arsenic geochemical
association. Most high-grade gold skarns are associated
with reduced (ilmenite-bearing, Fe O,/(Fe O,+Fe0)
<<0.75) diorite—granodiorite plutons and dyke/sill
complexes. They typically occur in clastic-rich protoliths
rather than pure limestone and skarn alteration of dykes,
sills and volcaniclastic units is common. Reduced gold
skarns are dominated by iron-rich pyroxene (typically
>Hd5o), but proximal zones can contain abundant
intermediate grandite garnet. Other common minerals
include K-feldspar, scapolite, vesuvianite, apatite and
amphibole. Distal/early zones contain biotite ± K-
feldspar hornfels, which can extend for hundreds of
metres beyond massive skarn. Due to the clastic-rich,
carbonaceous nature of the sedimentary rocks in these
deposits, most skarn is relatively fine-grained.
The Nickel Plate mine in the Hedley district, British
Columbia is a typical reduced gold skarn. Discontinuous
production from 1904 until the mine closed in 1995
was 13.4 million tons averaging 5.3 g/t Au, 1.3 g/t Ag
and 0.02% Cu (Ray et al., 1996). Of this, more than
3 million tons of ore was mined underground at an
even higher grade, averaging 14 g/t Au. Skarn formed
in dominantly clastic rocks of the upper Triassic Nicola
Group, that is part of the allochthonous Quesnel
Terrane of the Intermontane Belt. Skarn is spatially

and genetically associated with the dioritic Hedley
intrusions, which comprise the Toronto Stock and a
series of dykes and sills. Many of these intrusions have
undergone strong endoskarn alteration to pyroxene,
biotite, garnet, amphibole and K-feldspar. Dating of
these intrusions suggests an age range of 194—219 Ma
(Ray and Dawson, 1994). Gold skarns are the most
reduced of any major skarn class (Meinert, 1995), and
the Toronto Stock is the most reduced ilmenite-bearing
intrusion associated with a gold skarn, with an average
Fe2O3/( Fe2O3+FeO) value of 0.15 (Ray et al., 1995). As
first recognised by Billingsley and Hume (1941), skarn
is zoned in both space and time relative to the Toronto
Stock and associated dykes and sills. The earliest and
most distal alteration is a fine-grained biotite hornfels
that affects both clastic rocks and some of the early sills
(Ray et al., 1988). With time and proximity to massive
skarn, biotite occurs with K-feldspar and pyroxene and
is slightly coarser grained (Ettlinger, 1990). This forms
an aureole around the massive garnet—pyroxene skarn
that is zoned from garnet > pyroxene near the Toronto
Stock to pyroxene-dominant (garnet:pyroxene <0.1)
skarn in distal ore zones (Ettlinger et al., 1992). Garnet is
intermediate grandite in composition whereas pyroxene
is relatively Fe-rich. The most Fe-rich garnet (Ad 2)
occurs in distal ore zones (Ettlinger et al., 1992), whereas
pyroxene composition changes systematically away from
the Toronto Stock and the larger dykes, becoming more
iron-rich and slightly more manganese-rich. The sulfide
minerals associated with garnet and pyroxene skarn are
dominantly arsenopyrite, lollingite and pyrrhotite. Other
sulfide minerals, in decreasing order of abundance, are
chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, hedleyite (Bi2+xTe1_x),
native bismuth, gold, galena and maldonite (Au2Bi;
Ettlinger, 1990). This latter group of minerals is mostly
associated with lower temperature alteration including
amphibole, ferroan wollastonite, scapolite and prehnite.
The scapolite and some amphiboles are unusually
chlorine-rich and this feature has been suggested as an
exploration guide to gold-rich systems (Pan et al., 1994;
Pan, 1998).
Oxidised gold skarns
Whereas the 'classic' gold skarn deposit is characterised
by low garnetrpyroxene ratios, hedenbergitic pyroxene
and abundant pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite ± other sulfides,
several skarns have been mined for gold that have a very
different mineralogy and mineralisation style. These
deposits have been classified by Brooks et al. (1991) as
oxidised gold skarns. Their essential features include
high garnet:pyroxene ratios, relatively iron-poor garnet
and pyroxene, low total sulfides, pyrite 2 pyrrhotite,
and minor but ubiquitous occurrences of chalcopyrite,
127
Characteristics of gold skarn deposits
sphalerite and galena. In addition, the highest gold
grades are not associated with prograde garnet-pyroxene,
but rather with later retrograde alteration including
abundant K-feldspar (adularia) and quartz. Some of
these deposits can be considered transitional to other
types of gold mineralisation such as epithermal deposits,
in which phase separation (boiling) can be an important
precipitation mechanism (e.g., Hedenquist, 1995).
The McCoy gold skarn is a typical oxidised gold
skarn. The McCoy deposit contained 15.6 Mt of ore
averaging 1.44 g/t Au and an additional 30,430 tonnes
averaging 14.6 g/t Au that was mined underground
(Brooks, 1994). Production is from garnet-rich skarn
surrounding the 39 Ma Brown stock, a reduced ilmenite-
series, hypabyssal, hornblende—biotite granodiorite. The
Brown stock is estimated to have intruded to within
1.3 km of the surface and this shallow emplacement is
reflected by the multitude of dykes and sills found on
the margins of the main stock. In addition, most early
dykes and sills have been affected by garnet-pyroxene
endoskarn. The highest gold grades are associated with
the most reduced intrusive phase but the majority of gold
production is associated with skarn mantling the more
oxidised intrusions (Brooks, 1994).
Skarn at McCoy is zoned in both space and time.
The earliest and most distal alteration is biotite and
pyroxene hornfels. This results in a pale, fine-grained
rock with original sedimentary layering still preserved.
Overprinting this hornfels are veins and massive zones of
garnet-dominant skarn. Typical garnet:pyroxene ratios are
from 3:1 to 20:1. Close to intrusive contacts, all hornfels
has been replaced and no trace of sedimentary bedding is
left. Skarns closest to the main intrusion, called the West
Contact and Peacock skarns, are the only skarns with
significant pyroxene (>10%), and also the only pyroxene
that is relatively coarse-grained and iron-rich (up to Hd /5 ).
All other skarn at McCoy is garnet-dominant and where
pyroxene is present, it is diopsidic. Early garnet is iron-
poor and occurs as bedding replacements of argillaceous
layers (skarnoid) and as cores to later metasomatic garnets,
that are more Fe-rich. These compositional differences
are important in that subsequent retrograde alteration
selectively replaces certain stages and compositions of
garnet and pyroxene (Brooks, 1994). Metallic minerals
associated with prograde skarn include pyrrhotite, pyrite,
sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite,
gold, hedleyite, native bismuth and hessite (Brooks,
1994).
At McCoy, late garnet—pyroxene skarn coexists with or
has been overprinted by retrograde alteration consisting
mainly of epidote—quartz—pyrite-K-feldspar. As previous-
ly described, grandite garnet is more susceptible to
retrograde alteration than is andradite garnet. Biotite
and chlorite occur instead of epidote in distal zones of
Lawrence D. Meinert
retrograde alteration and where pyroxene previously was
relatively abundant. Most economic gold mineralisation
is associated with retrograde alteration, particularly
with quartz-pyrite-K-feldspar. The K-feldspar varies in
color from pink to a pale tan and is similar to adularia
described from many epithermal deposits. The most
intense quartz-pyrite-K-feldspar is spatially associated
with a particular generation of dykes and sills called the
Productive Series (Brooks, 1994). However, quartz-
pyrite—K-feldspar also replaces distal skarn and locally
occurs as silicified pods in limestone beyond the limit
of garnet-pyroxene alteration. This latter occurrence is
similar to the jasperoids associated with some epithermal
gold deposits.
Magnesian gold skarns
Most gold skarns are calcic skarns, and little has been
published until recently on the occurrence of magnesian
gold skarns (Ettlinger et al., 1996; Mueller 1997). This
is despite one million tons of ore at an average grade of
6 g/t Au having been produced from magnesian skarn at
the Cable Mine, Montana (Earll 1972). Most magnesian
skarns form from dolomitic protoliths and exhibit a
diagnostic mineralogy that includes forsterite, spinel and
serpentine. Although a variety of spinel phases can be
present, magnetite usually is dominant and thus, most
magnesian skarns are mined for iron and are relatively
easy to find due to their strong magnetic signature.
Butte Highlands, in southwest Montana is an unusual
magnesian skarn in that it is an important gold resource,
but lacks abundant iron oxides and sulfides. As pointed
out by Ettlinger et al. (1996), the Fe-poor nature of this
deposit means that it, and others like it, may not stand
out during standard geophysical surveys.
Skarn in "mesothermal" regional metamorphic terrains
Most skarns are associated with relatively shallow
Phanerozoic plutons that have intruded previously
unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks (e.g., Einaudi
et al., 1981). However, skarn mineralogy also has been
described from several deposits in older orogenic belts
where skarn is associated with both plutonism and
high T - P metamorphism (e.g., Lucky Draw, Australia,
Sheppard et al., 1995; Navachab, Namibia, Nortemann
et al., 2001; Tillicum, British Columbia, Ray et al.,
1985). In addition to these plutonic/metamorphic
occurrences, there are several "mesothermal" lode gold
deposits with skarn alteration in Precambrian terranes
without associated intrusive rocks (e.g., Yilgarn craton,
Western Australia, Mueller, 1988, 1990, 1997; Mueller
et al., 1991, 1996; Slave Province, northern Canada,
Lhotka 1988, Lhotka and Nesbitt, 1989, Bullis et al.,
128
1994; Wyoming craton, USA, Smith, 1996; Superior
Province, eastern Canada, Hall and Rigg, 1986, Pan and
Fleet, 1989, 1992, Pan et al., 1991; Dharwar craton,
India, Siddaiah and Rajamani, 1989). These occurrences
are significantly different from Phanerozoic skarn
systems and little is known about the geologic relations
of the skarn alteration or the connection between gold
mineralisation and skarn formation. Many researchers are
unaware that these skarn occurrences even exist and there
is much uncertainty about the timing and geochemistry
of skarn formation. These skarns appear to be hybrids
with characteristics of both the regional metamorphic
environment and more typical Phanerozoic plutonism.
What unites these disparate occurrences is a mineralogy
dominated by very iron-rich and reduced assemblages
including garnet with major almandine-spessartine,
hedenbergitic pyroxene and iron-rich amphibole (Fig. 1).
In some cases, it appears that an iron-rich protolith such
as iron formation, komatiite, or metabasite is responsible
for the unusual mineralogy. In addition, these deposits
typically have part or all of the gold-arsenic-bismuth-
tellurium geochemical signature of the younger gold
skarn deposits.
Transitions to other gold ore types
The range of gold skarn types and environments overlaps
with several other deposit types. For example, the gold
Figure 1 Temperature-log oxygen fugacity diagram showing the
stability fields of major skarn silicate, oxide, and sulfide minerals.
Oxidised gold skarns typically contain associations 1, 2 and 8.
Reduced gold skarns typically contain associations 3, 4 and 7.
Metamorphic gold skarns typically contain associations 4, 5, 6 and
7. Associations 5 and 6 are not stable in oxidised gold skarns due
to the presence of graphite. Associations 1 and 8 are not stable in
metamorphic gold skarns due to the presence of hematite. Modified
from Meinert (1998).

skarns in metamorphic environments overlap with the
general class of orogenic gold deposits, a deposit type
which typically exhibits a strong structural control on
gold distribution along shear zones and in conjugate vein
sets. In the deeper parts of these systems, temperatures
may be high enough to stabilise calc-silicate minerals
in susceptible host rock compositions. In some cases, a
shear zone or other structural conduit may cut through
a calcareous or Fe-rich lithology and only develop skarn
alteration within that lithologic unit, even though
gold mineralisation is widespread outside of that skarn
envelope, as in many of the deposits reviewed by Mueller
and Groves (1991). In other cases, gold mineralisation is
largely restricted to zones of calc-silicate alteration and the
structural control may be subordinate or absent, such as at
Lupin, Navachab and Tillicum. All of these occurrences
share a lack of association with igneous activity and have
formed almost entirely within a regional metamorphic
environment, regardless of whether individual deposits
are called skarn or orogenic. A more difficult case is
present at Nevoria in Western Australia where gold
mineralisation and skarn alteration are spatially and
temporally linked to granitic magmatism (Mueller et
al., 2004). This appears to represent a true link between
typical Phanerozoic pluton-associated gold skarns and
Precambrian gold skarns in high grade metamorphic
terrains.
The overlap between gold skarns and various
porphyry and epithermal ore deposit types has been
well-discussed in the geologic literature (e.g., Sillitoe,
1993; Meinert, 1998, 2000) and need not be repeated
here. A more contentious overlap is between Carlin
deposits and certain porphyry and/or skarn systems
(e.g., Seedorff, 1991; Henry and Boden, 1998; Henry
and Ressel, 2000). This overlap is being brought into
sharper focus now that dating of Carlin-type deposits in
Nevada has clearly identified their Eocene age (Hofstra
et al., 1999). In several cases, Carlin deposits are the
same age as nearby porphyry/skarn systems. A specific
example of such age overlap is the Redline gold skarn
deposit where Smith (2001) obtained a precise Re—Os
age on skarn molybdenite of 4l.0±0.2 Ma that is very
close to Carlin systems such as Rodeo in the northern
Carlin trend at 39.8 + 0.6 Ma (Arehart et al., 2003) and
Getchell in the western Carlin trend at 39.0 ± 2 . 1 Ma
(Tretbar et al., 2000). These ages also overlap with the
mineralised porphyry/skarn systems at Battle Mountain
(38—38.5 Ma, K—Ar on primary biotite; Theodore et al.,
1978,) and McCoy-Cove (39 Ma, Brooks et al., 1991).
Although the regional extent of Carlin-type deposits
prohibits them from being associated with a single pluton,
as is commonly the case for skarn systems, the overlap in
ages between Carlin deposits and igneous activity related
to some porphyry and gold skarn systems suggests that,
129
Characteristics of gold skarn deposits
at a minimum, there are some common geological and
geochemical processes involved in both deposit types.
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132
 Characteristics and genesis of Carlin-type gold
deposits, Nevada, USA
JEAN S. CLINE1, ALBERT H. HOFSTRA2, JOHN MINTEAN3, RICHARD M. TOSDAL4
AND KENNETH A. HICKEY4
Abstract
Carlin-type gold deposits in northern Nevada, USA, have
made the United States one of the leading gold producers
in the world. Although these deposits have been mined
for more than 40 years, there is no consensus on a genetic
model for the deposits.
The Nevada Carlin-type deposits formed in the late
Eocene as a change in plate motions caused relaxing of
the compressional tectonic environment during the early
stages of the transition from compression to extension.
Initiation of extension reopened favorably oriented late
Proterozoic rift-related and younger structures, that
provided pathways for ore fluids to access the upper levels
of the crust. Old structures, formed during Proterozoic
rifting and which were inverted during Paleozoic and
Mesozoic compression, formed structural culminations
that contributed to controlling ore fluid migration.
Aquitards, including the Roberts Mountain, Golconda
and other thrusts; basalts flows and sills; and less
permeable siliciclastic units diverted ore fluids from high
angle structures into permeable, reactive host rocks. Ore
fluids dissolved carbonate rocks exposing and sulfidising
available iron. Sulfidation caused precipitation of pyrite
containing gold and other bisulfide-complexed elements
including As, Sb, Hg, Tl, Te and Cu. In addition to
sulfidation, fluid—rock reaction decarbonatised, argillised
and silicified host rocks, precipitating other main ore-
stage minerals including kaolinite-dickite, illite and
quartz. Subsequent fluid cooling caused deposition of
open space, late ore-stage minerals. Fluid inclusion studies
'University of Nevada, Las Vegas (cline@ccmail.nevada.edu)
2
U.S. Geological Survey (ahofstra@usgs.gov)
'Placer Dome Exploration, Inc. (John_Muntean@placerdome.com)
4
MDRU, University of British Columbia (rtosdal@eos.ubc.ca;
khickey@eos.ubc.ca)
133
and geologic reconstructions indicate that the deposits
formed at depths of a few kilometres. Hydrogen, oxygen
and sulfur isotope studies indicate multiple sources for
ore components and do not support a single genetic
model. Some data indicate that ore fluids have a deep
metamorphic or magmatic source and are permissive of
magmatic sulfur; other data suggest that meteoric fluids
that evolved to varying degrees transported metals, and
that sulfur was provided by crustal sedimentary rocks.
We propose a model in which primitive ore fluids were
generated at the base of the crust in reponse to removal
of the Farallon plate and injection of heat and possibly
volatiles from upwelling asthenosphere. These primitive
ore fluids evolved as they moved upwards through the
crust where they scavenged gold, sulfur and other ore
fluid components.
Introduction
Carlin-type gold deposits, first recognised in northern
Nevada in the early 1960s, have enormous gold
endowments and have made the Carlin trend one of
three gold districts in the world to produce more than
50 million ounces of gold (NBMG, 2003). Forty years of
mining and numerous studies have provided a detailed
geologic picture of deposits (Radtke et al., 1980; Radtke,
1985; Bakken, 1990; Hofstraet al., 1991; Hofstra, 1994;
Kuehn and Rose, 1992; 1995; Arehart, 1996; Cline and
Hofstra, 2000; Hofstra and Cline, 2000; Cline, 2001;
Bettles, 2002; Emsbo et al., 2003); yet a comprehensive
and widely accepted genetic model remains elusive.
Currently considered models relate deposits to (1)
epizonal plutons that contributed heat and possibly
fluids and metals (Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990; Henry
and Boden, 1998; Henry and Ressel, 2000), (2) meteoric
fluid circulation resulting from crustal extension
(Ilchik and Barton, 1997) with possible contributions
Jean S. Cline, Albert H. Hofstra, John Mintean, Richard M. Tosdal and Kenneth A. Hickey
from widespread magmatism, and (3) metamorphic
fluids, possibly with a magmatic contribution, from
deep crustal levels (Seedorff, 1991; Hofstra and Cline,
2000). Deposits in all districts and on all trends (Fig. 1)
exhibit nearly identical features, indicating strongly that
all Nevada Carlin-type deposits formed in response to
essentially identical processes. Nevertheless, existing data
for the deposits, particularly stable isotope results, point
toward different sources for ore fluid components in
different deposits. Resolving deposit genesis will require
continued detailed studies.
Difficulties in unravelling deposit genesis are directly
related to complications in studying the deposits.
Minerals that are part of the main-ore stage Carlin event
are fine-grained, volumetrically minor, and common
(pyrite, quartz, kaolinite-dickite, illite). The regions
where the deposits are located have experienced several
hydrothermal events, and multiple generations of these
minerals precipitated in response to these events. As a
result, bulk analyses of samples simply produce a result
that is a mixture of several events. Analyses of mineral
separates and microanalyses can produce a signal from
a single geologic event, but require careful petrography
to distinguish 'Carlin' minerals from pre- or post-Carlin
minerals.
134
Deposit geology
Although the age of Carlin-type deposits was widely
debated for many years, studies during the past five or
more years have led to a consensus that the deposits
formed during the late Eocene. An evaluation of available
ages determined at many deposits using several different
techniques led Hofstra et al. (1999) to conclude that the
deposits formed between 42 and 30 Ma. A late Eocene
age was confirmed by dating galkhaite, a late-ore stage
sulfosalt mineral, using Rb—Sr methods (Tretbar et al.,
2000). Analyses of galkhaite collected from the Getchell
deposit provided an age of 39.0 ±2.1 Ma. A similar age of
galkhaite from the Rodeo deposit in the northern Carlin
trend (39.8 ± 0.6 Ma; Arehart et al., 2003), demonstrates
that mineralisation on the Carlin and Getchell trends is
approximately the same age.
An understanding of the age of the deposits allows
us to relate gold deposition to structural and tectonic
events. We now recognise that late Proterozoic
continental rifting followed by Paleozoic and Mesozoic
compressional orogenies produced a pre-mineral archi-
tecture that was instrumental in deposit formation
(Fig. 2). Recent geochemical (Tosdal et al., 2000) and
geophysical (Crafford and Grauch, 2002; Grauch et al.,
Figure 1 Map of northeastern
Nevada showing the locations of
trends and districts containing
Carlin-type gold deposits (white
circles) and other types of ore
deposits (small crosses). Inset
shows the footprint of deposits
in the northern Carlin trend.
Modified from Hofstra et al.
(2003).
 Characteristics and genesis of Carlin-type gold deposits, Nevada, USA

2003) studies determined that the Carlin and Battle
Mountain—Eureka trends separate crust of significantly
different character; these studies propose that the trends
are in fact deep crustal normal faults that formed in
response to NE-SW directed continental rifting (Fig. 2).
The Getchell trend, which strikes obliquely to the Carlin
and Battle Mountain—Eureka trends, is interpreted to
be a transform fault. These faults are not evident at the
surface, owing to overprinting by multiple tectonic and
volcanic events (Crafford and Grauch, 2002), though
they are recognised by how they are reactivated and
propagated through younger, overlying rocks.
Miogeoclinal sequences that formed following active
rifting of the continental margin contain reactive pyritic,
carbonaceous, silty calcareous rocks. These are the primary
host rocks in most Carlin-type deposits, including all of
the >5 million ounce deposits. The main host unit for
Carlin-type deposits is the lower plate to the Roberts
Mountain thrust and most giant deposits lie within a
few hundred metres of the thrust or its projection. The
thrust is important as it formed a regional aquitard by
placing non-reactive, fine-grained siliciclastic rocks with
less inherent rock permeability above favorable carbonate
lithologies (Roberts et al., 1958; Stewart, 1980). N N W
and WNW-striking basement and Paleozoic normal
faults that cut the host rocks were inverted during post-
rifting compressional events (Coward, 1994), resulting
in structural culminations including anticlines and
domes that ultimately contributed to controlling ore
fluid movement. Exhumed structural culminations form
erosional windows through the siliciclastic rocks of the
upper plate of the Roberts Mountain thrust.
During the late Eocene, the northern Great Basin
began to experience a transition from compression
to extension that was broadly oriented W N W (270°
to 310°). The underlying rifted plate margin and
northwesterly oriented Paleozoic faults were subparallel
to the extension direction and were reactivated as strike-
slip or oblique-slip faults. Northeasterly oriented pre-
Jurassic fault fabrics were favorably oriented for extension.
Mineralisation is associated with the heterogeneous shear
and tensional reactivation of these older structures. As
ore fluids accessed the upper crust, aquitards, including
impermeable layers in the structural culminations, the
Roberts Mountain thrust and related structures, and
impermeable lithologies, prohibited ore fluid ascent

Figure 2 (A) Present day distribution of continental margin, Carlin trend (CT) and Battle Mountain-Eureka trend (BME) and their relation
toArchean and Proterozoic crustal blocks. Also shown is the edge of thick Neoproterozoic and Cambrian clastic strata deposited during
the rifting stage. (B) Interpreted basement fault geometry derived from isotopic mapping of Mesozoic and early Tertiary plutons. Direction
of Neoproterozoic rifting inferred from geologic data on the continent is included. Figure adapted from Tosdal et al. (2000 and references
therein).

135
Jean S. Cline, Albert H. Hofstra, John Mintean, RichardM. Tosdal and Kenneth A. Hickey
to the surface and instead directed fluids laterally into
permeable, reactive host rocks.
Fluid flow and mineral deposition appear to have
been fairly passive, as complicated multistage veins are
not present and there is little evidence for overpressured
hydrothermal fluids. Instead, main ore stage assemblages
show textures that indicate that fluids reacted with and
replaced wallrocks during gold deposition and locally
cemented collapse breccias. Submicron gold is present in
arsenian- and trace-element-rich pyrite that forms fine
isolated grains, or rims on earlier-formed gold-free pyrite
(Fig. 3, Au pyrite) (Wells and Mullens, 1973; Arehart et
al., 1993a; Cline, 2001). Concentrations reaching 5000
ppm Au have been identified in gold-bearing pyrite from
Getchell (Weaver and Cline, 1999; Cline, 2001; Cline,
unpublished data), Meikle (Emsbo et al., 2003) and
Betze-Post (Henkelman, 2004). Gold concentrations in
pyrite as high as 8000 ppm have been identified in multi-
ounce ore from Screamer (Henkelman, 2004; Palenik et
al., 2004). In addition to gold, this pyrite contains as
much as 15 wt.% As, -0.5 to 1.0 wt.% Sb, Hg, Tl, Ag,
Te, W and Cu, plus trace amounts of Pb, Al, Mo, Zn,
Mn, Bi, Ni and Co (Weaver, 2001; Hofstra and Cline,
2000; Cline, 2001, Cline, unpublished data). Numerical
modeling (Hofstra et al., 1991) and field studies (Stenger
et al., 1998; Cail and Cline, 2001) suggest that gold- and
trace element-rich pyrite precipitated most efficiently
in response to sulfidation of host-rock iron. Modeling
also shows that sulfidation of host-rock iron followed by
fluid cooling best replicates the abundances and observed
mineral parageneses of ore-stage and late ore-stage
minerals (Hofstra et al., 1991). The singular occurrence
Figure 3 Gold- and trace element-rich pyrite rims on gold-free pyrite cores. Electron microprobe
analyses indicate that rims contain >2000 ppm gold. Rims reach -8 [Xm in width.
136
of "invisible" gold in pyrite is interpreted to indicate that
ore fluids were undersaturated in gold until fluids reacted
with wallrocks. Fluid-rock reaction liberated reactive
iron in the wallrock, which reacted with sulfur in the
fluid to form pyrite. This reaction reduced the «H2S in
the fluid and gold and other bisulfide-complexed metals
were captured as submicrometre structurally bound or
native particles in the pyrite (Simon et al., 1999). Palenik
et al. (2004) used analytical and high resolution TEM
and high angle annular dark-field (HAADF) imaging in
STEM mode to observe particles of native Au in ore-stage
pyrite, but concluded that structurally bound gold may
also be present. They suggest that either gold exceeded its
saturation in arsenian pyrite during deposit formation, or
some later event caused gold to exsolve from the pyrite.
Ore fluids also decarbonatised, argillised and locally
silicified wall rocks (Bagby and Berger, 1985; Bakken,
1990; Kuehn and Rose, 1992; Hofstra and Cline, 2000).
These alteration processes deposited quartz, kaolinite/
dickite and illite, which, along with gold-bearing pyrite,
comprise the assemblage of main ore-stage minerals.
These minerals are fine-grained and generally minor
in abundance, features that are major contributors to
the difficulties in studying Carlin-type deposits. Most
alteration processes are decoupled from one another
and from gold deposition. As a result, consistent and
predictable alteration patterns are not present in these
deposits. The most widespread and characteristic type of
alteration by ore fluids is decarbonatisation of calcareous
host rocks, which aided mineralisation by increasing host
rock porosity and permeability and exposing host rock
iron for sulfidation. Clay minerals associated with gold

deposition are minor and irregularly distributed reflecting
low concentrations of aluminosilicate minerals suitable
for alteration in host rocks. Kaolinite/dickite occur in
zones identified as ore fluid conduits and some ore zones
(Osterberg and Guilbert, 1991; Kuehn and Rose, 1992)
where highest fluid/rock ratios were attained. Increasingly
crystalline illite coincides with high-grade ore (Hofstra
and Cline, 2000; Cail and Cline, 2001). As ore fluids
cooled, quartz precipitated, most commonly in the form
of jasperoid replacement of limestone, and zones of
silicification do not exhibit a one-to-one correspondence
with zones of mineralisation. In regions where open
space was generated by brecciation or decarbonatisation,
vugs may be lined by fine ore-stage or late ore-stage drusy
quartz (Cline, 2001; Emsbo et al., 2003; Lubben, 2004).
Silicification in ore zones may be abundant, sparse,
subtle, or absent. Jasperoids are locally mineralised, but
are commonly unmineralised or subeconomic and may
occur above, below, or lateral to ore bodies (Bakken,
1990; Ilchik, 1990; Kuehn and Rose, 1992; Hofstra and
Cline, 2000).
Fluid inclusion studies have shown that ore fluids were
moderate temperature (-180-240°C), low salinity (-2-3
wt % NaCl equivalent), CO 2 -bearing (< 4 mole %) and
CH4-poor (< 0.4 mole %) with sufficient H2S (lO"1 to
10~2 m) to transport gold (Hofstra, 1994; Kuehn and
Rose, 1995; Lamb and Cline, 1997; Cline and Hofstra,
2000; Hofstra and Cline, 2000; Emsbo et al., 2003;
Lubben, 2004). Early studies identified a dense C O ,
phase in fluid inclusions that led to the interpretation
that deposits formed at considerable depths (Sha,
1993; Kuehn and Rose, 1995; Lamb and Cline, 1997).
However, the CO 2 -enriched inclusions evaluated in these
early studies are related to earlier Mesozoic intrusions and
are not related to Carlin-type mineralisation (Hofstra and
Cline, 2000). More recent studies have determined that
ore fluids were dominantly aqueous with moderate C O ,
(Cline and Hofstra, 2000; Emsbo et al., 2003; Lubben'
2004). These studies indicate that deposits formed within
approximately 2—5 km of the surface. This is consistent
with a recent reconstruction the Late Eocene paleosurface,
which indicates that deposits formed at depths of about
2 km (Hickey et al., 2003).
Isotopic studies constrain sources of ore fluid
components, but do not provide unequivocal sources
or suggest a single genetic model. O and H isotopes
of minerals and fluid inclusions at the Getchell deposit
consistently indicate that ore fluids had a deep magmatic
or metamorphic source (Groff, 1996; Cline et al., 1997;
Cline and Hofstra, 2000) and a recent study on the
northern Carlin trend identified a deep fluid signature in
clay minerals that may be ore stage (Heitt et al., 2003).
However, most similar studies of deposits in the northern
Carlin trend and at Jerritt Canyon have identified only
137
Characteristics and genesis of Carlin-type gold deposits, Nevada, USA
a meteoric fluid (Hofstra, 1994; Emsbo et al., 2003;
Lubben, 2004). Sulfur isotopes in ore pyrite from all
districts can be derived from a sedimentary sulfur source
(Arehart, 1993; Hofstra, 1994, 1997; Hofstra and Cline,
2000; Emsbo et al., 2003). However, sulfur in ore-stage
pyrites at Getchell exhibits values consistent with a
magmatic sulfur source (Cline et al., 2002; Cline et al.,
2003). Recent studies at the 30+ million ounce Betze—Post
deposit in the northern Carlin trend are also consistent
with a magmatic sulfur source (Kesler et al., 2003a;
2003b; Henkelman, 2004); however, other studies at this
deposit identified higher sulfur isotopic ratios that are
not consistent with a traditional magmatic sulfur source
(Arehart et al., 1993b; Emsbo et al., 2003). He isotopic
studies have been conducted only at the Getchell deposit
where inclusion fluids in late-ore stage orpiment, fluorite
and galkhaite contain He with an unequivocal but highly
diluted mantle signature (Cline et al., 2002; Cline et al.,
2003).
A compilation of data from all trends and districts
provides compelling similarities and strongly argues that
all Carlin-type deposits formed in response to similar
geologic processes. We conclude that all data are most
consistent with a model in which primitive ore-related
fluids were generated at great depth in response to
removal of the Farallon slab and injection of heat by
upwelling asthenosphere (Humphreys, 1995), which
promoted deep crustal melting, prograde metamorphism
and devolatilisation. Primitive fluids travelled upward
through the crust, scavenging ore fluid components
including gold, sulfur and CO 2 along the fluid pathway.
Sulfur and gold were potentially added to the fluid in
response to melting and devolatilisation of the base
of the crust, metamorphic devolatilisation within the
ductile crust, and ore fluid scavenging of reduced, sulfur-
rich carbonate rocks in the upper crust. Ore fluids were
diluted by deeply circulating meteoric water in the upper
crust prior to reacting with wallrocks and depositing
gold.
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Mineralium Deposita (2003) 38: 668-682
DOI 10.1007/sOO 126-003-0356-1
ARTICLE
Stephen E. Kesler Norman Russell Karr McCurdy
Trace-metal content of the Pueblo Viejo precious-metal deposits
and their relation to other high-sulfidation epithermal systems
Received: 30 November 2002/ Accepted: 12 December 2002/Published online: 12 April 2003
© Springer-Verlag 2003
Abstract We provide here information on the distribu-
tion of copper, zinc, lead, gold, silver, barium, arsenic,
antimony, mercury, selenium and tellurium in the
Moore and Monte Negro high-sulfidation epithermal
deposits in the Pueblo Viejo district, Dominican
Republic. Moore and Monte Negro are funnel-shaped
zones of advanced argillic alteration and precious-metal
mineralization which extend to depths of about 350 m
below the present surface. The uppermost part of the
Moore deposit has been removed by erosion, whereas
the Monte Negro deposit is covered by rocks containing
low, but still anomalous gold grades. At Moore, con-
centrations of all elements except copper increase up-
ward through the deposit. At Monte Negro, all elements
except barium and zinc show a similar upward increase
in concentration to a point near the top of the deposit
from which they decrease upward. This difference re-
flects the fact that the top of the Moore deposit has been
removed by erosion. Because the deposits are funnel-
shaped and average metal concentrations increase by
almost an order of magnitude upward, most of the
metals are concentrated in the upper parts of the
deposits. The upward increase in concentration of most
metals is gradual and similar in magnitude to the pro-
grade temperature dependence in solubilities of many
metal complexes, suggesting that the metals were
deposited by cooling. By contrast, concentrations of
mercury and, to a lesser extent, tellurium increase more
Editorial handling: N. White
S. E. Kesler (El)
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
E-mail: skesler@umich.edu
N. Russell
CaribGold Mines Inc., Ira. Avenida. No. 1410 Apto. 6,
CP 11300 Miramar, Ciudad de La Habana, Cuba
K. McCurdy
Managing Director Citibank. N.A., Global Mining and Metals,
388 Greenwich Street, New York, NY, 10013, USA
abruptly in the upper part of the deposits. This change
probably reflects boiling of the hydrothermal solutions
and partitioning of mercury and tellurium into a rising
vapor phase, and it suggests that host rocks overlying
the deposits will be anomalous in mercury and tellurium.
Comparison to the Broadlands, New Zealand, hydro-
thermal system supports these inferred depositional
processes. It shows that the behavior of arsenic and
antimony at Broadlands was different from that at
Pueblo Viejo, possibly because the elements were com-
plexed differently in the two ore fluids. Comparison of
trace-element abundances at Pueblo Viejo to other high-
sulfidation epithermal systems shows differences in base-
metal, arsenic and mercury abundances which may be
related to the depths at which the deposits formed. The
results of this study highlight the application and need
for quantitative trace-element data from epithermal
deposits.
Keywords Epithermal • High sulfidation • Acid-
sulfate • Trace element • Gold • Pueblo Viejo
Introduction
Quantitative information on the average abundances
and zoning of trace elements in ore deposits is surpris-
ingly scarce. This is unfortunate because ore deposits are
important geochemical anomalies for many elements
other than those which are mined, and better informa-
tion on the concentration and zoning of these elements
would be useful in genetic studies, exploration, mine
planning, and environmental compliance. For example,
interpretation of the zoning of mercury may provide
information on the distribution and importance of
boiling in a hydrothermal system, and on possible geo-
chemical anomalies above an ore zone. Trace elements
such as arsenic, lead and selenium are of increasing
environmental interest, and better knowledge of their
distributions in ore deposits would help in minimizing

their dispersal into the environment during mining and
processing of the ore.
Information on trace-element abundances is particu-
larly scarce for high-sulfidation, or acid-sulfate, precious-
metal deposits, and consists mainly of small-sample
averages from Nansatsu (Japan), Rodalquilar (Spain),
Paradise Peak (Nevada) and El Indio (Chile; Sidley
and Arenada 1986; Hernandez et al. 1989; John et al.
1990; Hedenquist et al. 1994), and generalized descrip-
tions of element abundances and zoning from Goldfield
(Nevada) and Yanacocha (Peru; Wilson 1944; Longo
2000). We summarize here comprehensive data on the
distribution of gold, silver, copper, zinc, lead, arsenic,
antimony, selenium, tellurium, mercury and barium in
and surrounding the Moore and Monte Negro ore
669
bodies in the Pueblo Viejo district, Dominican Republic
(Fig. 1). Prior information on trace-metal contents of
Pueblo Viejo ore came from the study of McCurdy et al.
(1986) and from the recovery of byproduct mercury
during processing. Additional details about trace-ele-
ment zoning patterns in the Monte Negro deposit are
discussed by Kesler et al. (2003).
Fig. 1 A Location of the Early Cretaceous Los Ranchos For-
mation in the Dominican Republic on the island of Hispaniola.
B Geologic map of the western end of the Los Ranchos Formation
outcrop belt, showing major members. C Geologic map of the
Pueblo Viejo district, showing geologic relations in the maar-
diatreme complex (modified from Kesler et al. 1991; Kettler et al.
1992)
670

This study is based on analyses of 387 samples rep- 1.0 m along the 10-m core interval, which were analyzed
resenting 10-m vertical intervals in 15 diamond drill at Skyline Laboratory in Denver. It should be kept in
holes from the Moore ore body, and 379 samples rep- mind that these analyses do not provide information on
resenting 10-m intervals in 22 diamond drill and rotary the composition of specific stages of mineralization. In-
holes from the Monte Negro ore body (Table 1). Sam- stead, they provide a summary of the dispersion of ele-
ples from Moore, which cover the entire volume of rock ments which resulted from the combination of all
which underwent advanced argillic alteration and pre- hydrothermal processes which affected the Moore and
cious-metal mineralization, were analyzed for gold, sil- Monte Negro deposits.
ver, copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, antimony, selenium,
tellurium and mercury. Samples from Monte Negro,
which come from the throat of the ore-alteration funnel, Geologic setting of the Pueblo Viejo district
were analyzed for gold, silver, copper, zinc, arsenic, and its ore deposits
antimony, tellurium, mercury and barium. Copper, zinc,
gold and silver analyses were carried out on continuous The Pueblo Viejo district consists of several separate
10-m samples of split core which were assayed at Pueblo deposits, including Moore, Monte Negro, Cumba,
Viejo. Lead, arsenic, antimony, mercury, selenium, tel- Mejita and East Mejita, which consist of oxide ore
lurium and barium concentrations were measured on underlain by sulfide ore. Moore is the largest deposit at
composite samples consisting of 10 to 20, separate 10-cm Pueblo Viejo, Monte Negro is second and the other
pieces of split drill core taken at intervals of about 0.5 to deposits are significantly smaller (Kesler et al. 1981;
Muntean et al. 1990). About 5xlO6 ounces of gold and
Table 1 Location and sampled depths of drill holes from which
25x106 ounces of silver have been mined from the oxide
samples were obtained for this study ores. Early estimates of the sulfide reserve totaled about
lOOxlO6 tonnes averaging about 3 g/t Au, 23 g/t Ag,
Drill hole Mine coordinates Depth(m) 0.8% Zn, and 0.2% Cu (Kesler et al. 1981; Muntean
Start End
et al. 1990), although a more recent estimate places the
NS EW
total oxide plus sulfide resource at about 40x106 ounces
Moore of gold and 227x106 ounces of silver (Nelson 2000).
DDH-159 94598 76055 59 239 Although most ore that has been mined so far has come
DDH-160 94584 76482 215 from the upper, oxidized part of the ore bodies, some
DDH-161 94600 76160 227
DDH-162 95302 76000 237 partly oxidized, enriched ore was mined during the 1990s
DDH-165 94589 76289 279 to provide cash flow to government owners who were
DDH-166 94601 75606 293 unable to reach agreement on equity and profit sharing
DDH-167 94800 76350 199 required for development of the much larger sulfide
DDH-168 94593 76379 243
DDH-170 94599 75900 207
reserve.
3
DDH-171 94799 76201 3 309 Pueblo Viejo is hosted by the upper part of the Early
DDH-173 94800 75907 7 177 Cretaceous Los Ranchos Formation, the oldest unit in
DDH-174 95104 76029 9 229 the central Greater Antilles (Bowin 1966; Kesler et al.
DDH-175 94497 75896 19 293
DDH-182 94796 75753 13 195 1991). Rocks of the Los Ranchos Formation crop out in
DDH-185 95200 75799 17 329 a belt about 100 km long that crosses the eastern part of
Hispaniola (Fig. 1A). Mapping at the western end of
Monte Negro
DDH-195 95793 75108 5 245 this belt has divided the formation into basal units
DDH-196 95952 75110 5 164 consisting mainly of locally pillowed flows of seawater-
DDH-197 95794 75012 7 124 altered basaltic andesite (Cotui Member) and flows, tuffs
DDH-200 95715 75030 111 211 and shallow intrusions of dacite (Quita Sueiio Member),
DDH-201 95901 75001 5 105
DDH-205 95815 75045 7 99
which are overlain by debris flows and volcaniclastic
DDH-207 95711 75163 7 202 sedimentary rocks of the Meladito Member and unpil-
DDH-211 95751 74946 5 109 lowed basaltic andesite of the Platanal and Navisa
DDH-212 95857 75000 4 107 members (Fig. IB). The Meladito and Platanal members
RC-1 95852 75150 2 205 are cut and partly overlain in one area by volcaniclastic
RC-2 95603 75155 5 205
RC-3 95747 74993 8 195 rocks and carbonaceous sedimentary rocks of the
RC-4 95649 74958 5 201 Zambrana and Pueblo Viejo members. Radiolarian
RC-5 95850 75101 7 97 cherts and thin lenses of limestone interlayered in this
RC-6 95911 75166 4 207 sequence indicate that it was deposited during Early
RC-7 95945 75044 3 121
RC-12 95635 75118 5 201
Cretaceous time, and abundant land plants in the upper
RC-13 95884 75104 5 167 part of the sequence indicate that it was emergent during
RC-19 95744 75088 6 183 later phases of volcanism. Circulation of seawater
RC-43 95665 75046 5 145 through the Los Ranchos Formation, probably during
RS-102 95704 74986 4 215
RS-107 95861 75059 5
its formation, led to extensive seawater metamorphism,
137
creating rocks that have been referred to as spilite and
 671

keratophyre (Kesler et al. 1991). The Los Ranchos the basin, rests on top of the sandstone and beneath the
Formation, including the Pueblo Viejo ore zones, is fine-grained mudstones. The basin, which has been
overlain unconformably by the Hatillo Formation, a interpreted to be a diatreme-maar complex (Sillitoe and
Cenomanian to Albian limestone that formed a fringing Bonham 1984; Russell and Kesler 1991; Kesler 1998),
reef surrounding the extinct Los Ranchos volcanic is- also contains a large mass of fragmental quartz-por-
land (Fig. 1C). phyry referred to as the "quartz-eye unit" by Kesler and
Mineralization at Pueblo Viejo is hosted mainly by Russell (2000). Although it has been suggested that this
rocks of the Pueblo Viejo Member that fill a basin in the quartz-porphyry mass was intruded into its present
upper part of the Los Ranchos Formation. The western position (Nelson 2000), the unit is strongly fragmental
and northern sides of this basin are well denned by and drill data show that it is not underlain by a root or
conglomerate, the southern side is covered by the feeder zone. Russell and Kesler (1991) suggested that it
younger Hatillo Formation, and the eastern side appears consists of material ejected during formation of the
to grade into volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of the proposed maar-diatreme complex.
Meladito and Zambrana members (Fig. 1C). In the area
of the Moore deposit, where relations are best known,
fragmental rocks consisting mainly of volcanic debris Alteration and ore mineralogy of the Pueblo Viejo ore
with local fragments of intrusive rock fill the lower part bodies
of the basin (Fig. 2A). These grade upward into carbo-
naceous sandstones and finally fine-grained carbona- Both the Moore and Monte Negro ore bodies form
ceous mudstones. At least one Platanal Member flow, funnel-shaped zones that can be delineated by the
which appears to have been emplaced during filling of transition from advanced argillic alteration assemblages
Fig. 2A, B Isometric projection Moore Orebody
through the Moore ore body on
the eastern side of the maar- A. Lithoiogic Units
diatreme complex at Pueblo
Viejo, showing A the
distribution of major geologic
units, and B the hydrothermal
alteration. The volume of rock
altered to alunite, pyrophyllite,
and kaolinite and showing
intense silicification is referred
to in the text as the zone of
"advanced argillic alteration"
to distinguish it from the
surrounding rocks containing
alteration assemblages
including calcite, epidote,
chlorite and albite that formed
by seawater metamorphism
during emplacement of the Los
Ranchos Formation host rocks.
Drill holes used in this study
that fall on these sections are
shown in B; drill-hole
coordinates, depths and
samples used in the study are
listed in Table 1
672
to the chlorite-albite-calcite^epidote assemblage that
formed during seawater metamorphism of the Los
Ranchos Formation (Kesler et al. 1981). At Moore,
coexisting alunite and pyrite in the deep, central part of
the ore body grade outward and upward through
pyrophyllite-bearing assemblages to kaolinite and in-
tense silicification near the top of the system (Fig. 2).
Gold is hosted mainly by irregular veins that cut the
upper part of the funnel-shaped system, although some
is disseminated in rock that has undergone advanced
argillic alteration. Muntean et al. (1990) showed that
mineralization and alteration in the Monte Negro ore
body were products of a three-stage process. The first
stage involved formation of pervasive, deep alunite +
quartz + pyrite and overlying kaolinite + pyrite + silica
alteration. This was overprinted by deep, pervasive and
vein-hosted pyrophyllite ± diaspore that graded upward
into massive silicification in the upper part of the system,
and then by later veinlets containing sulfide minerals and
precious metals that are thought to have formed in re-
sponse to hydraulic fracturing. Gold was deposited
during early alteration, and then remobilized and
augmented during later vein formation and alteration
(Muntean et al. 1990). Silica was probably deposited as
quartz in the deeper parts of the systems but may have
had other forms originally at shallower levels (Muntean
et al. 1990).
Muntean et al. (1990) used mineral equilibria, iso-
topic and limited fluid-inclusion evidence to show that
the ore fluid in the Monte Negro deposit had maximum
temperatures of 200 to 300 °C, pH between 1.5 and 2.5,
fo2 in the upper part of the pyrite stability field, and
contained about 1 mol NaCl and 0.01 mol H2S.
Vennemann et al. (1993) used stable-isotope evidence
to show that mineralizing fluids at Pueblo Viejo were
almost exclusively of magmatic origin, a condition
possible because the system was surrounded and iso-
lated by rock containing gypsum-filled fractures. The
upward transition from deep alunite and/or pyrophyl-
lite to shallow kaolinite and intense silicification in
both deposits probably reflects a relatively steep tem-
perature gradient, suggesting an epithermal environ-
ment, although exact depths are poorly constrained.
Because mineralization took place before deposition of
the Hatillo Formation fringing reef, the only overbur-
den present at the time of mineralization was the upper
Los Ranchos Formation (Bowin 1966; Russell and
Kesler 1991). Currently exposed, upper Los Ranchos
Formation rocks are about 200 m thick and can be
combined with the 300 to 400 m of mineralized rock to
give an overburden thickness of about 500 to 600 m
over the deepest parts of the deposits. This depth is
adequate to keep water in only the lower part of the
200 to 300 °C range noted above on the boiling curve,
although even greater depths are required for solutions
containing dissolved gas (Haas 1971; Henley et al.
1984).
This suggests, in turn, that the diaspore-pyrophyllite
assemblage indicating temperatures of 300 °C may not
have been deposited in equilibrium (Hemley et al. 1980;
Muntean et al. 1990).
Mineralogy, abundance and correlation
of trace elements
Mineralogy of the sulfide zone
The most abundant main-stage sulfide ore minerals at
Pueblo Viejo are pyrite, sphalerite, and enargite. Pyrite
formed matching, typically botryoidal layers on oppo-
site sides of veins. The centers of veins are filled mainly
by iron-poor sphalerite (0.38 mol% FeS) that is found
throughout the deposits, and enargite that is found at
deeper levels of the deposits (Kesler et al. 1981; Muntean
et al. 1990). Some enargite is intergrown with equal
amounts of famatinite, which suggests that they formed
in the two-phase field in the Cu-As-Sb-S system (Feiss
1974; Posfai and Buseck 1998), and enargite also coex-
ists with apparently primary covellite in several areas far
below the oxide zone. Quartz formed coatings on pyrite
in veins, and the centers of some veins are filled by
quartz, barite and pyrophyllite. Alteration surrounding
veins consists mainly of silicification and local pyritiza-
tion that extend outward about one vein width into wall
rocks. Pyrophyllite veinlets and masses cut some veins.
Tennantite-tetrahedrite with As/Sb atomic ratios of
3:1 to 10:1 is the most common minor mineral in the
veins. At the Moore deposit it is in fractures that cut
enargite, and at the Monte Negro deposit it coexists with
sphalerite and pyrite (Muntean et al. 1990). Tennantite
is not stable with enargite and covellite at about 300 °C
(Maske and Skinner 1971). Inclusions of galena, stibnite,
colusite and Pb-As-Sb sulfosalts, with compositions
close to those of bournonite, zinckenite and boulange-
rite, are found as inclusions in enargite and, less com-
monly, in sphalerite and pyrite (Kesler et al. 1981;
Muntean et al. 1990). Inclusions of precious-metal-
bearing minerals, including gold-rich electrum
(Ag+ Cu < 5 wt%), argentite (Ag2S) and tellurides with
compositions close to calaverite or krennerite (AuTe2)
and hessite (Ag2Te), are concentrated along growth
zones in pyrite (Kesler et al. 1981). Late-stage vugs and
veins in the central part of the Moore ore body contain
fine-grained quartz with native sulfur and/or realgar.
Electron microprobe analyses show that tennantite
contains as much as several percent zinc and silver,
whereas enargite contains only <0.1% Zn (Muntean
et al. 1990). Lead-bearing sulfosalts contain about
0.5% Ag and no detectable zinc. No mercury-bearing
minerals were found, but analyses of mineral separates
indicate that mercury is concentrated in sphalerite rela-
tive to pyrite and enargite (Table 2). Trace levels of
tellurium (<0.03 wt%) were detected in electron
microprobe analyses of enargite.
Paragenetic relations of vein minerals show that
pyrite formed first and was followed by sphalerite and
enargite with local famatinite and covellite. Most of the
 673

other minerals formed either as small inclusions in these native gold have been found with pyrite that is part of
major minerals or by exsolution from enargite and this early disseminated mineralization, but no other
sphalerite. Tennantite-tetrahedrite partially replaced trace-element-rich minerals have been clearly assigned to
enargite and was deposited in equilibrium with some this phase of mineralization. Late quartz veins contain-
pyrite and sphalerite. These paragenetic relations apply ing realgar and native sulfur cut sulfide mineral-bearing
only to the sulfide mineral-bearing veins, which followed veins in some deep parts of the Moore deposit.
widespread disseminated mineralization at the Monte Additional insights into the mineralogical setting of
Negro deposit (Muntean et al. 1990). A few grains of the trace elements can be obtained from correlations
between log-transformed element pairs. Element pairs
from Moore have generally higher correlation coeffi-
Table 2 Arsenic and mercury contents of ore mineral separates cients than do element pairs from Monte Negro
from the Moore deposit (Table 3). Correlation coefficients for the same element
Sample As(%) Hg(ppm)
pair from the two deposits are strongly correlated
(r = 0.57, 7Y=28), indicating that element associations
Pyrite are similar in the two deposits. As discussed below, the
DDH-112-15 0.11 1.5 vertical zoning of elements at Moore and Monte Negro
DDH-61-53 0.11 2.0 differs, with concentrations of most elements at Moore
DDH-99-19.5 0.02 2.5
increasing steadily upward. By contrast, concentrations
DDH-100-16 0.01 3.0
T-6-3-A 0.04 100 of most elements at Monte Negro increase upward to
T-6-3-B 0.04 70 depths of about 50 to 70 m, well below the oxide-sulfide
Sphalerite transition, and then decrease gradually above that. All
DDH-92-47 0.04 140 correlation coefficients calculated for Monte Negro ele-
DDH-96-25 0.02 350
T-6-2 0.04 200 ment pairs below 70-m depth, where concentrations in-
T-6-3 0.04 300 crease with decreasing depth, are considerably higher
Enargite than those calculated for the entire Monte Negro dataset
DDH-93-28 13.0 5.0 and are similar to those obtained for Moore.
DDH-93-23 13.6 6.5
DDH-99-19.5 16.6 30 A frequency plot of all correlation coefficients from
Table 3 shows that they can be divided at a value of

Table 3 Correlation coefficients (r) for trace and major ore elements in the Pueblo Viejo district.Correlations were calculated for elements
transformed to logi0values because all elements show highly skewed populations that are made significantly more normal by log trans-
formation (n.d. not determined)

Au Ag Cu Zn Pb or Ba As Sb Hg Te Se

Moore
Au Ag Cu Zn Pb As Sb Hg Te Se
Au 1.00 0.66a 0.26 0.51" 0.31 0.33 0.39 0.64" 0.44 0.26
Ag 1.00 0.53a 0.56" 0.30 0.52" 0.57" 0.64a 0.59" 0.34
Cu 1.00 0.27 0.23 0.61" 0.64" 0.32 0.43 0.09
Zn 1.00 0.24 0.33 0.36 0.58" 0.41 0.21
Pb 1.00 0.22 0.20 0.26 0.16 -0.02
As 1.00 0.77" 0.57" 0.61" 0.26
Sb 1.00 0.63" 0.67" 0.38
1.00 0.59" 0.48"
era

Te 1.00 0.42
Se 1.00
Monte Negro
Au Ag Cu Zn Ba As Sb Hg Te Se
Au 1.00 0.60" 0.18 0.09 0.12 0.43b 0.33b 0.42b 0.32 n.d.
Ag 1.00 0.37 0.10 0.15 0.33 0.36b 0.30 0.36 n.d.
Cu 1.00 0.13 0.06 0.29 0.32 0.14 0.25 b n.d.
Zn 1.00 0.28 0.32 0.16 0.39 b 0.01 n.d.
Ba 1.00 0.12 0.26 0.29 0.05 n.d.
As 1.00 0.61" 0.56 a 0.31 n.d.
Sb 1.00 0.55" 0.41 b n.d.
Hg 1.00 0.29 b n.d.
Te 1.00 n.d.
Se n.d.

"Values in the high-value population in Fig. 3

b
Values (Monte Negro only) indicate those element pairs with correlation coefficients higher than 0.5 (and therefore in the high-value
population in Fig. 3) when data from above about 70 m are excluded (as discussed in the text). At the Moore deposit, correlations are
significant at the 99% level for all element pairs except lead-selenium and copper-selenium. At the Monte Negro deposit, correlations are
significant at the 99% level for all element pairs except zinc-tellurium, zinc-gold, zinc-silver and copper-barium

Correlation Coefficient
Fig. 3 Histogram showing correlation coefficients for log-normal-
ized trace-element pairs from Table 3
about 0.45 into two populations, one with a mode at
about 0.25 to 0.35 and another with a mode of
approximately 0.60 (Fig. 3). Most of the element pairs
that fall in the high population are from Moore. Only
four element pairs from the total Monte Negro dataset
have correlation coefficients above 0.45, but another
eight element pairs in the Monte Negro data from below
70 m are higher than 0.45 (Table 3). Element pairs that
make up the high-value population (identified by
superscripts a, b in Table 3) appear to reflect control by
one or two common minerals. For example, high cor-
relations between gold and silver and somewhat lower
correlations of tellurium with silver and gold indicate
that most gold and silver are in electrum rather than
tellurides. High correlations between arsenic and copper,
antimony and copper, and arsenic and antimony indi-
cate that these elements are mainly in enargite and ten-
nantite. Tellurium also shows a high degree of
correlation with antimony and arsenic, indicating that
most tellurium is in tennantite, rather than the gold and
silver telluride minerals mentioned above. Mercury has
high correlations with gold and silver, indicating its
presence in electrum; with zinc, reflecting its substitution
for zinc in sphalerite; and with antimony, indicating that
it follows zinc into tetrahedrite. The smaller number of
high correlation coefficients from Monte Negro, even
when data from below 70 m are used, reflects the lack of
enargite-bearing veins in that system, and the fact that
some large sphalerite veins are relatively low in gold,
silver and mercury.
These results indicate that gold, silver, zinc, arsenic,
and antimony are hosted mainly by minerals in that they
are major elements, including electrum, sphalerite,
enargite, and tetrahedrite-tennantite. By contrast, most
mercury and tellurium occur as minor phases in these
minerals, specifically electrum, tennantite and sphalerite
for mercury, and tennantite for tellurium. Selenium at
the Moore deposit correlates most strongly with mer-
cury, which does not provide much insight into its
mineralogical setting. Its other high correlations are with
tellurium and antimony, however, suggesting that it
follows mercury into tennantite. Barium at the Monte
Negro deposit does not correlate strongly with the other
elements, confirming that it is found only in barite.
Mineralogy of the oxide zone
Oxidation of the upper part of the Moore and Monte
Negro ore bodies changed the mineralogical residence of
all of the elements except barium, which remained as
barite in the oxide zone. Copper and zinc were almost
completely removed from the oxide zone, and some of
the copper was concentrated in a discontinuous, covel-
lite-bearing enriched zone immediately below the oxide
interface (Russell et al. 1981). Silver was remobilized
during oxidation, and some of it concentrated immedi-
ately below the oxide zone in an enriched zone con-
taining stromeyerite (Ag,Cu)2S and aguilarite
(Ag2(S,Se)). Silver also remained in the oxide zone where
it is found in cerargyrite (AgCl), embolite (Ag,(Br,Cl))
and iodobromite (2AgCl.2AgBr.2AgI). Minor native
silver has been found in a few places at the oxide-sulfide
interface. Mercury in the oxide zone has been observed
in calomel (Hg2Cl2). Gold does not appear to have been
remobilized during oxidation, and forms porous grains
from that silver has been leached (Russell et al. 1981).
Oxidation was not accompanied by significant
reduction in volume; rock textures including original
layering are well preserved in oxide ore. Comparison of
average compositions of sulfide and oxide ores at Moore
(Table 4) shows that only copper and zinc are signifi-
cantly depleted in the oxide zone. Abundances of arsenic,
antimony, silver, selenium and lead are slightly enriched
in the oxide zone, whereas tellurium and mercury are
strongly enriched. The depletion in copper and zinc is
clearly related to destruction of sulfide minerals during
oxidation. Enrichment of the other elements is probably
not due to loss of mass during oxidation or original
differences in composition of primary ores. Densities of
oxide ore are probably about 2, compared to about 3 for
unweathered ore, a change that would increase immo-
bile-element concentrations by only about 50%. All of
the enriched elements show a greater increase than this.
In view of the petrographic and geochemical evidence
that gold was not enriched by downward migration
during oxidation (Russell et al. 1981), this indicates that
much of the difference between oxide and sulfide metal
endowment reflects original vertical zoning in the
hydrothermal system, as discussed below. It is also not
likely that mercury and other elements were leached from
overlying (now eroded) rocks during oxidation or late
stages of hydrothermal activity and transported down-
ward into the present ore zone, because they are found
largely as substituting elements in main-stage ore min-
erals, not in late-stage encrustations.
Concentration and zoning of trace elements
Concentration of trace elements relative to crustal
averages
Although ore at Pueblo Viejo was mined for gold and
silver, many other pathfinder elements were also
 675

Table 4 Average compositions and enrichments of ore elements in the Moore and Monte Negro deposits at Pueblo Viejo (n.a. not
analyzed, n.d. not determined)

Element Moore Monte Negro

Oxide mean Degree of enrichment Sulfide mean Degree of enrichment Sulfide mean Degree of enrichment
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm)

Au 2.5 625 1.5 375 3 750

Ag 17.7 253 8.7 124 20 286
Te 19.6 19,600 3.1 3,100 16 16,000
Se 5.6 11 2.6 5 n.d. n.d.
As 690 383 368 204 486 270
Sb 79 395 51 255 247 1,235
Cu 100 2 800 15 3,489 63
Zn 100 1 3,400 49 2,018 29
Pb 301 24 100 8 n.a. n.a.
Hg 32 400 1.8 23 10 126
Ba n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 997 2
a
Note that these values are simple arithmetic averages and are not the same as estimates of ore grade that are obtained from more spatially
controlled methods. In addition, values for Moore represent the entire volume of mineralized and altered rock, whereas those for Monte
Negro represent only the central funnel of the system

concentrated by the hydrothermal system. An indica-

tion of the degree of concentration is shown by
comparison of the average concentration of each ele-
ment in the sulfide zone to the average concentration
of that element in high-calcium granites, which are
most similar in composition to the quartz-porphyry
and the Cotui stock with that mineralization is
probably genetically associated (Turekian and Wed-
epohl 1961). As can be seen in Table 4, enrichment
factors at Moore fall into three groups. Tellurium is
by far the most concentrated element, with an
enrichment factor relative to high-calcium granite of
about 3,100. Gold, antimony, arsenic and silver have
relatively similar enrichment factors ranging from 375
to 124, and zinc, mercury, copper, lead and selenium
have significantly lower enrichment factors between 49
and 5. The enormous difference in enrichment factors
for tellurium and selenium in the Moore deposit
highlights their very different geochemical behaviors in
ore deposits, where tellurium generally forms more
minerals than does selenium (Afifi et al. 1988; Simon
et al. 1997).
Element enrichment factors at the Monte Negro de-
posit (Table 4) show a similar sequence from tellurium,
which is most concentrated, through antimony, gold,
silver, arsenic, mercury, copper, zinc and finally to bar-
ium. Barium has an enrichment factor of ^2 in the
Monte Negro deposit, and appears to form a weak halo
around the deposit (Fig. 5 in Russell et al. 1986). This Fig. 4A-F Plots showing correlation between gold and silver, and
low level of enrichment suggests that much of the barite between barium and other elements in the Monte Negro deposit: A
seen in the deposit was liberated from feldspars during Au-Ag, B Au-Ba, C Ag-Ba, D As-Ba, E Sb-Ba, F Te-Ba. Note
that the Au-Ag plot (A) shows a high correlation whereas the
advanced argillic alteration, rather than being intro- Ba-metal plots (B-F) do not
duced by the mineralizing fluid. Support for this inter-
pretation is seen in the fact that barium abundances at
Monte Negro do not correlate with other elements such that show that average barium concentrations in the
as gold, arsenic and tellurium that were obviously Nansatsu deposits are actually lower than average high-
introduced into the system (Fig. 4). This generalization calcium granite, even though barite is a stable phase in
is further supported by data of Hedenquist et al. (1994) the ore assemblage.
676

Zoning of trace elements

Information on lateral zoning of trace elements in the

deposits could be obtained only at the Moore deposit,
where data covered the entire hydrothermally altered
zone. Average values for each element over the entire
vertical length of each hole in the sulfide zone were
contoured to look for metal zoning relative to the pos-
sible feeder zone recognized by Kesler et al. (1981) and
shown on Fig. 5. This possible feeder zone contains the
deepest pyrophyllite and shallowest alunite in the de-
posit, both of that are in the throat of the funnel-shaped
ore zone (Figs. 2 and 5). Copper values of 100s—
1,000s ppm coincide with this possible feeder zone
(Fig. 11 in Kesler et al. 1981). The vertically summed
distribution of gold, copper and other metals is not
clearly zoned with respect to this possible feeder zone,
although the trace-element abundance contours do re-
flect the correlations noted above among zinc and mer-
cury in sphalerite, and tellurium, antimony, arsenic and
copper in enargite and tetrahedrite-tennantite. The
contours also show that elements are dispersed differ-
ently. Zinc, mercury and lead values above the 75th
percentile cover about 25% of the deposit area whereas
copper, antimony, and arsenic values above the 75th
percentile cover only about 5% of the area. The pattern
for these last three elements is strongly influenced by a
massive enargite-pyrite lens that was encountered in
DDH 161 in the southern part of the ore body.
The isometric projection of the Moore ore body
shows that highest metal concentrations define large,
horizontal zones in the upper part of the system, which
coincide mainly with the fine-grained carbonaceous
sediment unit and extend locally into the spilite flow and
underlying carbonaceous sandstones (Fig. 6). Highest
concentrations for many trace metals in the Monte
Negro deposit show an even stronger tendency to form
large, horizontal zones in the upper part of the miner-
alized zone (Kesler et al. 2003). In both deposits, highest
concentrations of most ore-related elements are found in
and just below the zones of strong silicification that cap
the deposits.
Figure 7 shows the vertical zoning of elements in the Fig. 5 Lateral distribution of trace elements in the Moore deposit
Moore deposit. Because the deposit was tilted at least (contours based on average metal content for the entire vertical
length of each hole in the sulfide zone). The feeder zone, which is
10° to the southwest (Fig. 1), drill-hole elevations differ the area of deepest pyrophyllite and shallowest alunite in the
slightly from their original positions. However, most deposit (as discussed in the text), is in the throat of the funnel-
points are within 30 m of their original level relative to shaped hydrothermal alteration zone (Fig. 2). Holes used are
one another, which is not enough to obscure the obvious shown in Fig. 2. Contours are open at ends of some sections
because the mineralized zone continues a short distance beyond the
increase in concentrations of all elements, except copper, section
upward through the deposit (Fig. 7). Correlation coef-
ficients for plots of element concentration versus depth,
except copper, are statistically significant at greater than known system to about 5,000 ppb at the top (Fig. 7).
99% confidence, and correlations with depth for gold, Most other elements increase in concentration upward
zinc, selenium, and silver would probably be even higher by about one order of magnitude.
if the analytical detection limit had allowed analysis of Oxide-zone samples clearly are not a major factor in
samples with lower abundances. By far the best corre- establishing these correlations because they reach depths
lation with depth is seen for mercury, which increases in of only a few tens of meters, and because the concen-
average concentration by about two orders of magni- tration of most elements increases gradually across the
tude from about 50 ppb at the bottom of the presently oxide-sulfide interface. Mercury is the only exception to

Fig. 6 Distribution of trace elements relative to geologic features in
isometric projection (Fig. 2) of the Moore ore body. Dashed lines
show outlines of alteration zones from Fig. 2
this rule, changing from values of about 1,000 ppb to
values as high as 8,000 ppb just below the oxide-sulflde
interface (Fig. 7A). This change is not a function of
oxidation because the increase in mercury concentration
is far more than could be accounted for by in-situ
enrichment due to volume loss or other aspects of the
oxidation process, and samples from the sulfide zone
also have high values. This abrupt increase probably
reflects the original mercury distribution in the Moore
hydrothermal system, as discussed further below.
At Monte Negro, concentrations of gold, arsenic,
antimony and silver also increase upward, but reach
maximum values at depths of about 50 to 70 m and
decrease in abundance upward from that level (Fig. 8).
This change is far below the transition from oxide to
sulfide ore and represents the primary metal zoning at
Monte Negro. Other elements show different patterns.
For example, barium concentrations do not change with
depth, and zinc concentrations appear to increase
downward (Russell et al. 1986; Kesler et al. 2003). More
677
Fig. 7A-J Vertical zoning in the Moore deposit of A mercury, B
gold, C arsenic, D zinc, E selenium, F silver, G antimony, H
tellurium, I lead, and J copper, listed in order of decreasing
correlation coefficient (r) between grade and elevation
interestingly, concentrations of mercury and possibly
tellurium at Monte Negro appear to increase steadily
upward (Fig. 8). Although this enrichment is not as
abrupt as that seen at Moore, it probably reflects the
same process.
Significance of the trace-element data to geochemistry
of high-sulfidation deposits
Form of vertical trace-element zoning
The different vertical zoning patterns seen at Moore and
Monte Negro reflect differing degrees of erosional
exposure of the two systems. The top of the Moore
678
Fig. 8A-H Vertical zoning in the Monte Negro deposit of A
antimony, B mercury, C tellurium, D silver, E gold, F arsenic, G
barium, and H zinc, listed in order of decreasing correlation
coefficient (r) between grade and elevation (with negative correla-
tion for zinc listed last). Correlation coefficients were calculated for
samples from all depths; as discussed in the text, correlations are
better for samples below depths of 50 to 70 m
deposit has been removed by erosion whereas the Monte
Negro ore body is more nearly in its original form, al-
though several hundred meters of overlying rock has
probably been removed by erosion. Thus, the pattern of
vertical zoning seen at Monte Negro, which involves
steadily increasing concentrations upward into the ore
zone, followed by decreasing concentrations above the
ore zone, is probably typical of both deposits. The ore
zone created by this zoning pattern is about 100-200 m
thick, depending on cutoff grade, and is similar in its
restricted vertical dimensions to ore shoots typical of
many low-sulfidation epithermal deposits (Loucks and
Petersen 1988; Cooke and Simmons 2000). The increase
in grade upward through the lower part of ore zones
probably resulted from a gradual decrease in the tem-
perature and metal content of successive pulses of fluid
flowing into the lower part of the system. The decrease
in grade upward in the upper part of the ore zones could
have resulted from decreasing metal concentrations in
the cooling fluid and dilution by increased deposition of
silica.
Transport and deposition of the trace metals
Element correlations and depth-abundance patterns
described above provide some insights into the forms in
that trace elements were dissolved in mineralizing solu-
tions at Pueblo Viejo. Solubilities of most metals in
hydrothermal solutions increase gradually with increas-
ing temperature. Although specific solubilities will de-
pend on the composition of the solution, most change by
at least an order of magnitude over the 100 to 200 °C
temperature range that probably prevailed upward
through the Moore and Monte Negro deposits. For
example, the solubility of gold in solutions buffered by
sulfate and sulfide, and at the pK of H2S, decreases by
slightly less than an order of magnitude between 250 and
100 °C (Seward 1973; Shenberger and Barnes 1989).
Solubilities of galena and sphalerite as chloride com-
plexes decrease by about two orders of magnitude be-
tween about 250 and 100 °C, whereas solubilities as
bisulfide complexes decrease much less (Giordano and
Barnes 1979; Hayashi et al. 1990). The strong decrease in
zinc abundance upward through the Pueblo Viejo sys-
tem suggests that it was carried by chloride complexes.
The much less distinct change upward in lead concen-
trations may mean that it was dominated by sulfide
complexes, although very high reduced sulfide activities
would be required to stabilize these complexes.
The enrichment of mercury in the uppermost part of
the Moore and, to a lesser extent, Monte Negro deposits
suggests that mercury was partitioned into a rising vapor
phase by boiling, in agreement with experimental solu-
bility data (Barnes and Seward 1997; Fein and Williams-
Jones 1997). Cooke and McPhail (2001) have shown that
tellurium is also partitioned strongly into the vapor
phase during boiling of epithermal ore fluids, suggesting
that the increase in tellurium values in the uppermost
part of the deposits also reflects this process. Gold, silver
and antimony can also be transported by a vapor phase
under favorable conditions (Migdisov et al. 1999;
Archibald et al. 2001; Zakaznova-Iakovleva et al. 2001).
However, the vertical distribution of these elements
provides no support for this process at Pueblo Viejo,
probably because the fluids were not sufficiently hot.
Additional insights into metal complexing and
deposition at Pueblo Viejo can be gained by comparison
 679

of our data to the results of Spycher and Reed (1989)

who calculated the change in concentration of metals in
a 280 °C solution typical of the Broadlands, New Zea-
land geothermal system, which cooled with boiling and
no fractionation (i.e., removal) of minerals or gasses
formed during the process. They showed that the mer-
cury content of the hydrothermal fluid decreased by
about three orders of magnitude, largely through loss to
the vapor phase during boiling. Gold, silver, lead, zinc
and copper contents decreased by about an order of
magnitude, and arsenic and antimony contents remained
about the same, indicating limited deposition of the
latter two metals. The magnitude of upward solubility
changes for mercury, gold, silver, and zinc in the
Broadlands system is similar to that of the Moore
and Monte Negro deposits, suggesting that solubility
controls for these elements were similar in the two hydro-
thermal systems. The fact that arsenic- and antimony-
bearing minerals were deposited at Pueblo Viejo but not
in the Broadlands calculation may be related to differ-
ences in complexing ligands. Arsenic and antimony were Fig. 9 Distribution of mercury and tellurium abundances in
probably dissolved as H3ASO30 and H3SbO3°, respec- surface samples from altered rocks, including massive silicified
zones, around the Pueblo Viejo district
tively, at Broadlands but may have formed polysulfide
complexes at Pueblo Viejo, making them more likely to
have been deposited by a boiling fluid (Williams-Jones beneath the central part of the Loma la Cuaba hill where
and Normand 1997; Wood and Samson 1998; Cooke large amounts of silicification are present at the surface.
and Simmons 2000). Pyrophyllite is the main alteration mineral found
throughout this large volume of altered rocks, and it is
bordered by illite and then merges into the regional
Possible mercury vapor haloes surrounding calcite-chlorite alteration that formed during seafloor
high-sulfidation epithermal deposits metamorphism (Bowin 1966; Wingfield 1973; Kesler et
al. 1991). Some zones within this regional alteration are
Recognition that mercury and tellurium are concen- completely silicified and retain relict volcanic textures.
trated in the upper parts of the Pueblo Viejo deposits by They form stratiform masses that appear to be the
boiling suggests that these elements may serve as a guide westward continuation of the silicified zones overlying
to buried deposits of this type. Mercury mineralization is the Moore and Monte Negro deposits. Tellurium and
widespread above low-sulfidation epithermal deposits at mercury are the only trace elements in surface rock
Ivanhoe and Buckskin in Nevada, USA (Vikre 1985; samples collected in this altered area that have signifi-
Peppard 2002), and anomalous values of mercury in cantly anomalous values. However, samples with highest
overlying rocks have been reported for high-sulfidation values for these elements are not found near the known
deposits at Yanacocha, Peru (Longo 2000). We were not deposits. Instead, they are west of the ore deposits on
able to test for mercury in overlying rocks at Pueblo Loma la Cuaba, where they may represent haloes above
Viejo because they have been removed by erosion, but buried Pueblo Viejo-type mineralization.
we did carry out a reconnaissance survey of trace-metal
abundances in altered rocks of the upper Los Ranchos
Formation surrounding the deposit. Comparison to trace-metal abundances in other
Advanced argillic and argillic alteration assemblages high-sulfidation epithermal systems
completely replace most rocks of the upper Los Ranchos
Formation at the surface over an area of about 4 by Trace-element zoning patterns comparable to those
10 km surrounding and west of the Moore, Monte Ne- shown here for Pueblo Viejo have not been published,
gro and Cumba deposits (Fig. 9). Most of this altered but limited data are available on average compositions
rock is Platanal Member that forms an extensive dip of ores from a few other deposits. Average compositions
slope along the southern side of the main hill in the area, can be compared by normalizing them to gold concen-
known as Loma la Cuaba. Where a vertical section trations in the same sample or group of samples. It
through these rocks is visible along the north side of would be better to use an immobile element for this
Loma la Cuaba, rocks with advanced argillic assem- purpose, but data are not available for such elements.
blages appear to be about 50 m thick and to grade Because the extent of oxidation and supergene enrich-
downward into spilite with mineral assemblages typical ment varies from deposit to deposit, comparisons are
of seafloor metamorphism. Alteration may extend deeper made here to average compositions, using both oxide
680

and sulfide ore at the Moore deposit and comparing

them to equivalent ore types in other deposits (Table 3).
Average compositions of the Akeshi, Kasuga and
Iwato deposits in the Nansatsu district, Japan (Heden-
quist et al. 1994) include all of the elements considered in
this study. Although there is a relatively large difference
in degree of oxidation of these deposits, with Kasuga
being most oxidized and Akeshi least, there is relatively
little difference in their element concentrations relative
to gold. All deposits differ from Pueblo Viejo ore,
however, in containing less arsenic, lead, zinc, and pos-
sibly less copper. At Paradise Peak, Nevada, USA, John
et al. (1990) described a series of mineralizing events that
began with early silica-sulfide alteration, followed by
hydrothermal brecciation, early oxidation and leaching,
black matrix hydrothermal brecciation, opal-jarosite
matrix brecciation, and finally late oxidation and
leaching. Compositional data for these ore types are
similar to Pueblo Viejo sulfide ore, although black ma-
trix ore is depleted in copper and tellurium relative to
gold. At El Indio, Chile, Siddeley and Araneda (1986)
recognized three main types of ore—massive enargite-
pyrite veins, late quartz-gold veins, and shallow barite-
alunite veins and breccias. Their estimated average
composition of early enargite-pyrite veins is generally
similar to that seen for sulfide ore at Pueblo Viejo
(Fig. 10), except for mercury and silver that appear to be
depleted (Fig. 10). These compositional differences may
reflect different depths of formation for high-sulfidation Fig. 10A, B Abundances of elements relative to gold in Pueblo
deposits, with deposits such as Nansatsu and Paradise Viejo sulfide and oxide ore compared to those in high-sulfidation
Peak, which formed at shallow depths, enriched in deposits at Paradise Peak (Nevada), El Indio (Chile), and Nansatsu
mercury and perhaps depleted in base metals and arsenic (Japan; Siddeley and Araneda 1986; John et al. 1990; Hedenquist
et al. 1994)
relative to probably deeper deposits such as El Indio and
Pueblo Viejo. •. , ;
abundances show an upward increase similar to that of
other elements, but remain constant or decrease much
Conclusions more slowly upward above the ore zone, probably
reflecting upward transfer of mercury from a boiling
Tellurium, not gold, is the most highly concentrated hydrothermal fluid. Tellurium abundances appear to
element relative to crustal averages in the Pueblo Viejo show a similar, although less well-defined pattern. Bar-
high-sulfidation epithermal deposits. In declining degree ium abundances show little or no change upward and
of concentration, tellurium is followed by gold, mercury, may be depleted in the ore zone. The resulting distri-
arsenic, antimony, and silver, all of that are concen- bution of elements in and surrounding the Pueblo Viejo
trated by about 100 to 400 times above crustal average system is shown schematically in Fig. 11, where element
abundances. Copper, zinc, and selenium are concen- zoning is divided into three main types typified by gold,
trated to a much lesser degree, and barium does not mercury and barium.
appear to have been concentrated at all. Instead, barium The increase and then decrease upward of most ele-
released by alteration of enclosing wall rocks was ment concentrations at Pueblo Viejo result in an ore
deposited as barite by sulfate-bearing mineralizing zone that is similar in general form to the ore shoots
solutions. typical of low-sulfidation epithermal deposits, except
Element distribution patterns differ at the Moore that it occupies a large volume of rock rather than a
deposit where the upper part of the ore body has been single vein (Cooke and Simmons 2000). Other high-
removed by erosion, and at the Monte Negro deposit sulfidation epithermal deposits probably have trace-ele-
where more of the upper part remains. At Moore, most ment zoning patterns of this type, but other deposits
elements increase continuously in concentration upward have not been characterized in the detail shown here.
by about one to three orders of magnitude. At Monte Despite our familiarity with Pueblo Viejo geology, we
Negro, element abundances show a similar upward did not anticipate the zoning pattern that emerged for all
increase to a maximum in the ore zone and then de- elements from this study. Similar surprises may await
crease more rapidly toward similar low levels. Mercury others who characterize the trace-element geochemistry

Fig. 11 Schematic illustration
of distribution of trace
elements, and their relation to
ore and alteration zoning in and
above the Pueblo Viejo high-
sulfidation deposits. The
pattern for gold is typical of
most other trace elements,
especially arsenic, antimony,
and silver. The pattern for
mercury is probably typical also
of tellurium. The pattern for
barium is unique to that
element and shows either no
enrichment or a depletion
of their deposits in detail. Until such studies are more
widely available, generalizations about trace-metal
zoning in other deposits based on anecdotal information
should be used with caution.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to Rosario Dominicana and
particularly Michael Seaward, who was manager of the operation,
for the opportunity to work at Pueblo Viejo and for funding this
research. David Cooke, Jeff Hedenquist and Noel White provided
insightful and helpful reviews of an earlier version of this manu-
script.
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