Rick Dolphijn

Foodscapes
Towards a D e l e u z i a n Et h i cs of C o n s u m pt i o n
 Foodscapes

Towards a Deleuzian Ethics of C onsumption

Omgevingen van het eten

Naar een deleuziaanse ethiek van consumptie

Proefschrift

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de

Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam

op gezag van de Rector Magnificus

Prof.cir. S.W. J . Lamberts

en volgens besluit van het C ollege voor Promoties.

De openbare verdediging zal plaatsvinden op

vrijdag 28 mei 2004 om 11.00 uur.

door

Rick D olphijn

geboren te Alblasserdam
P ro m otoren:

P rof. d r. A . K l a m e r

P rof. d r. P. R . Patton

Ove r i g e l e d e n :

D r. H . A . F. Ooste r l i n g

D r. A . A . van d e n B r a e m b u s s c h e

P rof. d r. W. M . J . v a n B i nsbergen
 you have been s u m m o n ed to t h e b a n q u et w h e re

I w i l l pour b l ood u n d e r your s k i n

re m e m be r i n g your broken bones b rea k i n g your bones

t h at will serve u s as b read I want to carve

your faded fowl it w i l l be a party

l lja Leonard Pfe ijffer 'Convocation'

 0

Cl
0
0
Cl
(/)

(/)
c:
0

0
>
Q)

"'
.....
c:
Q)
E

I­
ll:
ci:
a..

Cl
0
0
'
Q)

"'
.....
(/)

C 0 LO F O N
I­
ll:
ci: I S B N 90 5972 027 X
a..

E b u ro n P u b l i s h ers
P. O. B ox 2867
Cl
0 2601 CW De lft
0
The Netherlands
Cl
c: P h o n e : +31 (0) 1 5 - 2 1 3

c:
0 English e · or: Th e rese Lore n z
.....
u : Pau l Stoute
::::J
Cl rtwork: a l l the p i ct u res in t h i s book were taken in H a n g z h o u , Boston, Bang a l ore
0
�
or Lyon by R i c k D o l ph i j n .
c:

P h i losophy/ C u ltural Stu d i es/ G i l l es D e l e u z e ( 1 925-1 995)/ Food stud i e s

l­
a:
ci:
a.. © 2004 R i c k D o l ph ij n . A l l rights reserved. N o part o f t h i s p u b l i cation may be reproduced,
stored in a retr i eval system, or transm itted, in any form or by any means, e l ectro n i c,
mechanical, photocopy i n g , recordi ng, or otherwise, without the prior perm i s s i on i n w r i t i ng
from t h e proprietor(s).
CON T E N T S

apropos 6

I introduction: talking food 12

(an o n t o l o g y of t h e event)

II State-food 32
( a s o c i o p o l i t i c s o f o rg a n i z at i o n )

I l l alimentary revolutions 54
( t e rr i t o r i e s o f f o o d a n d b e c o m i n g m i n o r i t a r i a n )

IV what is good to eat? 76

( o n m aj o r and m i n or d i et ary n orms)

conclusion: an ethics through food 96

l i st of q u oted conversat i o n s 102

l iterat ure 107

i n dex 111

a c k n ow l ed g e m e nt s 113

a b o ut t h e a ut h o r 115

N ed e r l a n d s e s a m envatt i ng ( D ut c h s u m m ary) 117

 en
0
a.
0
�
a.

.6
 A T RA V E L I N G FOODSCAPES
T h i s study i s a n outcome of a four-year project i n w h i c h many l i nes
came together. D u r i ng a period of one a n d a h a lf years, I traveled
through f o u r c i t i es aro und t h e wo r l d : H a n g z h o u , C h i n a ;
Boston, U . S . A . ; B a n g a l ore, I n d i a ; a n d Lyo n , Fra nce. T h o u g h I
n ever stop ped t rave l i n g , I spent o n e a n d a h a lf m o nths i n a n d aro u n d
e a c h c it y. I nt e n d i n g to actual l y l i ve t h ere.
It i s d iff i c u l t to say why I p i c ked these part i c u l a r c i t i es. I can g i ve you
ten reasons why I p referred t h e m , but it i s easy to come up with ten
other argu ments why s h o u l d h ave gone e l sewhe re. I can, however, share
some of m y consi derat i o n s with you : I was l o o k i n g for four c i t i e s t hat
had strong t h o u g h very d ifferent tastes in food. C it i es that were n ot
s u pposed to ' represent' a part i c u l a r c u i s i ne ( H a n g z h o u does not so
m uch represent the C h i nese c u i s i ne, and Lyo n n ot so m uch the Fre n c h ) ,
but t hat had v i v i d i d eas o n h o w to p repare a m e a l a n d h ow to e n j o y it.
C it i es that were m e d i u m- s i z e d , that were l ocated n ot too far from larger
c i t i es ( H a n g z h o u by Shanghai, B oston by New York, B a n g a l ore by
B o m bay a n d Lyon by Par i s ) that sometimes seemed m ost d i rect ive of
peopl e's l i ves, but also c i t i e s that were very much g o i n g t h e i r own way.
I was i nterested in c i t i e s u n d e r construct i o n that found t h e m s e l ves i n a
constant stage of redeve l o p m e nt. C it i es that were d o i n g very w e l l , t hat
were sw i r l i ng with e n e rgy, c i t i e s whose tentac l es s pread over the e n t i re
world part i c u l a r l y i n terms of food. Fou r m i nor c i t i es c a u g ht up in radi­
c a l c h a n g e.
I went to t h e s e c i t i e s because I was i nterested i n t h e i m m a­
n e n c e of con s u m pt i o n : i n t h e m ut u a l coex istence of p e o p l e a n d what
they eat, i n t h e i r m ut u a l com pos i t i o n . . . i n how they come togeth er. I
walked t h e streets of these c i t i e s , frequented t h e s h o p s, read the n ews­
papers, watched t e l e v i s i o n , etc. Beco m i ng one of the Wandersmiinner
as de C erteau d e f i n e s us. Beco m i n g a part of t h e folded s paces t hat
" . . . compose a m a n if o l d story that has n e i t h e r author n o r s pectator,
shaped out of f r a g m e nts of traject o r i e s and alterat i o n s of s paces . . . "

( d e Certeau 1 984: 93) . A m a n ifold story that i s not o n l y com posed wit h i n
o n e city, but a l s o betwee n t h e c i t i e s , a n d betwee n the i r frag ments.
A m a n if o l d story of how food i s e n g a g ed in our l i ves t hat i m ma n e n t l y
c o m p o s e s itse lf. Leav i n g m yself at the mercy o f expe r i e n c i n g the i nde­
f i na b l e m a n ifolds t h at, in all t h e i r creat i v ity, com posed webs of stor i es.
Leav i n g m yself o p e n to how a l l the e l e m e nts re l ated. And in h ow they
n ever stop re lat i n g , how t h ey n ever s i m p l y 'are' as they f i n d t h e m s e l ves
a l ways ' i n p roces s ' . The fol l o w i n g sto r i e s on c o n s u m p t i o n , t h e refore,
are n ever o n a city. They never pretend to u ncover the i r so-cal led
'essen ce ' . T h e d ifferent p arts are written betwee n t h e spaces of t h e
city, between t h e c i ties. Betwee n t h e m u lt i p l i c it y o f s paces t hat creates
these c i t i es and t h at these c i t i e s create.
-Strong l y i nterwoven with the s paces of the c i t i es were the conversat i o n s
I had w h i l e t h e re. At l east 2 5 per city; 1 07 conversat i o n s altoget h e r.
M ost often with o n e person, somet i mes with two, t h ree, or even four.
Conve rsat ions, not i nt e r v i ews, w i t h o ut a q u es t i o n n a i re, w i t h o ut even
a s k i n g q uest ions. I had to p l u g in somewhere, and I started with food
b y i nform i n g about t h e i r experiences with it. From that moment on, it
went in every d i rect i o n res u l t i n g in m o re than one h u n d re d c o m p l et e l y
d ifferent conversat ions. Last i ng from f ifteen m i n utes to m o r e than f o u r
h o u r s . . . I recorded a l l o f t h e s e conversat i o n s a n d typed t h e m o u t i n f u l l .
They became 'voices' t hat i nterfered, i nterm i ng l e d , a n d i nte racted.
Vo ices that s h o u l d n ot be red u ced to t h e people that produced t h e m ,
but that c reate an altogether d ifferent space. They c a n be f o u n d 7
"'
0 t h ro u g hout t h e work, scattered t h ro u g hout t h e
a.
0
sect i o ns, creat i n g the second axis a l o n g w h i c h the
text extends itse lf.
I n a d d i t i o n to my t rave l s and the conversat i o n s I
had, t h e re were t h e books I read. N ot n ecess a r i l y
'theories o n food ' , but b o o k s that wou l d h e l p m e
to f i n d out i n some w a y what can be l i nked to the
way food a n d l if e re l ate. M ost v a l u a b l e was
t h e o e u v re of G i l l es D e l e u z e , as the title of
t h i s book a l ready i n d icates, a n d notably the book
'A Thousand Plateaus', which was written between
him a n d Fel i x G u atta r i . The work you ' l l read
h e re can be seen a s a reecri t u re, a
re-wr i t i n g , as P h i l i p pe M e n g u e ( M e n g u e 1 994:
47) ca l l s it of D e l e u z e's t h o u g hts. It i s a
becoming-de/euzian, as St ivale wou l d say ( Stivale
1 998), as it expa n d s his work by rewri t i n g it. J u st
l i ke t h e books of D e l e u z e h i mself were a rewri t i n g
o f S p i noza's t h o u g hts, and N i etzsch e's, a n d
Bergson 's, a n d Le i b n i z ' . D e l e u z e w a s rew r i t i n g
t h e i r t h o u g hts i n the w a y t h e s e texts i ntend to
rewrite h i s. Reart i c u lat i n g p h i l osophy a n d t h e refore
creat i n g it.
B ut apart from D e l e u z e and G uattari, you w i l l come
across many other g reat scholars that are surely n o
l e s s i m portant for t h e arg u ments I i nt e n d to m a ke.
Arg u m ents made by S p i n oza, Foucau lt, V i r i l i o ,
Butler, D u m ez i l , Levi-Strauss, N i etzsche, Probyn,
H j e l m s l ev, M c L u h a n , Patto n , Mead, Sassen . . . You
w i l l come ac ross some C h i nese poets, for e s pec i a l ­
l y d u r i n g t h e T ' a n g d yn asty, wri t i n g poetry on food
B C I� E A T I N G F Cl Cl D S C A P E S
The previous paragraph exp l a i n e d that t h e t hree
p l anes (t h e experi ences I had in the c i t i es of
H a n g z h o u , Boston , Bangalore, and Lyo n ; the con­
versat i o n s I had over t h e re ; a n d t h e books I .read)
a ltogether com pose t h e f o l l o w i n g arg u m ents in
t h e i r re l a t i o n to o n e anoth er. With this, I mean that
the part i c u l a r e l e ments ( stat e m e nts, experi ences,
events) are n ot p l aced i n the forthcom i n g texts
because I i ntend to d escri be t h e m i n d i v i d ua l l y, or
to f i n d out w h at t h e i r so-ca l l e d 'essence' is. The
texts are n ot so m u c h i n terested i n t h e sojourned
c i t i es 'themse l ve s ' , nor i n the i n d i v i d u a l state­
ments p e o p l e make, nor in the d ifferent p h i loso­
p h i es it makes u s e of. O n t h e contrary, the g o a l
h e re i s f i n d out h o w a l l t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l
stat e m e n t s a n d e x pe r i e n ce s f u n ct i o n i n
struct u re s . I nd e e d , t h i s text adopts the tec h n i q u e
of the C h i nese master who, w h e n want i n g to p a i nt
a f i s h , does n ot p a i nt a f i s h on t h e canvas, but
rather p a i nts the way a fish m oves in the water. He
pai nts the way the fish affects and i s affected by
what s urro u n d s it ( Feher and Kwint e r 1 987: 1 0 ) .
8 The same w i l l be d o n e with res pect to t h e d ifferent
was often pract iced and gave very i nterest i n g
res u lts. You w i l l a l s o c o m e across the voices of
S ha n k a racharya, Lao-Tze, a n d J oyce. Vo ices that
are i n some way re l ated to t h e f i e l d s of p h i l osophy,
to s c i e n ce a n d art, w h i ch a l l for m u l ate bits of
the arg u m e nts e i t h e r d i rect l y or i n d i rect l y. The
a r g u m e nts presented here are pro d u ce d accord i n g
to t h e m .
The experi ences I had i n t h e four cities, t h e expe­
ri ences of a l l t h e p e o p l e with whom I s po ke , the
books I came to read: altogether they m i n g l e d ,
art i c u l ated o_n e another, a n d produced t h e s e writ­
i n g s a l o n g the way. C o m p o s i n g t h ree i n terwoven
p l anes th at do n ot re l ate to one another in terms of
a preset h i e rarchy. The t h o u g hts com i n g from the
books are n ot p l aced above t h e ones com i n g from
the conve rsat i o n s o r t h e experie nces I had in these
c i t i es. N o r t h e oth e r way aro u n d . I be l i eve there i s
no d ifference between 'theory' a n d ' pract i c e ' , o r
'theory' and ' e m p irical e n q u i ry' , betwee n t h e voices
com i ng fro m a book or those com i n g from peop l e
one m eets i n the street. O r e v e n fro m t h e c i t i es
themse lves ( a l b e i t t h e i r art i cu l at i o n ) . They are
voices a l l the same. Thus, the d ifferent parts d o
n ot pract ice a ready-made h i erarchy a l t h o u g h there
are moments t h at h i erarc h i es come i nto existence
wit h i n the text. Somet i mes a q uote from a person
takes the lead, somet i mes a q u ote from a book,
somet i m es a n exper i e n ce. The parts are i m mane nt­
ly com posed between these t h ree p l a nes.
Pos i t i o n i n g them w h i l e being positioned b y them.
pract ices of c o n s u m p t i o n that are the main poi nts
of i nterest aro u n d w h i c h a l l the sect i o n s d rape
t h e m s e l ves here. Though they d o n ot form t h e ' s u b­
j ect' of our a n a l ys i s in a sense t hat these sect i o n s
try to f i n d out w h at f o o d ' i s ' , h ow it i s used i n the
part i c u lar c i t i es I traveled t h ro u g h , w h i c h meals its
i n h a b itants l i ke a n d which t h ey d o n 't. N o n e of t h i s
w i l l be d i scussed i n what i s about to come. Rat h e r,
t h i s book tri es to show h ow food f u nct i o n s i n
i m m a n e nt structures that are a l ways i n a process
of chan ge. T h i s book is i nte rested in h ow
food affects a n d i s affected. It i s i n terested
in how we l i ve our l i ves with food , accord i n g
t o food , a n d t h ro u g h food : i t i s i nt e rested i n
w h at h a p p e n s betwe e n t h e eat i n g a n d t h e
eate n . T h i s b o o k i s i nterested i n h o w food moves
in struct u res, h ow it chan ges t h e m , and i s changed
by t h e m . H ow food i s produced by these st ruct ures
a n d how these struct ures are produced by food.
The way I i ntend to talk with food, to see how food
p l ays its role in our l i ves, i s d ef i n it e l y not ' new' . I
m e nt i on ed t h e poets of t h e T ' a n g d yn ast y w h o paid
g reat atte n t i o n to pract i ces of c o n s u m p t i o n . In t h e
 West, Rabe l a i s a n d J eroen Bosch a l ready art i c u l ated it i n t h e i r art­
works several centuries ago. M ore recen t l y, some of t h e g reatest
t h i n kers have written about t h e many ways i n w h i c h food f u n ct i ons i n
o u r l i ves. They have writte n about h ow food i s s o stron g l y entan g l ed
with i n everyday events that it can teach us m uc h a bout l ife, about h ow
we l i ve o u r l i ves.
Levi-Strauss focused o n our re l at i o n s with food in h i s stu d i e s of pri m i ­
t i ve soc i et i es. H e wrote some g reat v o l u m es o n h o w food fu nct i o n s
with i n l a n g uage, h ow c u l i nary t e r m s l i ke 'raw', 'cooked', and 'rotten ' n ot
o n l y struct ure lang uage, but are m ost constructive of o u r w ho l e way of
b e i n g , a n d on how t h ese terms not o n l y ord e r the way we t a l k, but satu­
rate every part of our l i ves ( Levi-Strauss 1 969) . H e v i v i d l y p uts d own the
v a r i o u s ways i n which these concepts are prod uct ive of the events in
which we end u p , of the way we experience what happens aro u n d us.
They produce the m yt h s by which we l i ve.
I n h i s mate r i a l ist theories, Marx p a i d m uch att e n t i o n to the role of
food in our world w h e n he, in studying the i n d u s t r i a l earl y capita l i st
societi es, g ave us a thorough a n a l ys i s of h ow food fu nct i o ne d with
t h e c l ass st r u g g l e s h e saw everywhere around h i m ( Marx 1 967) . His all to
often m i s i nterpreted c l a i m 'man ist was man i/3t ' (tra n s l a t i o n : ' you are
what you eat', a sayi n g that d o e s n 't even come c l ose to the ori g i n a l
Germ a n ) s hows u s t h at i n the i n d u strial societ i es with t h e i r d i st i n ct i ve
c l asses, c o n s u m p t i o n art i c u l ated t h e order of society together with t h e
c l ass strug g l e that w a s s u pposed to i n vert it.
I n sect i o n s to come, I w i l l study food as it c o m e s w i t h l if e in t h e
post m o d e rn or l at e c a p i ta l i st s o c i ety as J a meson refers to o u r
prese nt-day w o r l d ( J a m eson 1 991 ) . I t d e a l s w i t h t h e way food fu nct i o n s
a t the start o f the 21 st cent ury worl d , a world very d ifferent fro m t h e
prim i t i ve o n e Lev i-Strauss created a n d the e a r l y capital ist one Marx
p roposed. The conversat i o n s have changed, the experi ences have
changed, the books referred to h ave changed.' It is a world i n w h i c h
food i s stro n g l y conn ected to the city, to concepts s u c h as trad i t i o n ,
i dent ity, health . . . B ut a l s o to t h e State-for m , to f em i n i n ity, a n d to
m i norities. Capita l i s m a n d the pri m it i ve a l s o p l ay an i m portant role, but
they seem to have l itt l e to do with the way Marx's i n d u stri a l society a n d
Levi -Strauss' p r i m it i ve societ y conceptu a l ized t h e m . I n o u r prese nt-day
l ate capita l ist worl d , both are art i c u l ated anew in t h e i r re l a t i o n to the
other concepts t hat p o p u l ate it. They are art i c u l ated by ot her concepts
w h i l e b e i n g art i c u l ated by t h e m .
The sect i o n s to come i ntend to m a p the ways i n w h i c h f o o d i s re l ated
to o u r l i ves: how t h e i r mutual sym b i o s i s u nfold t h e rea l it i e s in w h i c h
w e l i ve, the situat i o n s i n w h i c h w e e n d u p, by propos i ng a n i m m an e n t
( re)creat i o n of concepts. Conce pts that are sometimes t a k e n fro m
D e l e u z e (and G u attari), somet i m e s from oth e r authors or experien ces.
C o n ce pt s such as 'State-food', 'revolut ionary becomings', 'territoria lity ',
- and 'minor dietetics' t hat are f l u i d , that are a l ways a l ready b e i n g reartic­
u l ated w it h i n arg u ments that p u s h t h e m forward. C o n cepts that are
c o m p l ex and su bj ect to variat i o n . C o ncepts that are m o v i n g accord i n g
to other conce pts, creat i n g oppos i t i ons, or m e rg i n g with t h e m . In t h e i r
m u t u a l s o l i d a r i ty, t h e conc epts m a p w h at i s a rt i c u l ated w i t h
f o o d , w i t h the a c t o f eat ing . T h e y e m body a b u n d l e of arg u m e nt s
t h at e m e r g e s i n o r d e r to d i sappear a g a i n or to p o p up, art i c u l ated d if­
ferently, in another part of the book. They com pose an et h i c s of food

1 With respect to the l iterature, there i s one other s i m i lar ity between t h i s book a n d
what Levi-Strauss a n d Marx perform: D e l euze i s t o these sections w h a t l i ng u i stics i s
to Levi-Strauss and w h a t H e g e l i s to Marx. 9
 en en
0 0
i n t h e D e l e u z i a n s e n se of t h e word, a n
c..
c..
0
et h o l o g y as h e somet i m e s c a l l s i t ( D e l e u z e
0

c..
S p i noza, Practical Philosophy 1988). It d oes n ot come
c..

"' "' u p with rules that i nform u s as to 'what

i s good ' , but s hows u s ways of searc h i ng for it,
compos i n g a m a n i f o l d of scapes based o n how
foods affect and are affected. They compose an
et h o l o g y as they m a p t h e p o l i t i cs a n d ethics of the
real as w i l l be exp l a i ned i n t h e i nt roduct i o n .
T h i s book is a n act of m a p p i n g . I t i s
nomad i s m i n act i o n a s t h e a rg u m e nt s w a n ­
d e r t h ro u g h t h e c i t i e s , t h ro u g h t h e conver­
sat i o n s , t h ro u g h t h e boo k s . A n d they n ever
stop wand e r i n g . C onstruct i n g a corre l ate w h e re the
streets of H a n g z h o u con nect to w r i t i n g s of
D e l e uze, where the f r u st rat i o n of a s u p e r m a r ket
manager from Lyon c o n nects to t h e madn ess of
Joyce. The book is the act of s p i n n i ng a web
accord i n g to t h e p e o p l e it m eets, t h e restaurants
it m eets, the books it m eets, etc. It n o u r i s hes on
all of them; it t rave l s accord i n g to the o p e n i n g s
created by t h e conversat i o ns, t h e ex p e r i ences, a n d
the books. It c o m p o s e s i t s e l f between these po i nts
of refe rence, creat i n g a v i r t u a l tour to w h e rever the
argument leads us.
This v i rt u a l t o u r in f ront of you i s comprised of four
parts t hat are broken u p i nto parag raphs. The d if­
ferent parts can be read i nd e p e n d e n t l y from o n e
another. O n l y t h e conc l u s i o n s h o u l d be read a t the
e n d . M aybe even t h e paragraphs can even be read
i nd e p e n d e n t l y from one another as they a l l m o re or
less try to produce o n e b u n d l e of a r g u m ents.
A r g u m e nts that conn ect to the f o l l o w i n g para­
g r a p h , t h o u g h n ot n ecessar i l y i n a l i near way.
T h e refore, I d e c i d e d n ot to n a m e these str i n g s of
arg u m e nts 'a c hapter ' . They do n ot form o n e major
poi nt altogeth er. They proceed a n d go i n m u l t i p l e
d i rect i ons. T h e y expl ore, t h e y expe r i m e nt, t h ey
q u estion t h e d i rect i o n s to take. L i ke s n a kes i n t h e
forest, they move accord i n g to o bstac l e s with
which they are confronted. They are n ot f o l l o w i n g a
pat h , but rather c reate one. P r o d u c i n g t h e i r arg u ­
m e nts a l o n g t h e way.
B ut a l t h o u g h t h i s book w i l l take us on many j o u r­
n eys a r o u n d the w o r l d , we wi I I start o u r t o u r c l ose
to home . . . . With a peek at that part i c u l a r book at
the top s h e lf of our bookcase: Marc e l P ro ust's
•A la Recherche du Temps Perdu ' . . .

Rick Dolphijn
Hangzhou, Boston, Bangal ore, Lyon , and Rotterdam,
2000-2004

---

• 8 10
11
 AN ONTO L OGY OF THE EVENT

-
-

12
A l lvl lvl A N E N C E IN
"And suddenly the memory revealed
itself. The taste was that of the
little piece of madeleine 2 which on
Sunday mornings at C o mbray
(because on th ose mornings I did
not go out before mas s), when I
went to s ay g o o d morning to her in
her bedroom, my aunt Leonie used
to give me, dipping it first in her
own cup of tea or tis ane. The sight
of the little m adeleine had recalled
nothing to my mind before I tasted
it ; perhaps because I had seen so
often such things in the meantime,
without tasting them, on the trays
in p astry-cooks' windows, that their
image had dis s o c i ated itself from
th ose C ombray days to take its
place among others more recent;
perhaps because of those memories,
so long abandoned and put out of
mind, nothing n ow survived, every­
thing was s c attered; the shapes of
things, including that of the little
s c allop-shell of p astry, so richly
sensual under its severe, religious
folds, were either obliterated or had
been s o long dormant as to have
l o s t the power of expansion which
would have allowed them to resume
their place in my cons ciou snes s .
But when from a long-distant past
nothing sub sists, after the people
are dead, after the things are bro­
ken and s c attered, taste and smell
alone, more fragile but more endur­
ing, more unsubstantial, more per­
sistent, more faithful, remain
- noti o n of t i me. I n h i s m a g n u m o pus­
T E l� lvl S OF TIME
p o ised a long time, l ike s o u l s ,
remembering, waiting, hoping, amid
the ruins of all the rest; and bear
unflinchingly, in the tiny and most
impalpable drop of their es sence,
the vast structure of recollection"
(P roust 1 981 : 50-5 1 ) .
T h is i l l ustrious passage by Ma rce l
P roust is arg u a b l y o n e of the most
d i scussed f r a g m e nts of modern l iter­
atu re. S a m u e l Beckett, who m ig ht
h ave started t h e d i scuss i o n , reads it
i n terms of its pess i m i s m . But
p h i losophers l i ke B l a nc h ot and
G i rard, psyc h o l o g i sts l i ke K r i steva
and Bowie, h ave a l l shed l i g h t o n t h i s
i l l u str i o u s passage, read i n g it i n
terms o f ' i nvo l u ntary m e m o ry' , d es i re,
sense, or as a portrait of m e ntal l ife.
These authors have in c o m m o n that
they wrote persuas i ve a n d i nf l ue n t i a l
c o m m e nts on t h i s excerpt and t h at
they a l l seem to i g n o re t h at Proust
g i ves an account of what happens
betwee n him a n d food. Their arg u ­
m e nts p a y I itt l e att e n t i o n to t h e i d e a
t h a t P roust i s ta l k i ng about food a n d
a b o u t t h e w a y the f o o d t a l ks to h i m .
T h i s text w i l l tal k o f food, of h ow we
think with food. T h e excerpt f ro m
P ro u st c a n se rve a s a n i nte rest­
i n g o p e n i n g , a p o i nt of d e part u re
o n how we can t h i n k of w h at
food is to u s . On how we can t h i n k
o f t h e re l a t i o n s t hat c o m e i nto b e i n g
between food and us. Because it
s h ows u s i n a very ref i ne d way how
t h e two i nt e r m i n g le, how with i n t h i s
conf ro ntat i o n they are creat i ng o n e
another i n m a n y ways.
O n e way in wh i c h we can read t h i s
confrontat i o n betwee n t h e m a d e l e i n e
a n d M arce l i s i n h ow it c reates a
•A la Recherche du Temps Perdu ' ( I n
Search of Lost T i m e ) , P ro u st i s not
writ i n g about the past as somet h i n g
we've l eft b e h i n d . W h i l e tast i n g a
mad e l e i ne, he expl ores t h e i m m an e nt,
h e expe r i e n ces the i m manent. T h u s,
h e proposes us to t h i n k a bout
w h at we cou l d c o n c e pt u a l i z e as
' i m m a n e n c e ' . A b so l ute i m m a n ence,
2 A m a d e l e i n e is a s m a l l cake with a m i l d a l mond f l avor.
t h at is, n ot in somet h i ng or to
somet h i ng , but rat h e r in itself. O r
as D e l e u z e u nd e rstands it q u ot i ng
from S p i noza: " . . . i m m a n e n ce i s not
i m m an e nce to s u bstance; rat h e r, s u b ­
stance a n d modes a r e i n i m m an e nce"
( D e l eu z e 2001 : 26) .
By t e l l i n g u s t h i s sto ry, Proust
s h ows u s w h at i m m a n e n c e i n
t e r m s of t i m e m e a n s: i t i s not
i m m a n e n c e as in ' t h at f r a g m ent
of t i m e s a n d w i c h e d by the past
a n d t h e f u t u r e ' , but as in 'the
po i nt f ro m w h i c h all t i m e i s c re­
ated ' . The p o i nt N i etzsche act u a l l y
ca l l s ' t h e Unt i m e l y' arg u i ng that it i s
n ot s u bj ected to any n ot i o n o f t i me or
any n o t i o n of h i story ( De l eu z e 1 995:
1 7 1 ) , t h o u g h we prefer Dante's
d e s c r i p t i o n : "mirando ii punto a cui
tutti Ii tempi son presenti" ( Dante
1 91 3 : P 1 7- 1 7, 1 8) ( "s e e i n g the p o i nt at
w h i c h a l l t i mes are p resent"). The
poi nt from which all t i mes are created
as it c o m poses h i story A N D the h e re
a n d now A N D t h e future: it goes
t h r o u g h all its components a n d s i n g u ­
l a r it ies. I t i s f ro m what we w i l l
ca l l i m m a n e n c e t h at at a n y t i m e
t h e actual a n d t h e-v i rt u a l
become i m m a n ent; a l l t h at hap­
p e n s between the matters as
they are confro nted with e a c h
ot h e r comes into being.
By tast i ng t h e made l e i ne, Prou st's
experience is u nf o l d i n g itse lf; it i s
i nf i n it e l y c o m p l icat i n g itse lf; it i s
i m ma n e n t l y writ i n g h i s •A la
Recherche du Temps Perdu ' so to
s peak. I t i s not prov i d i ng h i m with
'a bstract know l e d g e ' , but rat her takes
h i m o n a "te mporal apprentices h i p "
a s D e l e uze ca l l s it ( Deleu z e 2000: 4 ) . I t
i s l if e i n a s p l i t second a s h e s hows
u s the frag i l ity and the s e n s i b i l ity of
I ife, of how we I ive. It was t h e taste
and the s m e l l of the mad e l e i n e t hat
p u l led h i m i nto the e n d l ess depths of
t h e i m ma n e nt sweep i n g h i m from t h e
m a z e s o f h i s c h i l d hood to t h o s e o f h i s
fantas ies. A b u n d l e o f s i n g u l a r i t i es
that is actu a l ized by the tast i ng a n d
the s m e l l i n g o f t h e made l e i n e.
13
 B lvl A T T E I�
A n d t h us, what P roust tal ks of has
n ot h i ng to d o with anyt h i n g ' u n i ver­
s a l ' . . . ( if someone e l se wou l d taste it,
h e or she w o u l d proba b l y n ot re m e m ­
ber any Aunt Leon i e ) . C o n se q u e n t l y,
we s h o u l d n ot ascribe the q u a l i t i es as
m e n t i oned by P ro u st to the part i c u l a r
o bj ect ( t h e m a d e l e i ne) itse lf. A t t h e
m o m e nt h e tasted a n d s m e l l ed t h e
cake, part i c u l a r m e mo r i e s o p e n ed u p.
I t i s only i n t h e p rocess of s e n s ­
i n g a s it occu rred w i t h i n t h i s
e n co u n t e r t h at t h e s e p a rt i c u l a r
q u a l it i e s h e m e n t i o n s were
( re)c reat e d , reart i c u l a t e d . Before
the tast i n g of the made l e i n e , before
the part i c u l a r memories were
attached to it, we c o u l d even say that
it was unformed, u norga n i zed.
L i n g u i st/mat h e m a t i c i a n L o u i s
H j e l m s l ev cal l s t h i s p h a s e ' before'
the encounter ' m atte r ' . A term, he
argued, that was " o n l y a n o pe rative
t e r m , i ntroduced s i m p l y for conve n ­
i ence" (Hje l m s l ev 1 961 : 43). M atter
can be u n d e rstood as the (yet)
u n k n o w n , t h at w h i c h has not
(yet) entered the confrontat i o n ,
t h at w h i c h i s n o t p l a y i n g a ro l e
o r o p e n e d u p by s e n se. M atter
a lways a l ready s u r r o u n d s u s ; 'we'
o u rselves a l ways a l ready cons ist of
m atter as it moves i n re l a t i o n s to var­
i ed speeds with other matter. Like
water in water, as Bata i l l e wou l d say
( B atai l l e 1 989: 23) . Before the state of
i d entif icat i o n , before the encou nter
takes p l ace, before Proust tasted and
s m e l led t h e m a d e l e i ne, before h e
con nected h i s m e m o r i es to t h e l ittle
cake. Matter i s t h e stage i n w h i c h
everyt h i n g i s a l ready t h e re, but not
(yet) i d e nt i f i e d . As D e l e u ze adds:
" Unformed matter. . . i s n ot dead, b r ute,
homogeneous matter, but a matter­
movement bea r i n g s i n g u l a r i t i es o r
haecce i t i es, q u a l i t i es, a n d even oper­
at i o n s . . ." ( D e l e u ze and G uattari 1 987:
512).
Though stat i n g that m atte r i s the
phase ' before' anyth i n g i s defined
does not imply a l i near idea of abso l ute
t i m e as G a l i l e o i n s isted. I t i s never
the case that matter j ust e x i sts prev i ­
ous to t h e encou nter. Matter i s a l ways
t h e re, before, after, besides, a n d even
d u ri n g the encounter as it i s tem­
porar i l y formed. Time i s d ef i n it e l y n ot
absol ute, as E i nste i n s howed, a n d it
i s a l so n ot n ecessari l y l i near: it can
be c i rc u l ar, b i nary... it can take any
shape. After P roust f i n i s h e d the
mad e l e i ne, t h e i m manent situation
evapo rated perhaps r u n n i n g over to
other situations i n an a ltogether d if­
f e rent way.
The Greeks acknowledge t h i s p h ase
of matter i n descr i b i n g t h e state of
t h e wo r l d 'in t h e beg i n n i n g of time' as
'chaos'. C haos, mean i n g 'open s pace'
or ' open t i m e ' , w i t h o ut s i ze, without
d u rat i o n , without a sta rt, without an
end; a g a p i n g e m pt i n ess i nto the
i m meas u r a b l e yet f i l l ed with a gos­
samer dark n e b u l a that a l ready con­
s i sted of everyt h i n g t h e re wi l l ever
be.3 C h aos as it p recedes any 'order'
though once m ore, it cannot be s i t u ­
ated j ust ' before' t h e h ere a n d n ow:
the beg i n n i n g of t i m e did n ot take
p l ace 1 0 ,000 years a g o ; it is s it u ated
at t h e moment P roust notices the
m a d e l e i n e a n d d es i res to eat it. Fo r
at the m o m ent he picks u p the
made l e i n e, brings it to h i s mouth a n d
bites i nto it, t h e m e m or i es come to
his m i n d ; it i s t h e n the made l e i n e i s
defined a n d h e i s as w e l l . T h e n a l l
sorts o f v i rt u a l i t i e s are act u a l i zed.
What l i es before this, before we have
orga n i zed it with o u r senses, before
o u r d es i res are p l ugged i nto it,
H j e l m s lev concept u a l izes as matter,
a n d t h e G reeks concept u a l i z e as
chaos. The phase we can n ever reach
s i nce we can only experience i n
i m m a n e n ce, i n t h e e n c o u nter, i n the
confrontat i o n . That i s t h e o n l y way
we are in contact with o u r wo r l d : i n
i m m an e nce, b y way o f o u r senses.
Therefore, Deleuze c o n c l u d e s t h at
"chaos does not e x i st. . ." ( De l eu z e
1 993: 7 6 ) . I t i s only by means of t h e
e n c o u n t e r t h a t the taste a n d t h e s m e l I
of t h e made l e i ne as it affected P ro ust
that t h e m e m o r i e s of h i s a u nt, t h e
s h a p e o f t h e mad e l e i ne, the state of
h i s m i nd . . . a l l of a s u d d e n become
entan g l e d in o n e another d ef i n i n g the
one i n relation to t h e ot her. Before
the confrontat i o n , the mad e l e i ne was
matter, formless d u st i n the i m m eas­
u r a b l e n e b u l a of C h aos.

'O c c () N T E N T I E x p I� E s s I () N I F () I� lvl - s lJ B s T A N c E
0
0
O n l y t h e n i n the encou nter, i n t h e confro ntat i o n , is t h e but with the encou nter, with how t w o or more ' i n d i v i d u a l i­
r e l a t i o n created as somet h i ng t h a t overcodes both Proust t i e s ' enter i nto compos i t i o n with o n e another at a specific
and the mad e l e i n e. This i s what we ca l l 'the event': " T h e m o m e nt. H j e l m s l ev starts with the between. For it i s within
i m m a n e nt event i s act u a l i z e d i n a state o f t h i n g s that re lat i o n , that both content and expression are
a n d o f t h e l i ved t h at m a ke i t happen" ( D e l eu z e 2001 :
c
0 " . . . defined o n l y by t h e i r m ut u a l s o l i d a r ity, a n d n e it h e r of
31 ) . For i n t h i s re l at i o n , a revo l ut i o n takes p l ace, as on t h at t h e m can be i d entified otherwise. They are defined o n l y
m o m ent, t h e re i s the c reat i o n of the d o u b l e arti c u l a t i o n we oppos i t i ve l y a n d re lative l y, as m u t u a l opposed f u n ct i ves of
c a l l ' content' a n d 'expres s i o n ' . o n e a n d the same f u n ct i o n " ( Hjel m s l ev 1 961 : 60, MP521 , n6).
A g a i n , w e t u r n t o t h e l i n g u istic t h e o r i es of H j e l m s lev w h o In the event Proust descri bes, content a n d expres s i o n
form u l ated t h i s d o u b l e b i n d . I n rad i ca l i z i ng the t h e o r i es of create one another s i m u ltaneously a t the moment o f tast i n g
l­
a::
de Saussure, H j e l ms l ev does n ot start with the so-ca l led a n d s m e l l i ng . The content o f t h e event i s created by its
<(
a.
e n t i t i es ( ' Marcel Proust' a n d t h e ' m a d e l e i n e ' , i n our cas e ) , expre s s i o n ; b y tast i n g and s m e l l i n g the made l e i ne, Proust

3 C h uang Tzu, the g reatTaoist scholar, s i m i l ar l y argues: "In the G r a n d Beginning ( o f a l l things) there w a s noth ing in a l l the vacancy o f space; there
14 was noth ing that cou l d be named" ( Legge, Laozi and Z h uangzi 1 89 1 : 315).
rem e m bers t h e e p i sode of h i s chi l d ­
h o o d . The m a d e l e i n e becomes t h e
express i o n ; t h e story i s expressed
t h ro u g h the cake as t h i s is created by
its content. The taste a n d the smel I of
the made l e i n e take u p the role t hat
l a n g u ag e occu p i e s in H j e l m s l ey's l i n ­
g u istic system s i nce it i s through t h e
taste and the s m e l I o f t h e cake t hat
t h e message is tran sferred ( s i m i lar to
the way l a n g u ag e is capable of 'con­
veyi n g ' messages). The cake itself is
n ot t h e message, as P roust clearly
argues: its taste a n d smell fu nct i o n
as t h e expre s s i o n o f a m e s s a g e as
l a n g uage so ofte n d oes. The c a ke
becomes a m e a n s of convey i n g a
m e s s a g e as it con nects Proust to
t h e m e mo r i e s of his c h i l d hood, as it
ma kes his c h i l d hood i m manent ; it
ma kes it happen i n i m m a n e nce.
Yet, H j e l ms l ev cont i n u es, what i s j ust
as i m portant i s that t h i s expres s i o n is
shaped in a part i c u lar way: it h as a
' s u bsta n c e ' a n d it has a 'form ' . The
form of the express i o n i n this case i s
t h e made l e i n e, and the s u bstance by
w h i c h the message i s conveyed i s the
s p e c i f ic m at er i a l that t h i s cake is
composed of. A l so , the content has
both form and s u bstance; t h e form
h e re i s what h e re m e m bers as an
i m portant e p i sode of his c h i l d hood;
t h e s u bstance i s t h e m u l t i p l icity of
brai nwaves t hat, in correlat i o n with
the bod i l y m ate r i a l , conveys this mes­
sage.
We can con c l u d e t hat: "There is
never corres pondence o r conformity
betwee n content a n d expres s i o n , o n l y
i s o m o r ph i s m with reci procal presup­
position. T h e d i st i nct i o n betwee n
content and expres s i o n i s a lways real,
in various ways, but it cannot be s a i d
t h a t t h e terms preexist t h e i r d o u b l e
art i c u l a t i o n . . . O n the ot her h a n d ,
there i s n o real d i stinction between
form and s u bstance, o n l y a m e nt a l or
m o d a l d is t i n c t i o n : s i nce s u bsta nces
are n ot h i n g ot her than formed m at­
ters, f o r m l ess s u bstances are i ncon­
ceivable, a l t h o u g h it i s poss i b l e in
certa i n i nstances to conce ive of s u b­
stanceless forms" ( De l euze and
G u attari 1 987: 44) .
T h u s , we can d e p i ct t h e l i n g u istic
model of H j e l m s lev as it i s created
with i n the event from matter in t h e
fol l o w i n g way:
S i nce content a n d expres s i o n a re, .on
t h e o n e hand, d ifferent from one
another, but o n t h e other hand, a l ways
come in p a i rs (they are ' re l at i ve'
terms), we w i l l refer to t h e m as ' co n-
t e nt/e x p re s s i o n ' . S i nce form a n d
s u bstance are s u b o r d i nated t o con-
te nt/express i o n , a n d s i nce they are
m ost often i nf i n it e l y c l ose to o n e
anot her, w e wi 1 1 refer to t h e m a s
'for m -s u bs t a n c e ' .
Hje l m s l ev's m o d e l o f d e s c r i b ­
i n g w h at h a p p e n s i n t h e event
s h o u l d be s e e n a s the start i n g
p o i nt o f o u r a n a l y s i s s i n c e i t i s
fro m t h e creat i o n of
conte nt/ex press i o n , form-s u b ­
stance t h at a n event u nfo l d s; t hat
t h e matter becomes d efi ned from
w i t h i n i m m a n e nce; t hat it becomes
i m manent. I t i s through t h e taste and
t h e s m e l l of t h e made l e i ne that the
mem ory of his c h i l d hood becomes
i m m a n e nt to Proust, a n d by his t rave l ­
i n g t h ro u g h t h e taste and t h e s me l l of
t h e m a d e l e i n e i n part i c u l ar. I n t h i s
way, the mad e l e i ne becomes t h e car­
r i e r of h i s m e m o r i es to P ro ust, a n d
P ro u st becomes t h e c o n s u m e r o f t h e
mad e l e i ne.
They relate to one another in a s pe­
c i f i c way; it i s n ot j u st in ' s e n s i n g ' the
made l e i n e i n a g e n e r a l way that
P roust rem e m be rs. H e clearly states
that s e e i n g the made l e i n e s l y i n g on
the t rays in the pastry-cook's w i n ­
dows d id n ot evoke t h i s . T h e way i n
w h i c h t h e content was expressed i n
t h i s event was n ot i n ta l k i n g about t h e
made l e i n e, or read i n g about
made l e i n es in t h e n ewspapers, or
s e e i n g a p a i n t i n g of a mad e l e i n e; it
was i n t h e tasting and the sme lling of
t h e made l e i n e t hat a l l matter was
art i c u l ated i n t h i s part i c u l a r way. I n
terms of taste and smell, P roust a n d
the made l e i ne re l ated to one another,
e ntered i nto compos i t i o n w i t h o n e
a n ot h e r.

D A F F E C T, C O N N E CT I N G T l-I E
T h e exper i e n ces of Proust, a lo n g w i t h the rathe r a n a l ytical
scheme H j e l m s l ev, show u s t hat somet h i ng only becomes
f u nctional w i t h i n a part i c u l a r event. O r, to stress it once
more; a part i c u l a r t h i ng i s not d ef i n e d by-its own func­
t i ons, but by h ow it i s f u nct i o n i ng wit h i n structu res. It thus
necessar i l y passes over its own physical ity as it creates a
connection. T h e made l e i n e m akes a connect i o n betwee n
P r o u s t and h i s c h i l d hood m e m ories. It f u n ct i o n s as a
med i u m , as a c o n d u ctor.
For an e l d e r l y m a n i n H a n g z h o u , tea was a most v a l u a b l e
expres s i o n as it f u n ct i oned w i t h a l l k i n d s o f t h o u g hts. H e
exp l a i n e d : " Yo u can f i n d everyt h i ng i n the tea. Yo u c a n see
a tea from d ifferent pers pecti ves, j u d g e the tea from d if­
f e rent a n g l es ; t h e q u a l ity, the taste, t h e col or, t h e fra­
g rance, the s h ape, and some crude t h i ngs. I t i s very i nter-
ll E S l l� E S
esti n g h ow you can deve l o p yourse lf." (05-1 5-01 ) To t h i s
m a n , it was t e a that was capable o f expres s i n g i n many
ways ; t h r o u g h tea, h e was taken i nto a 'temporal appren­
t i c es h i p ' that created a n event making con nect i o n s in
n u m e ro u s d i rect i o ns.
T h u s , i t is n ot the f u n ct i o n i n g of the ears t h at
d e f i n e w h e t h e r or n ot you w i l l e n j o y a c o n c e rt o ; it
is not t h e f u n ct i o n i n g of the taste b u d s a n d t h e
n o s e t h a t a l l o w o n e to e n j oy a w i ne: w h at matters
is in w h at way the con n ect i o n takes p l ace. O r, to put
it i n the words of S p i noza, i n what way ' affect i o n ' takes
p l ace. The i nf i n it es i m a l experie nce can become i nf i n it e l y
c o m p l e x 4 i n t h at it i s a b l e to fold i t s e l f i n a m o s t s i n g u lar
a n d e n d l ess way. Proust a l ready reveals to u s his experi­
ence i n which t h e taste a n d t h e s m e l l of the m a d e l e i n e 15
 sweep h i m back to the i mages of h i s
c h i l d hood. T h e e l d e r l y C h i nese m a n
c i t e d a bove tel Is u s that h e experi­
ences tea as being capa b l e of affect­
i n g h i m in m u lt i p l e ways ('the q u a l ity,
the taste, the col o r, the f r a g rance, t h e
s h a pe, a n d some c r u d e t h i ng s ' ) .
S p i noza's c l a i m t hat " . . . every m a n
d e t e r m i n e s a l l t h i n g s f ro m h i s
affe ct. . ." ( S p i noza 2001 : 3P2, Schol.)
m akes a n ice a d d i t i o n to H j e l m s l ev's
l i n g u istic s c h e m e d i scussed above. It
·
s hows in what way matter n ecessa r i l y
escapes itself from t h e way it affects
and is affected b y whatever surrounds
it. H j e l m s l ev's notions agree with
S p i n oza's o n t h e idea that it i s o n l y
wit h i n the event, with i n t h e way rela­
t i o n s are b e i n g sha ped, that e n t i t i es
are created. A n y t h i ng can con nect to
any ot h e r t h i ng creat i n g this ot h e r
a n d b e i n g c reated by t h i s other.
The concept of t h e affect i s n ot to be
seen as a plea for 'absol ute freed o m ' .
O n several occas i ons, S p i noza argues
that w h e n t h e h u n g ry craves for food ,
w h e n t h e baby reaches out for t h e
m ot h e r's b reast, it i s by n o means a n
act o f free c h o i ce t h a t t h e y f i n d each
oth er. The way affect i o n takes p l ace,
whether or n ot we p l ug i nto a n event,
i s m u c h m o re c o n nected to the way
our d es i res 5, the b u n d l e s of d es i res
t h at swi r l with i n us, i n some way f i n d
an i mage t h e y c o n s i d e r p ro d u ct i ve.
An i m age that is b e l i eved to strength­
e n t h e body a n d t h e m i n d . An i mage
that i s capable of pass i n g t h e m i nd to
greater perfection ( 'j oy') or to a lesser
"C E T H E C O N C E P T
0
0
T h e c o n c e pt of food i s i m m a n e n t l y produced w i t h ­
Cl
c: i n t h e event as a n outcome o f how t h e e l e m e nts
c o n n e ct, how t h ey affect o n e another. A n d t h e act of
d ef i n i n g somet h i n g as food m i g h t we l l be c o n s i d e re d t h e
c:
0
4 T h e concept o f complexity a s we use it here
in respect to the structure of the event, i s
s i m i l a r to the w a y Chomsky conceptualizes
c:
in respect to the structure of l a ng uage
( C h omsky 1957). Language, he expl a i ns, comes
l­
a::
i nto being when the l i m ited nu mber of letters
ci:
a.
start funct i o n i n g i n structures of expression
that never stop folding, unfo l d i n g , and refo ld­
---· i n g . It comes into being with the creation of
16 i m manent strategies, i m manent structures of
perfection ( ' sorrow') as S p i noza ca l l s
it. W h e reas t h e way P roust i s affected
by the made l e i ne m i g ht be con s i d e red
s orrow ( S p i noza refers to the affect
of sorrow as p a i n or m e l an c h o l y ) , t h e
w a y the C h i nese m a n i s affected b y
tea m i g ht be ca l l ed joy ( S p i noza
refers to t h e affect of joy as ' p l e a s u r­
a b l e excitement' (tit i l latio)) ( S p i noza
2001 : 3P1 1 , Schol.). Whether it can ease
the m i nd , whether it can f i l l t h e stom­
ach, whether it can b r i n g back so me
c h i l d h ood m e mo r i es , the part i c u l a r
confro ntat i o n s h o u l d g i ve joy o r sor­
row to us. I n whatever way.
Thus, whe n ever we t a l k about the
affects, about the way we enter i nto
compos i t i o n with other matters, we
s h o u l d a l ways keep i n m i n d t hat the
way we a l l ow o u rs e l ves to be defined
by t h e event i s stron g l y rel ated to t h e
w a y w e i ntend to f u l f i l I o u r d e s i res,
the way we seek f u lf i l l ment in o u r
l i ves, t h e way we a r e constant l y
affected by j o y or sorrow.
N evert h e l ess, we s h o u l d e m p h asize
that this h a p p e n s i n a very personal
way; ' on e ' p h e n o m e n o n can affect
p e o p l e in many ways. O r, from a
S p i n o z i st pers pect ive; what is food
for one can be poison for the ot h e r.
T h e con nect i o n s made are by d ef i n i ­
t i o n s i n g u l a r as Proust a n d t h e
C h i nese m a n a l ready s howed us.
I n s h o rt, we can say t h at d iffer­
e n t matters e nt e r i nto c o m p o s i ­
t i o n w i t h o n e a n ot h e r w h e n a
capacity for b e i n g affected
( pot estas) m e ets a n a b i l i ty to be
O F F O O D
m ost absol ute p o l i t i ca l a c t t a k i n g p l ace with i n t h e event a s
it g o e s d i rect l y agai nst w h a t S p i n oza cal l s the "act u a l
essence o f t h e t h i n g itself " , its perseverance o r t h e cona­
t u s as h e c a l l s it ( S p i noza 200 1 : 3P7). " T h i s transformat i o n
mean i n g out of the i nf i n ite b l u r of poss i b i l i-
ties. The event, l i ke lang uage, is a true politics,
as i t , i n entangling itself i n structures, pro-
d u c e s an i m m a nent structure o f itself out of
the i nf i n i te blur of poss i b i l ities. A lways
a l ready enta n g l i n g itself within every possi b l e
d i mension o f t h e real.
5 The fi rst def i n ition regard i n g the affects
shows the p r o m i nence of the position of desire
as S p i noza c l a i m s: "Desire i s the essence
affected (aptus) in w h i c h both
bits of matter a re e n coded by
t h e event. W h e n P r o u s t a n d t h e
made l e i n e meet, t h e y create o n e
a n o t h e r i n t h e w a y they a r e affected
by one another. W h e n our C h i nese
m a n a n d his tea m eet, a s i m i l ar
process takes p l ace. In the event, in
t h e confrontat i o n , everyt h i n g i s
d ef i n e d ; everyt h i n g u n d ergoes a
part i c u l a r actu a l i z at i o n in relation to
the ot h e r e l ements act i ve wit h i n t h e
event. O r rat h e r, any d iffe rence i s
created with i n t h e event o n t h e bas i s
o f h ow the d ifferent e l ements affect
one another. The e l e ments do not p l ay
t h e i r r o l e on t h e bas i s of an essence,
but rather o n t h e bas i s of h ow t h e i r
poten t i a l s a r e act u a l ized i n t h e event,
accord i n g to how the e l ements sense
one another. "Sense ... brings that
which exp resses it i nto existence; a n d
from that p o i n t o n , as p u re i n h e rence,
it b r i n g s itself to e x i st with i n t hat
w h i c h expresses it" ( D e leuze 1 990:
1 66), a n d t h e refore "sense a n d event
are the same t h i n g " ( Deleuze 1 990:
1 67). It is in the act of s e n s i n g , in t h e
confrontat i o n , i n t h e eve nt, t h at m at­
ter is act u a l i zed, i s art i c u l ated. It is
our o n l y way of exper i e n c i n g , of
touch i ng t h e world. A n d t h u s we
c a n n ot but c o n c l u d e : " T h e r e is n o
onto l o g y o f e s s e n c e , t h e re i s
o n l y o n t o l o g y o f s ense" ( De l eu z e
2002: 1 8 ) . We cannot escape t h i s
D e l e u zo-S p i n oz i st ontol ogy. We
n ecess ar i l y l i ve it.
itself of man in so far as it is conceived as
determi ned to any acti o n by any one of h i s
affect ions" ( S p i noza 2001 : 3Aff. 1 ) . T h u s , i n
contrast to many psychoanalytical theories,
desire, accord i ng to Spi noza, should be
understood i n a posit i ve way, " . . . as a pri mary
active force rather than as a reactive response
to an u n f i l led need" ( Patton 2000: 70).
 i nto somet h i ng w h i c h i s eaten i s the l ast, t h e transformat i o n w h i c h ends
all f l i g ht," C anett i claims (Canetti 1 962: 347). I t bruta l l y s p l its u p t h e world i nto
what consu mes a n d what i s consumed, construct i o n a n d destruct i o n , Brahma
a n d S h i va. 6 And yet t h e re i s n o d ef i n it e way i n which t h i s d i v i s io n takes p l ace: the
predator AND t h e prey m u st remain a l e rt for the roles can a l ways reverse. T here i s no
s u c h t h i n g as a clear bou ndary between w h at consumes and w hat i s consu med. Lewis
Carro l l p ro poses t h e u l t i m ate conseq u e n ces of t h e real in A l i ce's coronat i o n d i n n e r
(Carro l l 1 872) at w h i c h " yo u e i t h e r e a t w h at i s presented to you , or you a r e p resented
to what you eat" ( De l e u z e 1 990: 23) . T h e re i s n o such t h i ng as a clear bou ndary
between what i s c o n s i d e re d food a n d w hat i s not: it i s o n l y w i t h i n the i m m a n e nt
s i t u a t i o n t h at matter becomes food ; it i s o n l y w i t h i n t h e event t h at t h e
o n e b e c o m e s t h e consumer a n d t h e ot h e r t h e consumed. S u bstance d o e s
n ot constitute t h e form o f f o o d n o r d o e s it c o n st i tute t h e f o r m o f h e w h o
eats t h e food S p i noza leads u s to con c l u d e ( S p i noza 2001 : 2 P 1 0) .
A g a i n , w e s h o u l d e m p h a s i z e t hat " B o d i e s a r e n ot d e f i n e d by t h e i r g e n u s o r speci es,
by t h e i r organs and f u nct i o n s, but b y what they can do, b y the affects of w h i c h they
are capable. . . . " ( D eleuze a n d Parnet 1 977: 60) . A nd thus, we s h o u l d note that matter never
i s food ; it becomes food. A n y matter never is the eater; it becomes the eater whe never
the m atter has the capacity a n d the a b i l ity to be affected in that part i c u l a r way. I n
P ro ust's excerpt at t h e start of t h i s part, h e i s con s u m i n g a made l e i n e ; but c o u l d n ' t it
a l s o h ave been t h e ot her way aro u n d ? In another event, c o u l d n 't the made l e i ne con­
s u m e poor Marce l ? And c o u l d n ' t tea absorb o u r e l d e r l y C h i nese m a n ? D oe s n 't
W i l l i a m B u r r o u g h s g i ve us t h e i m p re s s i o n t h ro u g hout h i s books that it is n ot he who
consumes all d ifferent k i n d s of d r u gs, but that t h e d ru g s are act u a l l y con s u m i n g h i m ?
D r. H a n n i b a l 'the C a n n i b a l ' Lecter i s o n e o f o u r worst n i g ht mares because h e ma kes
us aware that we, too, can be consumed. . . and even by ' o u r e q u a l ' ! As we are st i l l
u n der t h e s p e l l of Li n naeus 7, t h e fat h e r of taxonomy who cat e g o r i ze d the world i nto
g e nera a n d spec i es ( De l eu z e and Parnet m a ke reference to this i n the above q uote),
we are s u r pr ised t hat t h is v ic ious p redator cou l d be 'among u s ' . H ow can we e x p l a i n
t h e w i s e a n d l e a r n ed H o m o S a p i e n s t h a t i n a s p l i t s e c o n d t u r n s i nto a c o n s u m e r
(tu r n i n g u s i nto t h e con s u m e d ) . . . a ' M a n h u nter' with a s t r o n g p reference for t h e
h u man face. N ot by t h i n k i ng i n t e r m s of g e n e ra a n d speci es, but by t h i n ki n g i n t e r m s
o f t h e event. T h e c a n n i ba l is not a s e p a rate s p e c i e s (as n e it h e r t h e were­
wolf n o r the v a m p i re are); we can a l l b e c o m e e n coded by the event t h at
m a ke s us b e c o m e can n i ba l s , werewo l ves, or vam p i res.
Fo r t h e d evout C h r i st ia n , t h i s may n ot seem very p ro b l e mat i c as h e f e e d s h i m s e lf on
t h e body of C h r i st a n d d r i n ks from his b l ood d u r i n g every E u c h a r i st i c c o m m u n i o n .
H ere, t h e cons u m i n g o f t h e h u m a n body i s n ot d e f i n e d as can n i bal i s m anymore. It i s
n ot s u rrounded by an ' E v i l ' s i nce it i s n ot destruct i o n t hat preva i l s, but const ruct i o n
as t h e b o d y a n d b l ood of C h r i st create I i f e . It i s t h e G a r d e n of E d e n , t h e Garden of
Eatened, the E d e n Garden, t h e E at i n g Garden as S u n Ra p h rases it (Ra 1 966) . A n
i nterest i n g N i etzschean t u r n that s hows n ot o n l y that i t i s d iff i c u l t t o see what se pa­
rates the c o n s u m e r from the producer, but a l s o s hows that p roduct i o n is a l ready
active in c o n s u m p t i o n w h i l e c o n s u m pt i o n is a l ready act ive in production (as Marx
a l ready s h owed (Marx 1 97 1 ) ) . The t r i n ity of Brahma, V i s h n u , and S h iva - the creator,
t h e ma i nta i n er, a n d t h e d estroyer - s h o u l d n ever be seen as s e parate powers, but
a l ways as act ive with i n one another as S h a n kara in his read i n g of t h e Vedanta argued
(Shan karacharya 1 965) . With i n const r uct i o n t h ere i s destruct i o n ; w it h i n destruct i o n
t h e re i s construct i o n .
" It's l i ke com m u n i on - f r o m t h e i r deat h , w e l i ve," a s u rv i vor o f t h e 1 972 p l a n e c r a s h i n
t h e A ndes c l a i m s i n t h e m o v i e 'Alive ' ( M a r s h a l l 1 993) w h e n starvat i o n forced t h e m t o

6 From a Spi nozian perspective, Gatens considers i t a most powerful destruction o f o n e body t h rough t h e construction o f the other, a despotic act of
the more powerful body at the expense of the weaker body (Gatens 1 996).
7 A ct u a l l y, the spel l goes back to A r i stotle, s i nce A r i stote l i a n biology defines organ isms i n terms of recognizable forms and functions i nstead of
focusing on structures that reveal themselves not o n l y within any organism, but a l so in how ( parts of) this organism relate to what is outside of it . . .
to a n y other matter w i t h w h i c h it i s confronted. 17
 experience t h e d eceased i n another
way: as food t h at produces ... that can
be c o n s u med. The body i s redef i ned
as m eat i n t h e way a cow becomes
beef, o r a pig becomes pork. N ot in a
g r a d u a l way as it n ever i s ; t h e event
overpowered them i m ma n e n t l y t u r n ­
i n g t h e m i nto t h e c o n s u m e rs , a n d
t h e i r l oved ones i nto the c o n s u m e d .
Redef i n i n g t h e m as the p r o d u c e d , a n d
t h e i r l oved ones as the p ro d u cers.
T h e event i s an u n stable equ i l i b r i u m
that i s a l ways a l ready about to b e
s e r i o u s l y d i s r u pted. I nform i n g yo u r
date t h a t t h e m eat h e o r s h e i s c o n ­
s u m i n g i s act u a l l y d o g meat i nstead
of pork can have s e r i o u s conse­
q u e nces to the cont i n u a t i o n of t h e
m e a l (also to t h e expe r i e n ce o f taste).
O n l y by s h a r i n g t h i s t h o u g ht c o u l d the
re l a t i o n betwe e n the c o n s u me r and
the consumed be redef i n e d dramati­
ca l l y. A relative deterritorialization
and reterritorialization take p l ace;
t h e event takes all m atter out of the
'co ntext' in w h i c h it was previou sly
defined (removing it from its 'territo­
ry'), a n d redef i n i n g it in a n ew context
( i n a new 'territory' ). T h e positions
of both t h e person a n d the meat are
b e i n g changed as they are recoded
by the new d ef i n it i o n s that h ave been
created in this event: now s h e m i ght
be horrified by t h e i dea that s h e
m i g ht be eat i n g her o w n p e t 8 • N ow
s h e m i ght be horrified by t h e s m i l i n g
wa iter. Before s h e cons i d e red h i m
f r i e n d l y, but n ow t h a t she k nows h e
serves h e r d o g m eat, h i s s m i l e makes
an e n t i r e l y d ifferent i m pre s s i o n on
her. . .

F I M M A N E N C E I N T E l� lvl S
Ear l i e r, we saw that events c o u l d not b e reduced to a con­
cept of absol ute l i near t i me, but rather that t h ey f u n ct i o n
a s a correlate o f any possible conception o f t i m e ( l i near,
c i rc u l ar, b i n ary, etc . ) . B u t a g reat d e a l m ore can be s a i d
a b o u t them. Events a l ways h a v e a m u l t i p l icity o f entry­
ways ; they are corre l ates t h e m s e l ves that can be
a p p roached from many d ifferent d i rect i o n s . S o if we focus
o n events in terms of ' space' - a concept w i l l turn out to
be of m ore relevance to t h i s study than ' t i m e ' - we see
(for i n stance) t h at a l i near notion of ' s pace', l i ke a l i near
n o t i o n of 'time', i s a l s o stron g l y contested.
T h i s turns o u t to b e the second way in w h i c h we wi l l read
the excerpt from Proust with w h i c h we started t h i s part.
The ext r i n s i c way. W i t h t h e co nfrontat i o n between
P ro u st and the m a d e l e i n e , we saw t h at t h i s
part i c u l a r event was not i m p ressed b y a n a b s o l ute
i nt r i n s i c a l i ty (a G a l i l e a n l i n ear notion of t i m e),
and a n a b s o l ute extre n s i ca l ity (a N ewton i a n l i n e a r
not i o n o f s p ace) i s j u st a s i n c a p a b l e o f capt u r i n g
i t . W hatever was expressed w h i l e Marce l experienced t h e
tastes and s m e l l s o f t h e m a d e l e i n e d i d n ot m ove h i m i n a
l i near way. It was i n a s p l it second that C o m bray, t h e s m a l l
c i t y w h e re yo u n g Ma rcel s p e n t m a n y h o l i d ays , became
l ocated so c l ose to h i m. N ot o n l y t i m e , but also s pace
-0
0 had folded C o m bray in h i s p resence w h i l e consu m i n g t h e
0
made l e i ne. The taste a n d t h e s m e l l o f t h e mad e l e i ne i m me­
Cl
c: d i ate l y con nected t h e m u lt i p l e m e m o r i e s as t h ey became
unfolded i n his m i n d to his c h i l d hood reco l lections of the
v i l l a g e of Com bray.
c:
0 I m m a n e n c e has n ever b e e n bot h e red by o u r p re­
d o m i nant i d e a s of s pace. S pace is f o l d e d in s u c h a
way that it trave l s m uch faster than the speed of l i g ht.
W h e n p e o p l e in Bangal ore see a h a m b u rger or p i z za on TV,
a l i n k i s q u i c k l y made: "A lot of my f r i e nd s want to eat a l l
O F S P A C E
those breakfasts that t h e A m e ricans are hav i n g .
Somet h i ng l i ke . . . I forgot t h e n a m e . . . pastas. A n d t h i s
green stuff. I d o n 't know, I 've heard of it. T h e y s e e t h ese
movies . . . . you see one g u y d e l i v e r i n g p i zza, t h e n some
p e o p l e order a p i zza" (02-21 -02). The p i z za they experience
i nstanta n e o u s l y expresses A m er i ca. There is no need to
trave l h a lfway arou n d t h e world in order to l i n k I nd i a with
A me r i ca. A m e r i ca i s ofte n l ocated i nf i n it e l y close to
Bangal o re : it " ... even knocks o n you r door" (02-1 4-02) one
j o u r n a l i st i nformed me, as many p i z z a shops i n B a n g a l ore
make free h o m e d e l i ve r i es today.
I n the act of affect i n g , i n t h e act of d ef i n i ng peop l e with i n
t h e events s o as t o re l ate t h e m t o ' n ew' i d eas of consu mp­
tion, A m e r i ca i s l ocated n o f u rt h e r away than any other
part of Karnataka (the prov i n ce of which Bangal ore i s
the capital). Maybe these oth e r areas a r e m ore ofte n
expressed by n e i g h bors: " We had n e i g h bors from a l l parts
of Karnataka. We had seen these foods, but we d i d n 't know
how to make t hat. By s e e i n g how they d i d t hat, and a s k i n g
f o r t h e rec i pes, m y mot h e r l e a r n e d that" (02-13-02). B u t
w hatever expresses A m e r i ca c o u l d a l s o be expressed
by n e i g hbors, c l assmates, a cartoon o n a schoo l ba g , or by
a paper cup from M c D o n a l d 's. S i m i l a r l y, ' Ma n g a l orean
food ' , or the food t h at they assoc iate with ot her parts
of Karnataka, can be expressed in coo k i n g prog rams or
any ot h e r t e l ev i s i o n program. In the experie nce of s pace,
A me r i ca i s n o m ore d i stant to the p e o p l e of Bangal ore
t h a n the c i t i e s of M a n g a l o re or M ysore.
S i nce t h e 1 950's, m o re and more people a re n o l o n g e r
s p e n d i n g t h e i r eve n i ng s a t t h e d i n n e r t a b l e, b u t rather i n
t h e ' l i v i n g ' r o o m wh ere they are seated opposite t h e televi­
s i o n i nstead of fam i l y m e m b e rs making the television their
most important communication partner. A s h ift t hat has
taken p l ace n ot o n l y i n the West, but over t i me, has cap-

1-

: 8 A f i ne act of Western post-co l o n i a l i m per i a l i s m took p l ace when F I FA , the world soccer association, organ i zed the world championsh i p soccer
D. match in Korea and Japan in 2002. F I FA requested the South Korean people to l i m i t their consum ption of dog meat. Dog meat is a very popular d i s h
i n S o u t h Korea and F I FA argued t h a t t h i s could b e rather offensive to the Western viewers t h a t prefer their dogs on a l e a s h (def i n i n g them as pets) .
..--..- It makes equal sense to support a M u s l i m c l a i m on the German food customs for the next world c h a m p i o n s h i p that is to be held in Germany where
18 they serve a great deal of pork. Or to support a H i n d u c l a i m that the eat i ng of beef i n Germany should be severely restricted.
 tu red m ost other parts of t h e w o r l d . T h u s today, A merica i s
extre m e l y cl ose to t h e p e o p l e o f Bangal o re ; c l oser t h a n t h e n e i g h bor­
ing v i l l a g es. And thus M c l u h a n c o n c l u d e s : "Today, afte r more than a cen­
t u ry of e l ect r i c tec h n o l ogy, we h ave ext e n d ed our central nervous system
in a g l obal e m brace, a bo l i s h i n g both s pace a n d t i m e as far as our p l anet
i s concerned" ( M cluhan 2001 : 3). We can o n l y g u e s s the e n o r m o u s
i m p act o f s u c h g l oba l l y b roadcasted t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s as 'Friends ',
'Frasier', 'Seinfeld ', t h e 'World Championships of Soccer ', or t h e
'Olympic Games ' o n a ny k i n d o f h u m a n b e h av i o r t h ro u g h o ut t h e
wo r l d, i n c l u d i n g o n t h e i r i deas o n f o o d . Two teenagers i n H a n g z h o u
made v e r y clear w h o t h e i r conversat i o n partners w e r e : " W e a r e very
c u r i o u s about fore i g n fast food ... I am very i nterested in Western c u l t u re,
espec i a l l y m u s i c . . . and foot b a l l . I am a g reat fan of M ichael Owen [a
foot ba l l p l ayer from Liverpool, R . D.]. I wrote a l etter to h i s c l u b, a request
for some photos" (05-12-01 b ) .
All of these cases teach u s t hat it i s in the relation that t i m e a n d space are
created. O n ly wit h i n t h e event n o t i o n s of space a n d time come i nto p l ay
a n d d ef i ne t h e world i n a part i c u l a r way. T i m e as defined by t h e m i n ute and
�
� s pace as defined by the meter are l i m ited a r b itrary u n its of m e a s u re t hat
,....c h ave noth i n g to do with t h e way we experience o u r w o r l d .9 Dante's q uote
..µ f o u n d e a r l i e r in t h i s part n i c e l y describes what we ca l l i m m an ence as
Cl) "see i ng the p o i nt at w h i c h a l l t i mes are present" ( Dante 1 9 1 3: P 1 7- 1 7 , 1 8} .
....
0 We cou l d say t h e same about s pace s i nce i m m a n e nce a l s o i nvolves the
?""-'i p o i nt at which all s paces are i m m a n e nt. This concept of i m manence is
�
co t h u s a u s ef u l o n e i n this perspective since it refers to a n exper i e n ced
� ' prox i m ity' in terms of t i m e a n d in terms of s pace.
� I t i s in i m m a n e n ce that our w o r l d is c reated and d e f i n e d . Two teenagers
� i n Hangzhou exp l a i ne d t h at they were i nterested i n food com i n g from the
4-. West a n d n ot i n food from I nd i a because they c o n s i d e re d I nd ia too "far
0 away" (05-1 2-01 b}. I n the way they exp e r i e n ce the wo r l d , in the way they
Cl) are confronted with w h at happens around t h e m , the Western world p l ays
?""-'i
a much m o re prom i n ent role than does I nd i a . A m e r i c a and E u rope are
�
0 not 1 0 ,000 k i l o m eters away: t h ey a re r i g ht n ext door, t h ey are
Cl) o n l y as far as the t e l ev i s i o n scree n . A g a i n , t h e ' West' can b e cl oser
� to t h e m t h a n t h e n e ig h b o r i n g v i l lage.
Cl) This argument a g rees with Sassen's position (Sassen 1 998) t hat we s h o u l d
,....c n ot m a k e u s e o f the o p p o s i t i o n " g l obal-loca l " or at l east t h at we s h o u l d
..µ
n o t p u t it a s a b i nary d i s t i n ct i o n . T h e g l o b a l i s n e c e s sa r i l y l o c a l a n d
t h e l o c a l i s c a pa b l e o f becom i n g g l o ba l . A ny event i s capa b l e of
t rave l i ng around t h e world wit h i n a s p l i t second as l o n g as it f i n d s the
p roper expres s i o n . V i e w i n g a p i zza o n t e lev i s i o n m i g ht estab l i s h an i m me­
d i ate connect i o n to A m e ri ca. J u st as s e e i n g a n e i g h bo r prepare a part icu­
l a r dish m ig ht i m m e d i at e ly con n ect o n e to other parts of Karnataka. As t h e
event u n f o l d s , t h e d i m e n s i o n s i n w h i c h t h e event t a k e s p l ace a l s o u nf o l d . 10

9 Even the not i on of 'real t i me' used tn t h i s age of i nformatics becomes a unit that for some
reason must be equal the speed of our l i ves.
10 With respect to Bangal ore, it i s parti c u l a r l y d ifficult to m a i ntain the notion of l i near
space because of a perpetual presence of a m u l t i p l icity of (computer) f i rms nowadays that
cont i n u a l l y connect Bangalore to many other parts of the world. After moving their ent i re
hel pdesk to I n d i a, British Ai rways taught the Indians who man the hel pdesk to speak with a
British accent. Some A merican f i rms even have ent i re departments l ocated in Bangalore
that work the same hours as the their A merican col leagues who are constant l y connected to
them through web cams and v i deo mon itors (tele-presence). There is no difference between
" here" and "there" in terms of content (iri which case presence equ a l s tele-presence); it i s
o n l y expressed i n a different way. Nevertheless, an angry b o s s on the video m o n i t o r is just
as irate as an angry boss at the other end of the room. 19
 G T H E E lvl l C , T H E E T I C,
O F C U L T U l� E
W i t h S a s s e n ' s reject i o n of s u c h contrad i ct i o n s a s
" g l o b a l - l oca l " , we q u est i o n t w o c o n c e pt s c e n t r a l
to r e l at i v i st a nt h ro p o l ogy: 'emic ' a n d 'etic'. Two con­
cepts t h at d e f i n e d c u l t u ral relat i v i s m , but t hat are d iff i c u lt
to a p p l y to a study s u c h as t h is. The concepts of e m i c and
etic were i ntroduced i n anthropology a l ready i n t h e 1 950's
by P i ke (P ike 1 971 ) who borrowed h i s term i no l o g y from l i n ­
g u i st ics. I n try i n g t o concept u a l i z e a d ifference between
the i nternal c u l t u ra l struct u re in the m i nds of its bearers
(emic) vers u s a structure t h at i s i m posed o n them from the
o u t s i d e (etic), P i ke i nt e n d ed to copy the l i ng u istic
a pproach to t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of speech s o u n d s where the
p h o n -e m i c refers t o the s m a l l est e l e ment of speech
s o u n d s effect ively d i s t i n g u i s h ed by l a n g u a g e users a n d
the p h o n-et i c covers its external d e s c r i p t i o n by m a k i n g
use o f l i ng u istic q u antities, for exa m p l e . H e c l a i m s these
concepts refe r to d ifferent v i ewpoints: as t h ey " . . . ofte n
present t h e same d a t a from t w o p o i nts of v i ew" (P ike 1 97 1 :
41 ) they express a l o o k i n g a t a cu lture from t h e i ns i d e a n d
from t h e o u t s i d e.
The two concepts were c l e a r l y d e s i g n e d to m atch t h e
e t h n o g raph i cal p ract i ces with w h i c h every c u l t u r a l
researc h e r i s confronted. It p ro poses a method o l ogy st i l l
d o m i nant w it h i n many anthropo l o g i ca l studies: t h e f i e l d ­
worker s h o u l d t r y to g e t 'inside a cultural unity' a n d d evote
h i mself to t a k i n g d own t h i s ' c u lture' from the i ns i d e. The
goal of the eth n o g rapher i s a ' t h i c k description' as the c e l ­
e brated cu ltural re l at i v i st C l ifford G e e r t z (Geert z 1 973,
2000) p h rased it. An e m p i r ical study from an i n s i d e as it
com poses a rad ical d ifference from its outside, an a l m ost
b i n a ry oppos i t i o n between what is u l t i mately refe r red to
as 'a c u lt u re ' and whatever l i es o uts i d e it.
U l t i mate l y, t h e conc epts of emic a n d e tic as u s e d
w i t h i n c u l t u ra l re l at i v i s m d e p i ct o u r wo r l d as a
patchwork quilt of cultures. A m u lt i t u d e of u n it i es that
a re separated from o n e another and i n c l ud e part i c u l a r
ch aracterist i cs t hat d e f i n e t h e m . U n it i es t h a t m i g ht relate
to one another, but th at i nevita b l y carry an 'essence' with
"
0 t h e m . It i s a world in w h i c h Western c u l t u re i s st rictly sep­
0
arated f rom the O r i e nt, in w h i c h the USA i s pos i t i o n ed
Cl
c: a g a i n st C h i na. It p i ct u res t h e world as o n e b i g arc h i p e l a­
go. Van B i n s bergen notices t hat t h i s was n ot how c u lt u ra l
re l at i v i s m start e d : " O n l y a f e w decades ago c u l t u ra l re l a­
c:
0 t i v i s m was s i m p l y an expre s s i o n of t h e a n t i - h e g e m o n i c ,
-
u a n t i - E u rocentric c r i t i q u e o f i m peri a l i s m a n d c o l o n i a l i s m .
::l
" B ut n o w it r i s ks to become a n i ghtm are: a l i cense to
0
- reduce contem porary society to an i m mova b l e sta le-mate
c:
of pos i t i o n s betwee n w h i c h , on th eoreti cal g ro u n ds ,
n o open com m u n icat i o n , i d e n t if i cat i o n , c o m m u n ity a n d
reconc i l i a t i o n i s poss i b l e any l o n g e r " ( B i nsbergen 1 999: 6).
W h at a n a u t i s t i c wo r l d t h i s wou l d be!
O b v i o u s l y, in expe r i e n c i n g A m e rica in t h e h o u ses of
-
----- Bangalore, in s e e i n g that in H a n g z h o u the b u y i n g of a cake
20 offers you a c h o i ce between a so-ca l led C h i nese cake a n d
A N D T li E C O N C EPT
a Western c a k e , i n not i c i n g t h e w a y fast-food restau rants
h ave redef i ned the city center of B a n g a lo re, we d o n ot
b e l i eve i n the poss i b i l ity of d i s m e m b e r i n g an i n s id e from
a n o uts i d e at a l l. We d o n ot bel i eve i n t h e poss i b i l ity of
d ef i n i ng a str ict i n s i d e agai nst its o ut s i d e. We do n ot reject
the concepts of i n s i d e and o uts i d e a ltoget her, but rat h e r
the way the emic and etic a re o pposed to one another. We
rej ect t h i n k i ng i n terms of o p p o s i t i o n s (exte rnal versus
i nt e r n a l ; a b_sol ute versus relative ; part i a l vers u s tot a l ) , as
P i ke p ro poses (P ike 1 971 : 38) , most of a l l because of the
pet rified s it u at i o n t hat it produces. We b e l i eve in an i n s id e
that i m manently produced by an outsi de, a n d i n an o uts ide
t h at i s i m m a n e n t l y prod uced by an i n s ide. This i s why we
bel i eve in the relation ; t h i s i s why our i nterest goes out to
what happens betwe e n . A n d this i s a l s o why we q u estion
t h e concept t h at i s actua l l y t h e bas i s of t h e emic a n d etic
o p pos i t i o n : t h e concept of ' c u lture' itself as it is st i l l too
often used ( n ot a b l y o u t s i d e the f i e l d of anthro p o logy) to
d ef i n e an emic, an i n s ide. N ot i n its relation to its outside,
but i n a very essent i a l i st, theoret ical way as a p h e n o m e­
n o n that overcodes a g r o u p of p e o p l e with one s o l i d i d e n t i ­
t y , o n e centri petal eth nonym that capt u res t h e m a l l.
T h e concept of c u lture is d iff i c u l t to avo i d i n an u n d e rtak­
i n g s u c h as t h i s ( s i nce we are f i n d i n g o u r s e l ves i n a con­
t i n uo u s voyage around the wor l d ) , but it i s' fn g reat con­
trast to w h at we have d o n e s o far a n d to what we are st i l l
about t o do. We feel n ot at ease w h e n w e hear Edward
Ty l or, one of the f o u n d i n g fat h e rs of anth ropol ogy, d e c l a i m
h i s m o n u m ental defi n i t i o n o f c u l t u re wit h i n so m a n y con­
tem porary texts that d e a l with com parab l e issues such
as ours: " C u lt u re or C i v i l isat i o n , taken i n its w i d e eth no­
g ra p h i c sense, i s t h at complex whole which includes
knowledge, b e l i ef, art, m o r a l s , l aw, custom, a n d any other
capab i l it i es a n d habits acq u i re d by m a n as a m e m be r of
society ( ital ics R . D. ) " (Tylor 1 958: 1). For w h e n h e states
t h at c u lt u re is a w h o l e that includes capab i l it i e s and h a b its
by man as a m e m be r of soci ety, he t h u s c l a i m s that " . . .
relations d e pend on t h e nature o f t h i ngs, i n a s e n s e t h at,
as p h e n o m e n a, t h i n g s p res u p pose a synthesis whose
s o u rce i s t h e same as t h e s o u rce of re l a t i o n s " ( D e l e u z e
1 99 1 : 1 0 1 ) . H e claims that knowled g e, bel i ef, art, etc. are
essential e l e m e nts of t h i s so-ca l led c u l t u re. Ty l o r
ac c l a i m s t h at q u a l i t i e s a r e n ot a s c r i bed to m atters
or p h e n o m e n a (such as c u l t u re) in t h e way they
re l ate to ot h e r matters or p h e n o m e n a ; t h e y are
r a t h e r ascribed in p h e n o m e na, absorbed within
t h e m , i r respect ive of t h e re l a t i o n s t h ese
phenomena end up i n .
I t m i ght seem a s ma l l d i scre pan cy, but making the relations
depend on the nature of things rather them positioning
them outside things is, accord i n g to D e l e u ze, the d iffer­
ence betwee n so-ca l l e d critical t h i n k i n g (as it was f o r m u ­
l ated by K a n t a n d H e g e l ) a n d w h a t h e refers to as
' e m p i r i c a l t h i n k i n g ' (as t h i n kers l i ke H u m e a n d S p i noza
pract iced it). It i s the d ifference
betwe e n stat i n g t h at 'the people from
C h i n a are d o c i l e ' a n d 'a person from
C h i na m i g h t become d o c i l e when con­
fronted with a exu berant m a n from
Texas'. In a n ot h e r situat i o n , in an­
other event, the e m p i r i c i st m ig ht
come to very d ifferent conc l u s i o n s.
It is t h e d ifference between stat i n g
t h a t 'a made l e i n e c a n b e a p p reciated
because of its taste, its shape, its
sweet a l m o n d perf u me ' a n d b e i n g
o p e n to t h e i dea t h a t P roust m i g h t
appreciate it because it m akes h i m
remember a s i t u a t i o n f r o m h is c h i l d ­
hood.
It s h o u l d come as no s u r p r i s e
t h at w e c o n s i d e r o u rs e l ves to b e
re l ated to w h at D e l e u ze ca l l s
e m p i r i ca l t h i n k i n g rat h e r t h a n
t h e c u lt u r a l r e l at i v i st s p o s i t i o n .
A t h i n k i n g t h at d o e s n o t p o s i ­
t i o n a n i n s i d e a g a i n st a n out­
s i d e, but t h at starts with t h e
event a n d t h e re l a t i o n s as t h ey
are created w it h i n the eve nt;
these are the focus of o u r attent i o n
a n d n ot the matter or t h e p h enome­
n o n to which this relation i s attach e d .
We f o l l �w H j e l m s l ev and D e l e uze i n
t h e i r f o c u s o n t h e betwee n . O n what
happens betwee n the m atters that
p o p u l ate present-day l ife. It i s a radi­
ca l l y d ifferent a pproach t hat, i n terms
their anthropo l o g i ca l a n d et h nograph­
i c a l perspect i ve, f u l ly a g rees w it h Van
B i nsberge n 's c l a i m that h i s t h e s i s
' Cultures d o n o t Exis t ' covers an
e m p i rical c l a i m that d i sagrees with
t h e concept of cu lture as somet h i n g
t h a t i s s i m p l y 'there', a s somet h i ng
t hat by d ef i n it i o n i nc l udes part i c u l a r
p ractices. For, a s h e c l a i m s, these
Ty l o r i a n d ef i n it i o n s of c u l t u re are
" l a rg e l y based o n t h e g e neral izat i o n
o f e m p i r ical knowledge" ( B i n s bergen
1 999: 6). We fol low the e m p i ri c i st way
of t h i n k i n g in t hat re l a t i o n s are exter­
nal to matter; they are forces t hat
happen between matter, t hat come to
l i ve with i n the eve nt. We, too, t u r ned
to l i n g u istics in i ntrod u c i n g the s e m i ­
o t i c s o f H j e l m s lev w h o t a u g ht u s t h at
content a n d expre s s i o n do n ot exist
before h a n d , but are c reated with i n the
relat i on.
I n fact, w e n ot o n l y d i sagree with P i ke
a n d Geertz because o u r experiences
q uest i o n their rat h e r stat i c arg u ­
m ents; i n terms o f l i n g u istics, too, we
are in d o u bt as to whether t h e refer­
ences made make sense. We t r i e d to
expl a i n P i ke's ideas o n emic and et i c
as h e re l ated t h e m t o the p h o n e m i c
a n d t h e p h o n et ic. O f course, we agree
t h at a d ifference can be found
between a speech act a n d the
desc r i p t i o n of this speech act. B ut
t hat does n ot mean t h at t h e o n e can
be separated from the oth e r n o r that
they oppose one another i n a b i nary
way. It does not mean that there is a
phonemic without a phonetic. They
art i c u l ate o n e a n ot h e r; they produce
o n e another in t h e i r relation.
G eertz a l s o claims t hat h e d raws h i s
t h ou g hts from l i n g u i st i cs. H i s n o t i o n
o f t h i c k d e s c r i p t i o n arg u es t hat t h e
d ifferent c u l t u res f u nct i o n a s texts or
at least show some s i m i l a rity with
s e m i ot i c systems. B ut wh ereas i n h i s
v i ew it i s most c o m m o n to ascri be
q ua l i t i e s to 'a cu l t u re ' (as if it
i nc l udes them), it i s m ost u n c o m m o n
i n l i n g u istics to ascribe a n y q u a l ity to
the text itse lf, to t a l k of a text as a
coherent u n i t with an i n s i d e. It i s
most u nc o m m o n not to regard a text
as a corre late of a m u lt i p l i c ity of
ot her texts. Fer d i n a n d de Saussure, a
central f i g u re i n s e m i ot i cs a n d of
g reat i nf l uence to G ee rtz, strong l y
e m p h a s i zed t hat a text never sta n d s
o n its own. A n d t h u s can n e v e r b e
stud i ed o n its o w n . H e c l a i m e d that a
l i ng u istic entity n ever has a c l e a r l y
d ef i n ed i n s i d e ; it d o e s n ot i n c l u d e
anyt h i n g a n d t h u s c a n n ever be seen
as a coherent u n it. It i s in its re l a t i o n
t o other texts t h at a text i s created.
Even the use of a s i n g l e word s u p­
poses t h e i m ma n e nt recreat i o n of t h e
_ word i n every context it appears. D�
S a u s s u re becomes a t r u e H e racl itean
in h is stat e m e nt : " Every time I am
u s i n g t h e word Messieurs, I am
a l ready ren e w i n g t h e m at e r i a l ; it i s a
new p h o n o l o g i ca l as we l l as a new
psyc h o l o g i ca l act" (Saussure 1 975: 1 52}.
H j e l m s l ev, d rew the t h o u g hts of De
Saussure i nto a rad ical mat h e matics,
and i ntroduced t h e concept of 'glosse­
matics', w h i c h argues t hat a l l l i n g u i s -
t i c e l e m e nts are o n l y to be defined as
an outcome of t h e i r m u t u a l
re l a t i o n s . H e i n s i sted t h at the
l i n g u i st i c o bj ect wi l l be constitut-
ed by t h e method t h r o u g h w h i c h a r i g ­
o r o u s l y i m manent a n a l y s i s i s carried
o ut: a p roced u re of d i chotomous par­
t i t i o n s as they construct t h e m s e l ves
in the use of l a n g uage. The system of
l a n g u ag e f u n ct i o n s between : a story
is a l ways betwee n n - 1 oth e r stories,
a sentence i s a l ways betwee n n - 1
other s e ntences, a word i s a l ways
betwee n n - 1 oth e r words, a l etter
a lways between n - 1 ot her l etters ... it
i s defined by what s u r ro u n d s it, and
at t h e same time it defines w h at s u r-
rounds it.
A l i ng u istic system i s t h e refore a
between a n d NOT an in-between. I t
s h o u l d n ot be pos i t i o n ed or l ocated
i n - betwee n two m atters; it happens
betwee n them ... It comes i nto being
w h e n a m u l t i p l i c ity of matters merges
i nto compos i t i o n with one another.
It codes, recodes, or overcodes t h e
matters f r o m t h e between organ i z i n g
t h e m accord i ng to i t s l o g ic, trave r s i n g
them, m a k i n g t h e m part o f i t s strate­
gy of product i o n .
D e l e uze's e m p i r i c i s m a n d
H j e l m s l ev ' s G l o s s e m a t i c s g i ve
u s a m u c h more sym pathet i c
way to s t u d y w h at h a p p e n s
betwee n f o o d a n d l ife t h a n t h e
system o f c u l t u ra l re l at i v i s m or
even t h e c o n ce pt of c u l t u re
a l l ows us to. I t i s not a n e s s e n ­
t i a l i st p o s i t i o n as i t d o e s n o t
r e d u c e i n d i v i d u a l l ife to t h e
'rules o f culture '. I t does not
a s s i g n them a c u l t u r a l g ro u p a n d
d e m a n d s t h e m to act accord i n g
to t h e s e p re m i s es. I t was Dav i d
H u m e who a l ready m a d e a strong
argu m e nt agai n st what scholars l i ke
Ty l o r and Geertz refer to as ' c u lture '
when h e c o n c l u d e d t h at " . . . every
part i c u l a r man has a pec u l i a r pos i t i o n
with regard to ot h e r s ; a n d ' t i s i m pos­
s i b l e we c o u 'd ever converse together
o n any reas o n a b l e terms, were each
of u s to consider cha racters a n d
p e r s o n s , o n l y as they a p p e a r from h is
part i c u l a r p o i nt of v i ew" ( H u m e 1 896:
581 ) . A n d n ot j u st the social body, a l so
t h e h u man body cons i sts of many
i nd i v i d ua l s , as S p i noza teaches us 21
 ( S p i noza 2001 : 2P 1 3 Post.3). I nd i v i d u a l s
t hat a r e m a d e u p o f ot her i nd i v i d ua l s
a g a i n , ad i nf i n it u m . T h e re a r e o n l y
corre l ates.
What H j e l m s l ev's l i n g u ist ics a l l ows
u s to do i s to focus on t h e i m manent
struct u res as they are orga n i z i ng t h e
s paces between. A n d if we want to
t h i n k t h e c u l t u ra l , we s h o u l d t h u s
f o c u s on the betwe e n . O n w h at hap­
pens betwee n two matters, betwee n
t w o people, between f o o d and us.
D e l e u ze's e m p i r i c i s m a n d H j e l m s l ev 's
l i n g u istics a l l ow us to see o u r worlds
not as a c o m partmenta l ized o r g a n i za­
t i o n in e i t h e r s pace or t i me. I t has
d o n e away with t i me as a n a priori
category as we h ave seen at the
beg i n n i ng of this part. It has d o n e
away with s p a c e as an a p r i o r i cate­
gory as we h ave seen in the p rev i o u s
paragraph. It has d o n e away w i t h
s u bstance o r causality o r any a p r i o r i
category ( l i ke ' c u l t u re') K a n t ( Kant
1 794) or the n eo-Kantians ( l i ke P i ke,
Geertz) come up w i t h . It a l l ow s to
see i n w h at way structu res force
t h e m s e l ves onto matt e r t h u s
organ i z i n g t h e m f ro m t h e ou t­
s i de, defi n i n g t h e m i n t h e i r re l a­
t i o n to other matter. It does not
al low u s to d raw borders; it a l l ows us
to d raw lines of connection .

H A N 0 I� E X I A N E I� V 0 S A
To show i n what way we i nt e n d to focus on what happens W h enever people are capt ured by this sexual reg i me,
betwee n matters, I propose to shed some l ig ht o n what i s whe never they are overcoded by the v i rt u es of t h ese beau­
known as anorexia nervosa . . . a d i sease that has a patho­ ty i d ea l s, these i d eas of fem i n i n ity, they e nter a becoming­
l o g i ca l bac k g r o u n d , but that i s also stro n g l y conn ected to anorexic. They become a part of t h e anorexia machine as
the c u ltural (and with t hat, the psyc h o l og ical, the socio­ they accept its l o g i c and s pread it. The sexual reg i m e has
l o g i ca l . . . ) a n d t h e refore sometimes refe r red to as 'the capt u red them, s u rrounded them, a n d p l aced itself
cultural disease'. A study of the c u lt u ra l a l l ows us to see between t h e a n o rexic a n d whatever s u rrou nds h e r. I t t u r n s
anorexia n ervosa as a reg i m e that m oves betwee n t h e d i s­ f o o d i nto p o i s o n whenever t h e anorex i c b o d y i s confronted
eased and the ( n o n -)food . Or act u a l l y, it a l l ows u s to see with it. I t turns the o uts i d e world i nt o m e re faces as t h e
how t h i s reg i m e creates both of t h e m . How it overcodes anorexic a i m s at a becoming invisible as P robyn s h ows
them and m a kes them resonate with one another. (Probyn 2000) .
B r u m berg ( B r u m berg 1 997) sees anorexia n e rvosa com i n g To t h e o uts i d e world, t h e a n o rex i c body expresses an
i nto existence d u r i ng t h e V i cto rian Era. N ot t o say that t h i s extreme m a n ifestat i o n of t h e Victo r i a n beauty ideals. It
p h e n o m e n o n can n ot be f o u n d before o r outside i ts rei g n , renders a semiotic of crav i n g , of
b u t t h e Victorian E r a (with i t s e p i center i n 1 9t h century starvat i o n , of fem i n i n ity. It is a
north wester n E u rope) i n part i c u l a r gave r i se to a c l i mate m ixed s e m i o t i c of affect i o n and
in w h i c h t h i s d i sease c o u l d acce l e rate. It e n a b l ed the c re­ d i sgust as a food j o u r n a l ist
a t i o n of t h e beauty ideal of the pale, fragile, and 'sickly '
�
Q) •
remarks (wh i l e p o i n t i n g to a g i r l
woman a s opposed t o the strong and healthy man. A n d it
Q) � o uts i d e ) : " . . . l o o k h o w s k i n n y that
c reated a n at mosp here in which t h i s opposition betwee n one is. Too s k i n ny. It looks good,
t h e m a l e a n d t h e f e m a l e w a s rad ical ized p r i m a r i l y i n t h e i r � 0 but it's too s k i n ny" ( 1 1 -23-0 1 ) .
-+--! · �
re l a t i o n s w i t h food a s t h e d ef i n it i o n o f fem i n i n e c o n s u m p ­
Q) -+--! Tod ay, t h e sexual reg i me that
t i o n w a s m o r e a n d m o re cons i d ered a d e n i a l o f masc u l i n e
r-0 p... produces this cu l t u r a l d i sease i s
c o n s u m p t i o n . ' The woman should n o t be eating red meat'.
' The woman should not be interested in consuming large
r:n s m ost act i ve i n a c ity s u c h a s
B oston where we see t h a t m a n y
portions '. A n d it was h e r body that h a d to express these ro � � g i r l s , and more and m o re boys,
v i rt u e s ; it had to express h e r r i g hteousness. A n o re x i a
r:n � r:n are g reat l y affected by the d efi n i -
"O
n e rvosa i s a m o d e r n d i s ease t h at i s a s p i n - off of ·�
H � t i on s o f beauty i deals, sexual ity,
-+--! 0
0
0
a ' s e x u a l reg i m e ' t h at c a m e i nto be i n g d u r i n g t h e
ro ro u
f em i n i n ity/mascu l i n ity. As o n e

r:n
Cl
c V i c t o r i a n E r a a n d t h a t h a s expanded i t s r u l e s i n c e yo u n g m a n n ot i ces, " I see t h a t a
t h e n e m p has i z i n g beauty i d e a l s i n w h i c h t h i n n e s s 0 � � lot with young women that they
-+--! 0
has become a n i d e a l i z e d f e m a l e obsess i o n . ;> r:n r:n
want to have t h i s sexy i mage. We
c
A n orexia n ervosa i s n ot a l o g i c t h at r u l e s from above. It H have to have t h i s 30- i n c h waist
u Q)
0
-
u i s a m i cropo l it i cs t hat runs betwee n the p ract i ces of con­ Q) ·�
as a g u y. . . 3 percent body fat.
::l
"O s u m pt i o n . It i s a finely meshed st ructure t hat comes i nto � -+--! u A n d as a g i r l , you have to be
0
·� ·�
- b e i n g in a m u lt i t u d e of events d u r i n g our l i ves: in p l a y i n g
ro ,.......c -+--! 36-24-36" ( 1 1 -08-01 ) .
0 u
c
with a Barb i e d o l l , i n t h e experie nce of sexual ity, i n t h e ·� T h e reg i m e i s act i ve i n t h i s city
o r d e r i n w h i c h magaz i nes a r e d i s p l ayed a t the n ews­ >< p... ro as it traverses it, but it i s by no
stands . . . . Each t i m e the e l e m e nts are made part of a l itt l e Q) 0 H means l i m ited to this city o r an
mac h i ne, a tact ics of control t hat cont i n ues to reproduce H H p... e l e m e nt of it. I t i s n ot even l i m it-
the Victo r i a n beauty ideals, its sexual ity, its o p pos i t i o n 0 u Q) ed to the West (and never has
�
� ·
� bee n ) . The sexual regime that pro-
s
--.,,,-,_ _· between fe m i n i n ity a n d masc u l i n ity i n s u c h a way t hat it
22 i s capable of creat i ng the anorexic. < -+--! duces anorexia nervosa is not tied
to a place or to a specific time. d u c i n g a l o g i c betwee n matters, of t i mes, the bea uty i d e a l s w e
Somet i mes it is d ef i n it e l y m ore pow­ creat i n g the anorexic in relat i o n to consi dered V i cto r i a n h ave g rown
e rf u l than at other t i mes, but it can its non-food at anyt i m e , in a n y p l ace. dramat i c a l l y in the major c i t i es of
pop u p anyw h e re. It i s capable of pro- Espec i a l l y in t h ese post-co l o n i a l the n o n -West.

C 0 IJ I N c; lvl A T T E I�
W h e n we say a reg i me operates betwee n the e l e me nts,
that it fu nctions in the way t h e e l ements re l ate to one
another, we d o n ot mean t h at they o pe rate irrespective of
the matter t h ey code. O n t h e cont rary. W h e n ever a sexual
reg i m e codes two e l e m e nts as the anore x i c and t h e non­
food, t h e matter t hat p recedes these e l e m ents s h o u l d be
open to this regi me. T h e re are n o l a n g u i d v i c t i m s of a
reg i me. To be taken u p i n a reg i m e req u i res an activity: the
anorexic s h o u l d have a d e s i re to fend off n o n -food before
h e r d es i res make her become anorex i c ; the non -food
s h o u l d have the a b i l ity to be regarded as i n e d i b l e by t h e
anorexic ( ' I t conta i n s to m u c h fat' , ' I w i l l g a i n w e i g ht
whe n ever I d i g est t h i s ' ) before it becomes n o n -food.
M atter n e e d s to be w i l l i n g to s u bj ect i t s e l f to t h e
l o g i c o f a reg i m e , a n d it s h o u l d f i t i t . O r, to u s e
S p i noza's t e r m s a g a i n ; m atter o p e rates f r o m a
part i c u l a r capacity for be i n g affected ( potestas)
so that a reg i m e i s cap a b l e of re l a t i n g it to a n
a b i l ity to b e affected ( a pt u s).
A reg i me happens between matter in the way the e l e m e nts
f u nct i o n toget her, in the way the matter i s w i l l i n g a n d a b l e
to let i t s e l f be c o d e d by its l o g i c . A n d t h i s does not hap­
pen o n l y i n terms of the sexual reg i m e as it produces
anorexia o r i n terms of t h e can n i ba l i st reg i m e as it p ro­
duces a fear of H an n i ba l Lecter (as was d i scussed earl i e r).
It happens all around us. Even in the everyday act of d r i n k­
i n g tea, a reg i m e p l aces itself betwee n the tea and the
tea-d r i n ke r making t h e m f u n c t i o n together, p ro d u c i n g
t h e m f r o m t h e i r o w n desi res. T ' a n g poet Lu T ' u n g p h rases
it in t h e ex perience of the tea d r i n ker:
"The first c u p m oistens m y l i p s a n d throat,
the second cup breaks my loneline s s , the third cup
searches my barren entrails but to find therein s o me
five th ousand volumes of o d d ideographs. The fourth
cup raises a s l i ght perspiration, - all the wrong of life
p a s ses away through my p o re s . At the fifth cup I am
purified; the sixth cup c alls me to the realms of the
immortal s . The seventh cup, - ah, but I c ould take no
more! I only take the breath of c o o l wind that rises my
s leeves. Where is P'eng-lai-shan n ? Let me ride on this
sweet breeze and waft away thither" ( O k a k u r a 1 96 4 : 1 4) .
Every element enters into composition with the other as the
tea, the person, and everything else that is incorporated into
the event begins moving in the same way, tra veling at the
same speed. It comes as no s u r p r i s e that he wou l d n ot
have had t h e same exper i e n ce w h e n he wou ld d r i n k seven
cups of stones, or seven c u ps of m eat, o r even seven c u ps
of water. . . It is between t h e tea a n d t h e tea d r i n ke r that
this event comes i nto b e i n g , that both t h e tea a n d t h e tea
d r i n ker are being prod uced.
Lu Wu , i n i t i ator of t h e f i rst school of tea (around 750 B.C.)
by writing t h e c e l e brated ' Ch 'a Ching' (the Holy S c r i pt u re
or C l ass i c of Tea) i n w h i c h h e form u l ated the Code of Tea
(Lu 1 974), k n ew very we l l that t h e experience of d r i n k i ng
good tea d e pended on what happened between t h e m atter
that came together. He d i d n ot d e f i n e the e l em e nts that
were capab l e of prod u c i n g a wonderf u l sensat i o n of tea
d r i n k i ng by t h e i r form or by t h e i r pres u med essence; he
defined matter as capacities for affecting and being
affected. C rystal c l ear water from t h e s o u rce s h o u l d not
be used because of what it c o n s i sts, but because of its
capa b i l ity to produce t h e h i g h est q u a l ity tea when con-

11
P'eng lai-shan are the mythical islan ds i n the Eastern sea commonly associated with i m m ortal ity. These i s l ands play an i m portant part i n C h i nese
and Japanese l i terary folklore especi a l l y i n the Taoist alchemical tradition where the e l i x i r of l ife was sought. Accord i n g to C h inese belief, a m u s h ­
r o o m conferring i m morta l ity w a s to be f o u n d there w h i l e the J a panese bel ieved t h a t t h e tree o f l ife grew on t h e central i s l a n d . D u r i n g the C h i nese
M i dd l e Ages, many i n d iv i du a l s and expeditions are s a i d to have sai led eastward looking for these islands (Okakura 1 964).
 n ected to t h e best tea l eaves, to the
r i g ht teapot, to t h e r i g h t coo k i n g t i m e ,
to t h e r i g ht way o f heat i ng , e t c . A n d ,
o f course, w h e n related to t h e r i g ht
tead r i n ker, that i n carnation of L u
T ' u n g that had t h e a b i l ity to appreci­
ate these s e n satio ns.
W h ere does it stop? L u Wu also g ives
u s clear i nst ructions as to the cup
that s h o u l d be used for d r i n k i ng tea.
O k a k u ra s u m m a r i zes: "The C e l estial
po rce l a i n , as it i s we l l known, had its
origin i n t h e T ' a n g dynasty i n a n
att e m pt to reproduce t h e exq u i s ite
shade of Jade res u l t i n g in the b l u e
g l aze o f t h e s o u t h a n d t h e wh ite g l aze
of t h e north. L u Wu c o n s i d e red the
blue as t h e i d e a l c o l o r for t h e tea-cup,
as it l e nt a d d i t i o n a l greenness to t h e
beverage, w h e reas the wh ite made it
look p i n k i sh a n d d i stastef u l " (Okaku ra
1 964: 1 3) . But a l s o of v i t a l i m portance
i s in what room the tea i s s e rved, by
w h o m , at what part t i m e of the day it
i s d r u n k, in what mood t h e d r i n ke r is,
i n which com pany it i s consumed . . .
The s e n s u a l reg i m e o f d r i n k i n g t e a ( i f
w e c a n c a l I it t hat) ope rates betwee n
i nf i n ite a m o u nts of m atters. I t i s a
process ad i nf i n it u m . Whether we look
at it from the experience of tea d r i n k­
i n g (as it creates t h e tead r i n ke r, t h e
t e a , a n d a m u lt i p l icity o f ot her e l e­
ments) or from any other p o i nt of
v i ew. Whatever scale on w h i c h it
takes p l ace, every t i m e a reg i m e o pe r­
ates between a m u lt i p l i c ity of e l e­
ments m a k i n g t h e e l e m ents f u nct i o n
with one another, accord i n g to o n e
another. Rang i ng f r o m t h e i n f i n itesi­
m a l to the i nf i n it e l y l a rge ( ' scale
"O
0 i nvariance' as conce i ved by t h e math­
0
e m at i c i a n M a n d e l brot (Mandel brot
O>
c: 1 982)) , an event is a l ways a m u lt i p l i c i ­
-"'
ty o f e l e m ents t hat cl usters with i n t h e
"'
-
i m manent created b y the regi mes t hat
c:
0
-
u
::>
"O
J lvl A T E l� I A L I T Y
0
�
- The way i n which matter a p pears to us, h ow we are con­
c:
f ro nted with it wit h i n a n event, a l ready i nvites u s to h a n d l e
I-
it i n a specific way. Wh atever it i s w e f i n d o n o u r p l ates
D: i n a restau rant, it m ore or less i nstructs u s to c o n s u m e it.
c(
0..
J ust as the kn i ves ask to be carved w i t h , and the forks to
be p i c ked with. " T h e re is t h u s a n a m b u l a nt co u p l i n g ,
---· e vents-affects, w h i c h c o n s t it utes t h e v a g u e
24 cor poreal e s s e n c e a n d i s d i st i n ct f ro m t h e
t h read t h e m . It a lways escapes t h i s d ef i n it i o n as it
A g a i n , it i s n eve r a s u m of its parts; it a l s o i nvolves t h e c u p A N D t h e t a b l e
is in the sum itself that the parts are A N D t h e ot her p e o p l e A N D t h e pai nt­
created/ The tea can be of t h e h i g hest i n g o n the wa l l A N D the tem perat u re
q u a l ity, prepared with the pu rest of the room AN D t h e m u s i c you hear. . .
water, se rved in the m ost e l egant tea­ A t t h e same t i me, i t t raverses what
house o n the bank of the West Lake i n you d r i n k A N D t h e q u a l ity of the
H a n g z h o u ; b u t a n e i g h bo r w h o s p i t s water A N D t h e way the tea l eaves
o n t h e f l o o r can r u i n everyt h i n g . O r, to h ave been h eated A N D the way the
p h rase it i n a more abst ract sense, it l eaves have g rown AND t h e r i c h ness
i s t h e i nf i n ites i m a l t h at can overcode of t h e so i l in w h i c h it was p l anted . . .
the e n t i re experi e nce. A p i nch 9f salt It i s i m poss i b l e to d eter m i ne w h e re
entirely c h a n g es t h e taste of a soup. t h e event stops. It i s part of a netwo rk
T h e event is n ever c o n structed t h at " ... may be broken, s hatte red at a
f ro m several o r m u l t i p l e e l e­ g i ven s pot, but it w i l l start u p a g a i n
m e nts, but a l ways f ro m a m u l t i ­ f r o m o n e o f its o l d l i nes, o r on n ew
p l i c ity o f matters t h at move l i nes" ( Deleuze and G u attari 1 987: 9).
together in a cont i n u o u s f l ow. A n event n ever 'exists on its own ';
Matters m a n i p u l ate o n e a n ot h e r, it is a l ways defined by ot h e r events; it
p l ay w i t h o n e another, are is a l ways in t h e m i d d l e of other
a l ways c a u g h t u p in processes events. It i s streaked with reg i m es
of c h a n g e, a re a l ways in the that are capable of connect i n g it to
p rocess of redef i n i n g t h e event. anyt h i ng anyw h e re , and t h ey wi l l con­
Matter i s never i n n ocent. The G reeks n ect it to anyt h i n g a nywh e re. They wi l l
a l ready e m phasized t hat in t h e b eg i n­ con nect the d r i n k i n g of tea t o the
n i ng t h e re was chaos, space a l ready mem ory of th e"beaut iful West Lake
f i l led with a dark n e b u l a t h at con­ scenery o r to the search for truth as
s i sted of everyt h i ng t h e re i s to be. some p e o p l e in H a n g z h o u t o l d me
D e l e u ze ca l l s it t h e 'body without (see 05-1 3-01 , 05-1 5-01 ) , to the B r i t i s h ,
organs ' a n d H j e l m s l ev ca l l s t h i s state to yo u r grand parents (07- 1 1 -0 1 ) , or
'matter'. Perhaps the conce pt of ener­ maybe even to Aunt Leo n i e ! Every
gy, used i n its m ost abstract form i n event i s capt ured by a m u l t i p l i c ity of
t h e rmodyn a m i cs i n t h e p r i n c i p l e that chains t hat m i g ht fall apart, be taken
the e n e rgy of every c l osed system up in other n etworks, t hat m i g ht
tends toward a state of d i sorder (the p u pate a n d m o r p h i nto a d ifferent
Second Law of Thermodynamics ) , a l s o sett i n g , but t h at does not i nt e n d to
a i m s a t t h i s. O n e can start t h e analy­ stop.
s i s from t h e v i ew p o i n t of matter, but It i s a m ost u nega l itarian com i n g
j u st as we l l from chaos, from energy, together i n w h i c h every G o l iath can
or from t h e body w i t h o ut organs. b e beaten by any David s i nce t h e
And as it s preads i n every d i rect i o n , i nf i n ites i m a l can overcode everyt h i n g
it i n v o l ves every matter t hat s u r­ connect i n g it t o c h i l d h o o d , t o
rounds it, a n d it is formed by every A m e r i ca, t o l ove, to deat h , o r actu a l l y
matter t h at s u r r o u n d s it. The experi­ to w hatever d i rect i o n m a k i n g t h e
ence of d r i n k i ng tea i s stretched event a vector wit h i n a n o n - E u c l i d ean
beyo n d whatever can defined as tea. s pace of n d i mens i ons.
s e d e ntary I i n kage" ( De l eu z e and G u attari 1 987: 479 ) .
We cou l d ca l l t h i s t h e third way i n w h i c h t o read
the event P ro u st d e s c r i b es in the beg i n n i n g of t h i s
p a rt. That apart from t h e creat i o n of t i m e and t h e creat i o n
o f s pace, t h e event as it takes p l ace between t h e
made l e i n e a n d Marc e l , n ecessar i l y trave l s accord i n g to t h e
v a g u e c o r porea l e s s e n c e s of bot h t he made l e i n e a n d
Marcel. I t t rave l s accord i n g to the sweet a l m o n d taste a s it
st i m u l ates t h e senses of Marce l , a n d
i t trave l s accord i ng to the mem ory of
Marce l . A lt h o u g h we s h o u l d e m pha­
size t hat the l i n k betwee n events and
affects, as D e l e u ze notices, i s a
vague one . . . There are many paths to
c h oose i n both ways. The l i n k between
events and affects i s n ot a determ i n ­
istic one.
T h e re is h owever a d e l i cate d iffer­
ence betwee n surrendering to the cor­
poral ity, the mate r i a l ity of matter, a n d
imposing a form u po n t hat matter.
Tao i st p h i l os o p hy c l e a r l y p refers t h e
for m e r when it g l orifies t h e Tao a s
effortless atta i n m e nt, as w u -we i.
C h ua n g T z u exp l a i n e d this by i ntro­
d u c i n g u s to C h ef Ting who s hows us
h ow to pract ice Tao as h e cut u p an ox
for K i n g Wen H u i : "Trusting the prin­
cip les o f h e aven, I send the blade
slicing through huge crevi c e s , lead
it through huge hollows. Keeping
my skill c onstant and e s s ential, I
just slip the blade through, never
touching ligament or tendon, let
alone b one. An exceptional c o o k
cuts, a n d s o needs a n e w knife every
year. An ordinar,y c o o k chops, and
so needs a new knife every month.
Now, I 've had this knife for nine­
teen years; it's taken apart thou­
sands o f oxen but it's still sharp,
still fresh from the grindstone.
There's space in a j o int, and the
blade has n o thickn e s s . Having no
thickn e s s , it slips right through . . .
'How marvelous ! ' s aid King Wen
Hui. 'I listen to the words o f a
butcher, and sudd enly I've l e arned
how to care for life itself! ' ( Z h ua n g z i
" it. How we enter i nto composition
1964: 46-7).
In o u r everyday l ife, we are consta ntly
confronted with t h e text u res of t h e
s paces w e m eet. K i n g W e n H u i was
t h u s r i g ht when he exc l a i m e d t hat t h e
c o o k t a u g ht h i m someth i n g o f l ife.
Textu res, c revices, a n d h o l l ows are
a l I around us. They always already
materialize the spaces around us.
W h e t h e r we i m pose a form o n
t h e m o r s u r re n d e r to t h e m , w e
n e c e ss a r i l y l i ve accord i n g to
these s paces a l t h o u g h it i s up to
u s how to read t h e m .
I f we i nt e n d t o st u d y o u r everyday
l i ves and the r o l e food p l ays, we need
to pay respect to t h e m ate r i a l ity that
surrounds us. To t h e way t h e spaces
around u s are curved, how they are
folded. We need to s t u d y h ow
s pace i s c reated a n d how it cre­
ates; the study of the p o l i t i c s
a n d et h i cs o f s pace, arch itec­
t u re, i s t h e refore most i m portant
to u s . A rchitecture in the widest
sense of the word. A rch itecto n i cs,
as H e n r i L ef e b v re c o n c e pt u a l ­
i zes it, " . . . an app roach w h i c h
e m braces a n d s e e k s to reasse m b l e
e l e ments d i spe rsed b y t h e special­
i ze d a n d part i a l d i s c i p l i nes of eth n o l ­
o g y, eth n o g raphy, h u m a n geogra phy,
anthropol ogy, p re h i story and h i story,
s o c i o l ogy, and s o o n " ( Lefebvre 1 991 :
229), t h e study of m at er i a l ity as it
connects to every b it of o u r I ife.
A rch itect u re, D e l e u z e arg u es , i s n ot
t h e study of b u i l d i ngs, but t h e study
of how we experience s paces created
betwee n u s and the mate r i a l ity t hat
s u r ro u n d s us. How we f u nction with
with it. Deleuze i s i nterested i n arc h i -
tect ure because of its fluid-
ity, its immanence ( m u lt i d i -
m e n s i o n a l i n t i me a s we l l as i n
s pace) i n w h i c h " . . . geometrical
f i g u res are laid out - cone, p r i s m ,
d i he d r o n , s i m p l e p l a n e - w h i c h a r e no
more than cos m i c forces capa b l e of
m e r g i n g , being transformed, con­
front i n g each ot h e r, and alternat i n g ;
t h e w o r l d before m a n yet produced by
m a n " ( D e l euze and G uattari 1 994: 1 87).
U rb a n i st V i r i l i o s u p ports t h i s c l a i m i n
r e p l a c i n g t h e d ef i n it i o n o f arch itec­
t u re as the 'topical' and arc h itect o n i c
i nterval ( t h e b u i l d i ng ) i n the act of
expe r i e n c i n g arch itect u re in terms of
t h e 'tele-topical' i nterval (the n et­
work) (Vi r i l io 1 997: 1 3-4). He is i nterest­
e d in how the wa l l s , t h e w i n dows, the
g ro u n d f l o o r " . . . com pose a system
rich in poi nts a n d c o u nterpoints"
( De l euze and G uattari 1 994: 1 87) with
which we move. To w h i c h we can s u r­
ren d e r or to w h i c h we can i m pose a
form. A n i nterest i n t h e t e l e-to p i c a l ,
i n what happens as we a r e confro nted
with and/or wit h i n s pace accord i n g to
the b u i l d i ng , i s an i nterest in materi­
a l ity. In t h e way mate r i a l ity a l ways
a l ready g u ides u s to a specific
(ab) use, a specific move, a specific way
i n w h i c h o n e can be affected by it.
I t i s o n l y t h e n , when we focus on the
affects produced by m ate r i a l ity in a
specific event, that we can open o u r­
s e l ves u p to the te l e-to p i c a l , t hat we
can exper i e n ce t h e i n escapa b i l ity of
how architecture is fo l d i n g or unfold­
i ng s pace, how it i s a l ways i nvolved in
for m i ng t h e matter with w h i c h we are
to be confronted as we m ove t h r o u g h
s pace.

K T l-I E T E X T U l� E O F C A P I TA L I S M
Fra n c i s Tay l o r m ust have been a capital i st reader of
C h ua n g Tzu as he seems to h ave t r a n s l ated C h ua n g T z u 's
eth i cs of mate r i a l ity i nto a rat i o n a l eco n o m i cs of mat e r i a l­
ity. Fo r when h e searched for a way to make more profit, h e
tra n s l ated the t h o u g hts o f the Tao i st master to t h e pract ice
of i n d u strial prod u ct i o n . H e i nvented what later became
known as Tay l o r i s m , a m et h o d to o pt i m i z e produc­
t i o n t h ro u g h t h e c o m p l ete s u r re n d e r i n g of the
worker to t h e text u re of m a c h i n e ry. ' Sc i e n t i f i c
Management', as Tay l o r referred to h i s ideas ( C o p l e y 1 923) ,
involved t i m e stud i-es (e. g . , screw on each bolt i n 1 5.2 sec­
o n d s ) , stan dard izat i o n of tools and i m p l e m e nts, the use of
' s l i d e - r u l es and s i m i l a r t i m e-sav i n g devices', i nst r u ct i o n
cards f o r workmen ( deta i l i n g exact ly what t h e y need to
do), task a l l ocat i o n , etc.
H e prescri bed in g reat deta i l the way in w h i c h the body of
the worker s h o u l d move in re l a t i o n to the materiality (t h e
d es i g n , t h e architecture) o f t h e machine i n o r d e r to f u n c ­
t i o n with it as effect ively as poss i b le. The b o d y o f t h e
h u m a n b e i n g i s p l ugged i nto t h e b o d y of the mach i n e as an
addition to its physics ( o r a c o m p l e t i o n of its physics); t h e
m at e r i a l ity o f t h e b o d y i s overcoded by t h e materi­
a l i t y of t h e m a c h i n e . H e n ry Fo rd , m ost i m pressed by t h e
Tay lor's stud i es, a d d e d t h e m o v i n g i n d u st r i a l asse m b l y 25
 l i n e i n order to acce l e rate t h e processes of
reprod u c i b i l ity, of prod u ct i o n , of u n if icat i o n , a n d u
· �

�
m ost of a l l , the p rocesses of prof i t. . . t h e mach i n es
of capita l i s m h ave cont i n u ed ever s i n ce.
· �
The mac h i n e s even d o u b l ed t h e m s e l ves m ost
s uccessfu I l y. I n o u r d a i l y I ife, we s e l d o m stand
�
u
n ext to the asse m b l y l i n e that i s formed i n order
to produce anymore. The machines no longer need
ro
us for production; they are perfectly capable of
doing it themselves. B u t we are needed in order
s
. ....
to consu me, to be produced i n the m ost eff i c i ent
00
( prof i t a b l e) way. Today, we ourselves are on the
assembly line. We s u rre n d e r to t h e m ate r i a l ity of
Q)
m a c h i nes i n order to c o n s u m e. We a re p l ugged >
�
i nto the conveyer b e l t i n its u s e as a buffet l i ne. Q)
A n d i n a m o re abstract way, t h e conveyor belt 00

s
p l ays a key r o l e i n t h e r u n n i ng of a s u permarket
(as we asse m b l e o u r s h o p p i n g carts), a n d even
m o re so, in the work i n g s of fast-food restaurants Q)
a n d cafete rias.
� •

A ct u a l l y, it was Ray K roc, fo u n d e r of ;...J �

M c D o n a l d 's resta u rants, w h o d o u b l e d 0
H e n ry Fo rd ' s i nvent i o n ; w h ereas Fo rd � � ·

i nt ro d u ced t h e conveyer b e l t for t h e Q) ;...J

p ro d u ct i o n of cars, K roc i ntroduced t h e
�
�
,..c
c o nveyer b e l t for t h e product i o n A N D t h e
c o n s u m pt i o n of h a m b u rg e rs . The d rive- � s
through w i nd ow, t h e w a l k- u p counter, t h e b uffet 0 �
l i ne, of g reat benefit to fast-food restaurants l i ke � 00
Q) �
M c D o na l d 's, g ave r i s e to t h e c o m p l e t i o n of t h e
capital ist syst e m . Kroc i s m as t h e a n t i t h e s i s 0
of Tay l o r i s m . He d o u b l ed t h e strat e g i e s of > u
Tay l o r and Ford g i v i n g r i s e to a system of control
ro
that i s act ive i n t h e c reat i o n of space i n terms � ·
u
�
of p rod uct i o n a n d of c o n s u m pt i o n as it stri ves
� 00
for an i ncrease of effect i v ity, u n iform ity, a n d
Q) · �

� �
reprod u c i b i l ity on both t h e product i o n as we l l
as t h e c o n s u m p t i o n s i d e.
· u �

� ro
J a k l e and Scu l l e n ot e t h ese m i cro p o l it ics of
c o n s u m p t i o n , of t h e way s pace asks or even

-0
d e m a n d s u s to m ove accord i n g to the m a c h i nes
of capita l i s m , i n t h e i r argu ment: " Dr i ve-t h r o u g h
u
ro s
s
0

Q
0
w i n d ows fostered i n t h e 1 990's e m p h a s i s on food
Cl
h e l d i n t h e h a n d s u c h t hat d rivers eas i l y c o u l d
z
c:

eat a n d d r i ve s i m u ltaneously" (Jakle and Scu l l e ;...J

00
"'
-

c:
1999: 6 1 ) . B ut t h e m i cro- p o l it ics of c o n s u m pt i o n
�
·
<
are n ot l i m ited to resta urants, J a k l e a n d Scu l l e
�
0 �
-
u q u i c k l y add. I n fact, they show that the texture of ro
"'
-0
0
capitalism crops up in the interior of the car, in ;...J 0
� · � � ·
the preparation of a snack.. . . "Car m a n ufacturers
-
c:
began to e q u i p f ront seats with c u p h o l d ers to � u;...J
fac i l itate dash board d i n i n g . T h u s Taco Be l l ro
u �
I-
Q: marketed a f o l d e d tort i l l a t hat wo u l d not c r u m b l e
et
A. a n d KFC i ntroduced a c h icken pita sandwich with �
Q)
�--·
a h o l d e r to prevent d r i p p i n g " (Jakle and Scu l l e
1999: 6 1 -2). � 8
26 The m i c r o - po l i t i c s of m ate r i a l i t y, t h e E-4 �
s h a p e s created by arch itect u re
i n i t s b road e r s e n s e , a re a l ways
strat i f y i n g m atter before we are
confronted with it. The s paces we
i n ha b it have a l ways a l ready been
through processes of m ate r i a l i zat i o n
before w e a r r i ve. S paces have a l ways
been s u bjected to forces that organ­
ize and that open up. Space necessar­
i l y pres u p poses a d i m e n s i o n a l ity and
s o does time w h e n the event i s yet to
come. As V i r i l i o c l a i m s, " A rch itect u re
is m o re than an array of tech n i q ues
d e s i g ned to s h e lter u s from t h e
sto rm. I t i s an i nstrum ent o f meas u re,
a sum total of knowledge that. . .
becomes capa b l e o f orga n i z i ng so­
c i ety's time and space" (Viri l io 1 99 1 : 22).
The text u res produced by capital i s m
o r o f any ot h e r p h e n o m e n o n wi 1 1 n ev­
e r t h e l ess rem a i n 'vague' as D e l e u z e
a n d G uattar i ca l l it ( refe r r i n g t o
H u sserl) ( De l euze a n d G uattari 1 987:
367), mean i n g t hat a l t h o u g h it m i g ht
i m pose a part i c u l a r form upon m atter,
it i s with i n the event t h at the form
(in relat i o n to t h e s u bstan ce, the con­
tent, a n d t h e expres s i o n ) i s f i n a l l y
prod uced. ( N ot e t h at V i r i l i o a l s o
c l a i m s that arch itect u re becomes
capable of o r g a n i z at i o n . ) Fo rms can
a l ready be vagabo n d , i nexact, yet we
d o n ot have to s u rrender o u r s e l ves to
t h e spat i a l text u res s u g g ested to u s
by capita l i s m o r any l i ke force. Fo r
a l t h o u g h it m i g ht i m p l i c i t l y be asked
of us, we can escape the detailed cus­
tomer flo w (from entrance to order­
pay to p i c k- u p to d i n i n g-area to trash
bin to exit) t h e fast-food restau rants
try to i m p ose o n us. We can escape
the text u res Tay l or, K roc, or anyone
e l s e t r i e s t o i nsta l l u po n us. T h e re is
n o reason for u s n ot to ex perience
t h e se s paces as 'smooth '
i n stead of 'striated'.
The textures, t h e c re v i ces, the
h o ! l ows . . . t h e "fo l d s , b l obs, n ets,
s k i ns, d i agram s " , accord i ng to the
way V i d l e r (Vidler 2000: 1) f o l l ows the
structures of s pace a n d t i me, a l ways
a l ready i ntend to g u i d e us i n d es i r i n g
it a part i c u l a r way. T h e t u r n i n g o f the
s crew, the eating of the ham b u rg e r. . .
every t i m e , a l it t l e mach i n e o f produc­
t i o n is set i n m ot i o n . A mach i n e t hat
asks us to j o i n it, to a l l y with t h e
f r a g m e nts t hat compose its c h a i n o f
product i o n . A rch itect u re i s j u st that
as Fra n k L l oyd W r i g ht a l ready m a i n ­
t a i ned : " . . . the t a l l m o d e r n off ice
b u i l d i n g i s t h e mach i n e p u re and
s i m p l e " ( W r i g ht 1 992: 4). Its texture
asks us to work. It h i nts on b r i ng i ng
about a notion of labor i n t h e
p e o p l e . 12

l T H E CI T Y A S A C 0 I� H E L A T E
W i l l i a m M itch e l l ( M it c h e l l 2002) ma kes an i nterest i n g g e n ­
e r a l a r g u m e nt regard i n g t h e experi ence o f s pace, w h e n h e
c l a i m s t hat that any land scape i s a l ways betwee n 'nature'
and us s i nce it is a l ways a l ready mate r i a l ized w h e n we are
confronted with it i n the event. Landscape a l ways
a l ready c a r r i e s with it a v a g u e corpo re,CJ. I e s s e n c e
that p ro d u c e s o r reorg a n i z es w h atever we c a n
re l at e to .'3 It i s a l ways a l ready striated before i t starts
p l ay i n g a role in the event. Even the sea, D e l e u z e adds,
the m ost 'smooth ' of a l I s paces i s today coded by the coor­
d inates we have devised, that d i v i d e t h e sea i nto p i eces,
str i at i n g it accord i n g to our n u m e r i c a l system ( De l euze and
G uattari 1 987: 479 ) . B ut the i m manent i m po s i t i o n of t h e
textu res o f m ater i a l ity, as d i scussed i n t h e prev i o u s para­
graph, are most of a l l act ive wit h i n the contempo rary c ity.
The m o m e n t we set foot on t h i s earth, we e n g rave
the ea rth w h i l e the earth e n g raves us. C o nfo r m i n g
t o t h e body o f the eart h , t h e nomads c reated roads that
0 F S PA C E
s pread i n many d i rect i on s ... a n d t hat somet i mes came
together.14 And it i s this p o i nt w h e re t h e roads come
together that i s referred to as 'the c i t y ' . As D e l e u z e
c l a i m s : " T h e town i s the correlate o f the road. T h e town
exists o n l y as a f u nct i o n of c i rc u l at i o n , and of c i rc u i t s ; it
i s a remarkab l e poi nt o n t h e c i rcu its t hat create it, a n d
w h i c h it creates. I t i s d ef i ned by e n t r i es a n d e x i t s ; s o m e ­
t h i n g must enter it and exit from it. . . I t i s a p h e n o m e n o n of
transconsistency, a network because it is fu ndamenta l ly i n
contact with o t h e r towns" ( D e l euze a n d G uattari 1 987: 432).
I n V i r i l i o 's d ef i n it i o n of a city, h e e m phasi zes the i d ea that
the city i s a between, a p o i nt t hat is n ever d efi ned b y itse lf,
but a l ways in h ow it is re l ated to ot h e rs. H e refers to t h e
c i t y as a surface where "each s u rface i s a n i nterface
betwe e n two e n v i ron ments t h at i s r u l e d by a constant
act i v ity in the form of a n exchange betwee n the two s u b ­
stances p laced i n contact w i t h o n e another" (Vi r i l i o 1 991 : 1 7 ) .
It i s the roads, t h e way in w h i c h t h e c i ty is c o n -

t2 In Jameson's description o f the contemporary postmodern consumer society, h e a l souses architecture (at t h e Westin Bonaventure Hotel i n down­
town Los Ange les) i n order to show how the b u i l d i ng itself produces (Ja meson 1998).
u In t h i s sense, the mem ory of Proust can very w e l l be seen as a mental l a ndscape accord i n g to which the event.travels. As D e l euze and G u attari
claim: " Mental landscapes do not change haphazard l y through the ages: a mountain had to rise here or a river had to f low by there again rece ntly for
the ground, now d ry and f lat, to have a part i c u l a r appearance and texture" ( De l e u ze and G u attari 1 994: 58). M e mory can j ust as we l l be a space
accord i n g to which the travel takes p l ace.
" There are few cities on top of a mounta i n ; there are many cities i n the v a l l eys. There are few cities in a desert; there are m a n y citi es at the mouth
of a river ... The body of the earth has always a l ready formed the space with which the city can function. Nature i s the fi rst among the architects.
�s This way of t h i n k i n g of the city as a correlate is not a new id ea. Sennet (Sen net 1 996) argues that from the seventeenth century on it has been
most influential i n t h i n k i n g of the city and at the same time i n (re)des i g n i n g them. Analogous to the d i scovery of the c i rc u l atory system (Harvey),
architects began to l ook at the city as a structure with the heart as its center i nstead of the brain. And thus, the city-center was no longer the p l ace
for ceremonial b u i l d i n g s (it was no longer cons idered the ' brai n ' of the city), it was not the point where everyt h i n g came together, but it served as
the 'hea rt' of c i rcu lation. Haussmann most obviously appl ied these ideas when h e transformed Paris i n the 1 9th century. . . 27
 n ecte d , t h at cont i n u e to redef i n e
t h e c ity.15 A ny c i v i l i z a t i o n has b o r n
w i t n e s s to t h is. C o n s i d e r t h e S i l k
Road a s it conn ected c it i es s u c h a s
X i ' a n , D u n h ua n g , Samarkant,
Baghdad, I st a n b u l , and Rome, and
acce l e rated the e n e r g i e s t h at depart­
ed, e ntered, and t h u s c reated these
c i t i es. Interconnectedness, t h e notion
of the city as a k n ot wit h i n a n etwork,
has always been its key p r i n c i p l e .
Even if w e l i m i t o u r v i s i o n to econom­
i c concepts, J a n e J acobs s hows that
c i t i e s are chains of i m port a n d export
(the roads) that do n ot stop w it h i n
t h e c ity, but swi r l aro u n d , conn ect,
create the city {the corre l ate), a n d
g row larger a n d m ore c o m p l ex w h e n
acce l e rat i o n t a k e s p l ace ( Jacobs 1 969) .
A rc h itect u re a l ways a l ready mat e r i a l ­
i zes matter. I t g i ves t h e vague f o r m to
t h e e l em e nts f i na l l y formed w it h i n the
eve nts. A rc h itect u re i n the b roadest
sense of t h e word a g a i n . . . that
i n c l udes t h e roads created for the
television syst e m , the roads c reated
in cyberspace, the roads of any
econo m i c o r pol i t i c a l system. The city
i s a corre l ate of a l I sorts of roads cre­
at i n g a m u lt i t u d e of roads t hat comes
toget h e r, that i nterfere ... A m u l t i p l i c i ­
ty t hat cannot be dete r m i n e d i n t e r m s
o f l i near s pace, but that i s c a p a b l e o f
t a k i n g f l i g ht i n n d i me n s i ons.
The way s paces are mate r i a l ized has
g reat i n f l u e nce on how they f i n a l ly
come into b e i n g i n what we have
c a l l e d i m m an e nce as conte nt/expres­
s i o n i s stro n g l y con nected to the
(vague) forms in w h i c h m atter
appears; the materiality that is given
"
0 to the city by architecture is inextrica­
0
bly connected to the way matter
0)
c: appears in the event. H j e l m s l ev's arg u ­
m e n t s f o u n d i n t h e beg i n n i n g o f t h i s
part state t hat h i s n e w l y form u l ated
c:
0 concepts of m atter, form, s u bstance,
content, and expre s s i o n are relational,
m e a n i n g that they cannot be seen
as t h i ng s t hat stand a l one, but are
concepts that are created by one
another a n d that create one another.
Mate r i a l ity i s no d ifferent.
Thus, p e o p l e in H a n g z h o u , Bosto n ,
B a n g a l o re, o r Lyo n con nected to o t h e r
c i t i e s (or territories) t hat were c l ose
28 to them as defined by t h e i r experi-
ences i n accordance to t h e way t h e
s paces were f o l d e d , accord i n g to t h e
way t h e y experien ced the c i t y a s
striated, according to the way materi­
�
ality has always already given shape to
0
whatever affects them.
T h i s means that i n H a n g z h o u , t h e
n e i g h bo r i n g c i t y o f S h a n g h a i was
most p resent, but n ot ' m o re' p resent
than what people d ef i n ed as 'the
West' . Often we saw that an o p pos i ­
t i o n i s c reated betwee n l o c a l foods
a n d foods from the West. Cakes, for
exa m p le, were s o l d as either local o r
' West e r n ' (where t h e Western cakes
were j u st a l itt l e sweeter). A n ot h e r
exam p l e o f t h i s re lative Western p res­
ence is f o u n d in the pre v i o u s l y m e n ­
t i o n e d case i n w h i c h t w o teenagers
were m ore i nterested i n food from t h e
West w h i l e t h ey were n ot interested
in I nd i a n food because they c o n s i d ­
e red t h i s c o u n t r y t o o far.
I n Bosto n , we were s u r p r i sed to f i n d
o u t that i t was n ot N e w York ( s i t uated
only a 3 h o u rs d r i ve from Boston) t h at
was most present n owadays, but b:os
A n g e l e s ; the West C oast was over­
cod i n g the B osto n i a n way of l ife
t h r o u g h t e l e v i s i o n , m o v i e theat res,
b i l l boards, s h o p p i n g m a l l s , a n d foods
(t ropical p i z zas, Asian c u i s i ne, the
rule of brands). In a m i cro-po l i t i c a l
way, t h e Bosto n i a n s n o t i c e d t h e
West coast red e s i g n i ng t h e i r c i t y i n
every aspect; n owadays, H o l lywood
i s beco m i ng m ore and more t h e
arc h itect o f Bost o n .
B a n g a l o re w a s d ifferent a g a i n . S i nce
t h i s city i s k nown today as the fastest
g rowi n g city in A s i a, its re l a t i o n s
h ave changed dramat i c a l l y o v e r the
l ast few years. From 600,000 i n habi­ regarded as a brutal i n s u lt to t h e
tants i n 1 950 to 6 m i l l i o n today, t h e vegeta r i a n major ity, b u t a l s o because
roads t h at e n t e r t h e c i t y m u l t i p l ied they accused K F C of u s i n g a n i m a l
a n d acce l e rated and thus t h e corre­ fats i n t h e i r 'vegeta r i a n ' s a l a d s.
l ate itself has rad i c a l l y changed. The Today, t h e major s h o p p i n g a reas of
city now has about 70 t e l e v i s i o n c h a n ­ the city ( Ave n u e Road, MG Road,
n e l s, many d i rect f l i g hts to p l aces C o m m e rc i a l Road, J ayanagar Block
such as Abu D h a b i a n d M u m ba i I V ) are all f i l led with Western fast
( B o m bay), a n d above a l l , an e n o r m o u s food restaurants and very s uccessf u l
I T i n d ustry: " T h e re i s n o other i nd us­ I n d i a n adaptat i o n s o f t h e m ( s e l l i n g
try t h at i s so present" (03-06-02). f o r i nstance c u rry p i zza's a n d vege­
As recently as 1 996 t h e f i rst K F C t a r i a n b u rg e rs). " Yes, the U.S. c u l ­
o u t l et i n B a n g a lo re w a s u nder h eavy t u re . . . t h e p i zzas a n d the bu rgers,
c i v i l i a n attack. N ot only because the w h i c h we had n ot h eard of four years
s e l l i n g of m eat by t h e b u c ket was ago. You have P i zza corner; K F C i s
 c o m i n g a l l over the p l ace. It used to
b e a very t rad i t i o n a l joint we had ... "
{02-1 5-02).
Lastly, i n Lyon, the 'gastronomy capi­
tal' of France as it t e n d s to cal I itse lf,
we can see that the city i s per meated
by Par i s in many ways espec i a l l y i n
terms of ' ha ut e c u i s i n e ' : "Tren d s
come f r o m Par i s m a i n ly. T h e re i s a
very creat i ve at mosphere i n Paris.
And n owadays t h e re i s more focus on
t h e at m o s p h e re, a n d this has now
come to Lyon " {07-27-02). B ut it i s n ot
o n l y t h e creat i n g force from Pa r i s t h at
can be f o u n d ' i n s i d e' Lyo n . Fre n c h
c u i s i n e i s n o t a n i s l a n d a n d it n ever
has been. T h e tentacles of the c i t i e s
are n ot rest r i cted by n a t i o n a l b o u n d ­
a r i es a t a l l. "Today t h e re i s m ore a n d
m ore a f o c u s o n a l l t h e s p i ces, a n d
the p e o p l e in France; t h e p e o p l e i n
Paris are n owadays very m uch i n f l u ­
e n c e d by w hat i s happe n i n g i n
L o n d o n , " a c u l i nary j o u r n a l ist t o l d m e
(07-27-02). Lyo n , a s we l l a s Par i s ,
f u n c t i o n s as a corre l ate, a
betwe e n , a s u rface d ef i n e d
by ot her s u rfaces w h e re t h i ng s
come togeth er. A n d s o i s L o n d o n :
" I n L o n d o n y o u f i n d a l ot o f i m m i g ra­
t i o n , l ots of p e o p l e from Sri Lan ka,
Pak i stan a n d I n d i a ; so you f i n d other
ways of cook i n g , l ot s of s p i ces, a n d
s i nce you haven 't g ot a v e r y strong
food c u l t u re in E n g l a n d , t h ey tend to
b e m ore creat ive" (07-27-02) .
I t i s n ever s i m p l y a c a s e o f pass i n g
t h i n g s o n ; trave r s i n g a corre l ate
means b e i n g redef i n e d by it a n d t h e
o t h e r way arou n d . Trave l i n g means
cont i n uo u s dete rritorial izat i o n .
T h u s , w h e n L o n d o n i s confronted
with I nd i a n h e rbs, they reart i c u l at e
one a n ot h e r. The I nd i an h e rbs are
reart i c u l a t i n g L o n d o n w h i l e L o n d o n
i s reart i c u l ated by t h e s e I nd i an
h e rbs. The same holds for Par i s a n d
Lyon . They immanently recreate one
another.

M T H E C I T \' A S A C 0 I� I� E L A T E
T h e c ity f u n ct i o n s not o n l y as a corre l ate of s pace,
but par a l l e l to the fo l d i n g s of s p ace, it a l so f u n c ­
t i o n s as a c o r re l ate o f t i m e . J u st as architect u re
a l ready g i ves form to t h e space t hat has yet to be experi­
enced, it a l s o s h a pes t i me. The s kyscrapers designed by
Fra n k L l oyd W r i ght i n order to g et t h e p e o p l e to 'work' n ot
o n l y structure s pace, but j ust as equal l y structure t i me
with t h e i r m at er i a l ity ( b e i n g t h e inventor of the ' t i m e
clock' , o f t h e ' n i ne-to-f i ve' j o b ) . Koo l haas s e e m s to s u p ­
port t h at: " W i t h the esca l ator, prev i o u s l y d i sco n n ected
rea l m s c o u l d b e smoot h l y con n ected i nto an u n i nt e r r u pted
experience, a l l o w i n g d ifferent and even i n compat i b l e
spaces t o be taped onto each ot her a l m ost a d i n f i n i t u m "
(Kool haas e t a l . 2000: 1 38) . B o t h s pace a n d t i m e a r e f o l d e d i n
that t h e escalator struct u res events o r at l east g i ves form
to what comes together. In connect i n g o n e p l ace to the
other, it vag u e l y forms time as we wi l l experience it. T h i s
transportation machine, a s Jameson ca l l s_ it (J_ameson 1 998:
14), in q u i c k l y m o v i n g us from p l ace to p l ace, acc e l erates
and t h u s c reates a d ifferent n o t i o n of t i me. It prod u c i n g a
d ifferent experience of what happens a r o u n d us, a d iffer­
ent wo r l d to experi ence.
In t h e p rese nt-day c ity, t i me i s folded in many ways: the
b u i l d i ngs, t h e c u r v i n g of t h e streets, the traff i c l i g hts, the
esca l ator, etc. Every t i me, we see t hat mate r i a l ity has a
strong i nf l u e n ce on t h e way we experience o u r world i n
terms o f t i me. I t n ot o n l y produces t h e spaces i n w h i c h we
live o u r l i ves, it j ust as m uch produces notions of t i m e
accord i n g to w h i c h w e l i ve. Dav i d M or l ey p resents some
0 F T I lvl E
n ice a r g u m ents o n how t he i ntroduction of the m o b i le
p h o n e has c h a n g ed o u r experience of t i me. The m o b i l e
p h o n e i s fo l d i ng t i me, a n d i n d o i n g s o , i t redef i nes o u r
n o t i o n o f work, o u r n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p , o u r n o t i o n o f t h e
fam i ly ( M o r l ey 2000). B ut t h e f o l d s o f t i m e can j ust as we l l
b e experienced i n t h e way streets arcades a n d m a l l s s h a pe
o u r l i ves tod ay. T h e speed i n g u p a n d s lo w i n g d own of t i m e
i s b y n o m e a n s a s i m p l e quantitative f o r m , b u t i s by d ef i n i­
t i o n a qualitative one. The s idewa l k a n d t h e road, even as
they l i e n ext to each oth e r, form t i m e d ifferently from o n e
a n o t h e r because o f t h e i r d ifferent s p e e d s : " . . .for exa m p le,
t h e fort u itous s id ewa l k encou nter of two pedest r i a n s w h o
h a i l o n e a n ot h e r i s n ot o f t h e same nature as t h e u n expect­
ed encounter of two m oto r i st s d r i v i n g s l ow l y past each
other d own t h e road a n d wav i n g to each other as they go
by this same s i dewa l k " (Vi r i l i o 2000: 44-5). The city a s we
e x p e r i e n ce it is a l ways a corre l ate of t e m p o r a l
m utat i o n s t h at a l ways a l ready vag u e l y orga n i z e s
o u r everyday e x p e r i e n c e .
I n fact, m o re a n d m ore today, the acce l e rat i o n o f t i m e
codes t h e events t hat take p l ace i n t h e c ity. The s u permar­
ket, t h e ha rvest h o m e for t h e contempo rary city, was
d e s i g ned to be the p l ace w h e re you c o u l d get many k i n d s
o f prod u cts f o r l ower p r i ces, a n d t h e s e l ower prices were
an i m portant reason for patro n i z i ng the s u permarket.
Today, however, t h i s 'the reg i m e of h aste ' , t h e i d e a t hat
we have l ittle t i m e to s p e n d , has recoded the s u perm arket
d rast ical l y. It has t u rned t h e p l ace in w h i c h you c o u l d g et
goods i n expen s i ve l y i nto t h e p l ace w h e re you c o u l d get 29
 goods q u i c k l y : " Before, t h i n g s were
always a l ot cheaper in the s u permar­
kets, but now t hey're o n l y concern i s
h o w fast t h e y c a n b u y t h i n g s . . . how
fast you can d o you r s h o p p i n g . It is
very expe n s i ve. Vegeta b l e s are m uch
more expe n s i ve in the s u perm arkets
t h a n in the mar ket p l ace" (07-1 1 -02) .
M ost n otably, the reg i m e of haste has
vag u e l y red e s i g n e d t h e products that
are s o l d i n t h e s u p e rmarket (the form
of the pro d u cts a n d t h e range of prod­
ucts). J a m es G l e i c k notices t hat i n
t h e U . S . A . , " P re pared , precooked,
prepackaged meals - all the descen­
dants of the TV D i n ne r - n ow take u p
m o r e s u p e r market s pace than fresh
f r u its and veget a b l e s " ( G l e i c k 1 999:
1 48). But it has also redef i ned the
a ppearance of the s u perm arket itse lf.
The d e s i g n of the s u perm arket has
been overcoded by t h i s i dea m ost
s uccessfu l l y by foc u s i n g on a s pa­
c i o u s p l a n ( u n o bstructed by prod ucts
or t raff ic) that uses s mooth s u rfaces,
speedy ch eckouts ... All designed to
permit an acceleration, to provoke an
acceleration.
T h i s reg i m e of h a ste is most
i nf l u e n t i a l in cod i n g the c i t y
today. O n e o f i t s p i votal p o i nts
seems to be the fast-food restaurants
t h at p o p u l at e every major city in t h e
wor l d . T h i s d o e s n o t h o l d t r u e o n l y f o r
t h e m a j o r A m erican fast-food c h a i n s.
A Lyonese m a n c l a i m ed " . . . t e m p u ra
is rea l l y fast food "(07-09-02) , a n d s i m i-
l a r ly, oth e r c u i s i nes have produced
notions of fastfood. For a l t h o u g h the
A m e rican fastfood c h a i n s may pre­
d o m i n ate in t h e i r a p pearance, they
only form a s m a l l percentage of a l l
fastfood restau rants one f i n d s espe­
c i a l l y outside the Western wor l d . I n
p l aces l i ke I nd i a a n d C h i n a, n ot o n l y
can y o u f i n d many 'copycat' resta u ­
r a n t s , but you can a l s o f i n d m a n y
'local formulas ' that h a v e b e e n
s p read i n g t h e i r ideas m o s t s uccess­
f u l l y. Fo r exa m p le, in B a n g a l o re t h e re
are t h e darsheenees - s m a l l eateries
with a 'no-time-to-sit ' at mosp here.
They have become very p o p u l a r in the
recent years : " H e re, t h e fast food c u l ­
t u re h a s c o m e s i n c e l ast d ecade.
There i s a s m a l l roo m , l i ke this h a l l ,
where t h e customer c a n g e t h i s food
h i mse lf. Th ere you can eat yo u r food
in 10 m i n utes. S o p e o p l e f i n d it very
easy, very conve n i e nt, because of
t h e i r p ressure in t i m e . . . they have to
g o to off ice, t h ey have to g o to
school ... S u p pose you go to a resta u­
rant, it takes a l ot of t i me. S o this cul­
t u re has i n creased" (03-04-02).
B u t t h e redefi n it i o n o f t i m e works i n
both ways. T h e i d ea t h at t i me i s
scarce i s n ot the o n l y acce l e rator of
t h e r i se of fast-food restaurants; fast
food restaurants themselves are at the
same time creating this image. S i m i lar
to the way that the anorexic i s , on the
one hand, created by the reg i m e of
t h e Victorian beauty- i d e a l s , a n d o n
t h e oth e r h a n d , re-created t h i s reg i me
herself ( o r h i mself), the fastfood
restau rants a l s o have a d u a l pos i t i o n .
Fast-food restau rants a r e functioning
with t h i s so-ca l led reg i m e of haste.

N A D E L E lJ Z I A N E T H I C S
C 0 N S lJ lvl P T I 0 N
-0
0 Food always a l ready i nvolves a m u lt i p l i c ity of composi­
0
t i ons. Melod i e s a n d harmonies are p rod uced betwee n its
O>
c: i n g re d i e nts. The tastes the s m e l l s , the c o l o rs the f ra­
g rance . . . t h ey a l ways produce b l ocks of sensat i o n s t hat
resonate with each ot her, t h at f u nction with one another.
c:
0 It is a correl ate, a m u lt i p l i c ity that comes together a n d
-
CJ works. A m u lt i p l i c ity that d o e s n ot c reate a bord e r
"'
-0 betwee n a n i n s i d e and an outsi de. It n ecessari l y re l ates t o
0
- what i s outs i d e i t . It com poses an i n s i d e i n its connect i o n
c:
to a n outside: " . . . the i nt e r i o r i s o n l y a selected ext e r i or,
and the i nt e r i or, a projected i nt e r i o r " ( De l euze Spinoza,
Practical Philosophy 1 988: 1 25). Food is i n separa b l e from its
re lations to t h e world. Food c reates a d uet with the p l at e ;
0 I� A N E T H 0 L 0 c; Y 0 F
k i n d s o f compositions with w hatever becomes i m manent.
I n t h e event, some e l e m e nts a re t u rned i nto organs.
Beco m i ng a part of what S p i noza ca l l s 'a body', a compos­
ite of organs t hat f u n ct i o n s as one. A n a n o rexic reg i m e i s
a b o d y t h a t m akes matter (food, i d e a l s o f beauty, maga­
z i n es, the f e m a l e, etc.) f u n ct i o n acco r d i n g to o n e another
f o l l o w i n g its l o g i c of s ufferi n g . The capita l i st reg i m e i s a
body as it m a kes matter (food, machi nes, m e n , mon ey,
etc.) f u nct i o n accord i n g to o n e another f o l l o w i n g its l o g i c
o f g a i n i ng s u r p l us. It i s betwee n t h e e l e m ents t h at a com­
position arises, o r, as p rev i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , it i s between
the e l e ments t h at a text a r i ses. A c o m p o s i t i o n , a text, t hat
organ izes, that m akes t h e e l e m e nts f u n c t i o n together, t hat

I
it f o r m s the counterpoint of t h e c o n s u mer, t h e d i ssonant m a kes t h e m resonate with o n e another. C reat i ng a body of
:._._:t__ i n t h e wo r l d of t h e anorexic, a tonic i n t h e capit a l i st any k i n d . A m e l a n c ho l i c body as it is com posed between
30 reg i m e, n o i s e i n the cacophony of the city. . . It creates a l l Prou st, the m a d e l e i ne, Aunt Leon i e and the tea or t i sane; a
body of p l e a s u r a b l e exc i t e m e nt as it
i s com posed betwee n t h e C h i nese
man and the tea ('the qual ity, the taste,
the c o l or, t h e fragrance, t h e shape
and some c r u d e t h i n g s ' ) ... We call
them reg i mes, abstract mac h i nes, or
simply bodies whenever we see them
pop u p i n i m m a n e nce, w h en ever they
entw i n e t h e m s e l ves w i t h t h e event.
T h u s , t h i s study n ever focu ses
on t h e e l e m e n t s . It has n o i nterest
i n the h u m a n b e i n g , in food, o r in any
other ent ity. It is by no means an
anthropocentric approach , or a 'con­
sumocentric' ap proach that is f o r m u ­
lated h ere. I t d o e s not d e f i n e s u c h
p h e n o m e n a a s c o n s u m pt i o n i n
t e r m s o f e l e m ents, b ut i n t e r m s
o f t h e re l a t i o n s t h at are com­
posed betwe e n them. O r, i n
N i etsz he's t e r m s , i n o u r u n i verse
there are n o u l t i mate i rreduc i b l e par­
t i c l es, no 'atoms' " . . . but only dyna m i c
quanta, i n a re l at i o n o f tens i o n t o a l l
o t h e r q uanta" ( N i etzsche 1 967:
para.635 ) . T h e re is o n l y t h e re l at i o n as
it i s p roduced with i n the event, t h e
arra n g e m e nt, t h e c o m b i n at i o n .
T h a t i s w h at a D e l e u z i a n et h i c s ,
an et h o l o g y, i s a l l about. D e l e u ze
tel l s u s : " . . . eth o l ogy stud i e s the com­
positions of re l at i o n s o r capac i t i es
between d ifferent t h i ng s " ( De leuze
as i d e nt ity, trad i t i o n , health ... o n how abstract mac h i n e s ) .
food i s to p resent-day l i fe. P rocesses t h a t a r e n ecessar-
Perhaps we s h o u l d heed t h e poets i l y eth ic a l in t h e i r a p pearance as
a g a i n for they seem m ost com petent they a lways st r i n g t h e i r e l e m ents i n
in desc r i b i n g how t h i s para l l e l evo l u ­ terms o f affects. I n terms o f joy o r
t i o n works. T hey u s e t h e poem t o so rrow.
show h ow t h e event codes, h o w mat­ Matter, the gossamer dark n e b u la, is
ter is n ecessar i l y torn in the p rocess in a constant state of swi r l i n g , of
of beco m i ng , i n the process of r u n n i ng mov i n g , a n d thus, of re l at i n g t h e d if­
i nto compos i t i o n with o n e another. ference betwee n food and p o i s o n ,
D u Fu (71 2-770) , a renowned poet of f o o d a n d man, city a n d m a n , f o o d and
t h e T'ang dynasty, so e l o q u ently city. . . . A l l of these concepts are i nf i ­
expresses t h e coalescence of matter n it e l y c l ose to one another. W h at i s
in i m man ence, the way in which food, i m po rtant i s how we d ef i n e it with i n
s pace, t i me, us, a n d all the other e l e­ i m m ane nce a n d h ow i t defines u s ;
m e nts t h at perta i n e d i n the event t h a t i s , h ow w e a r e affected b y it a n d
swi r l s i nto one another prod u c i n g t h e h o w it affects u s_; h o w a l l t h e e l e­
event. H ow everyt h i n g i s d e f i n e d o n l y m e nt s r u n i nto compos i t i o n w i t h i n the
f r o m t h e i m manent r e l a t i o n s taken event. You never know beforehand
w i t h i n t h e eve nt. w hat i s food a n d w hat i s p o i s o n .
B o a t i n g Aft e r a C o l d F o o d D ay 16
"I try to drink, but food is still c o l d on festive day;
In hermit's cap, at table drear and b l e ak I s tay.
My b o at is drifting on above a mirrored sky;
The flowers l o o k veiled in mist to wrinkl e d eye.
The listless curtains s e e butterflies dancing p ast;
Over the rapids, gull s on gulls are skimming fast.
For miles and miles outspread cloud o n cloud, hill on hill;
But the imperial town lies farther northward still."
(Zhong 1 992: 94-5)

Spinoza, Practical Philosophy 1 988: 1 25 ) .

Eth o l ogy i n vo l v e s a focus on
p ro cesses, on what h a p p e n s
between t h e e l e m e nts. D e l e u z e
form u l ates t h i s a s s u c h : " . . . t h ere are
no such t h i ng s as u n i versa l s, th ere's
not h i n g transcendent, no U n ity, s u b ­
ject ( o r object), Reason ; t h e re are
o n l y processes, somet i mes u n if y i n g ,
subj ect ify i n g , rat iona l i z i n g , but j u st
processes a l l t h e same" ( D e l euze 1 995:
145). I n stead of p l a c i n g food as the
central p o i n t of this book, asc r i b i n g
its re lations to i t (food ) , o u r focus i s
o n t h e w a y these relat i o n s are b e i n g
pro d u ced. W hat f u n ct i o n s with food,
what comes with food, w hat food
expresses. It i s a Heractitean
approach . . . on h ow food is p rod uced
and o n how food p rod uces. O n h ow
food i s to t h e c ity, to concepts such
T h i s poem says it a l l. It is t h i s way i n
w h i c h D u F u orga n i zes h i s poem that
this book i s organized. A s an et h o l o ­
g y , as a t h i n k i n g with the 'and' i nstead
of t h i n k i n g for the 'is ' ( D e l euze and
Parnet 1 977: 57) . Et hology: a concept
D e l e u z e reads i n 'the Eth i cs' of
S p inoza in w h i c h he approached
h u m an pas s i o n s in a geometric sty l e
( E u c l idean a n d n o n- E u c l i dean) j u st
as if it were an i nvest i g a t i o n i nto
-l i nes, p l anes, a n d bodies ( S p i noza
2001 : 3). O r, in kee p i n g with our con­
cepts, in terms of the relat i o n ; i n
terms of corre l ates; i n terms of
affect s ; i n terms of conte nt/exp res­
s i o n ; in terms of form-substance; i n
terms o f mate r i a l ity. I n terms of
events. Et h o l o g y concerns an o p e n ­
n e s s to p rocesses ( b o d i es, reg i mes,
Mate r i a l ity has coded matter i n some
vague corporeal essences, but in the
e n d , t h e eater a n d the eaten a re o n l y
d ef i ned i n t h e i r i m manent relation t o
e a c h other, i n the way t h e y m ove
accord i n g to o n e another wit h i n t h e
event. The c o n s u m a b l es are d ef i ne d
i n re l at i o n to t h e s u p e rmarket i n
w h i c h they are stored. The customer
i s d ef i n ed in relation to t h e t e m poral
a n d spat i a l folds of the fastfood
restau rant. ..
Only ethology can answer the question
' What is food?' s i nce o n l y et h o l og y
l o o k s at food o n t h e bas i s o f how it
re lates and i s re l ated wit h i n the event.
Et ho l o g y e n a b l e s an o n t o l o g y of
t h e event, an onto l o g y of
s e n s at i o n s .

16 ' C o l d -food Day' ma rked the end of a three-day period i n which C h i nese f a m i l i es were prohi bited from m a k i n g f i re at home. It was a l so the season
in which they v i s ited their ancestral burial grounds. 31
 A SOCIO-POLITICS OF O R G A N I Z AT I O N

---· �

32
A F CJ Cl ll A N D T H E C I TY
When v i s i t i n g a c ity, your t o u r i st g u i d e p robab ly i nforms
you on h ow food a n d this part i c u lar city are related. H e
wou l d te l l y o u t hat B oston i s k n o w n a s ' Bean Town ' ; h e
wou l d te l l you t hat B a n g a lo re actu a l l y means 'the t o w n of
boi l ed bea n s ' . . . A bove a l l , he wou l d t e l l you what part i c u ­
lar foods c a n be enj oyed wit h i n the b o u n d a r i es o f t h i s c ity.
In H a n g z h o u , you s h o u l d go for t h e "Lotus Root filled with
Sweetened Rice" or t h e " West Lake Shield Soup " . I n
Ban g a l ore, you have t o taste t h e 'Ragi-balls '. Boston i s
famo u s for its "Clam Chowder" and o f course, "Boston
Baked Beans " . Lyon is known for its famous 'Saucisson sec'
and its 'A ndoui//ette ', w h i c h , p refera b l y, is served w i t h a
n i ce 'Beaujolais '. O n e top chef f rom Lyon stated: " It a l y
c a n n ever g e t r i d o f its pasta o r i t s p i z za " (07-30-
02a). A n i nterest i n g arg u m e nt t hat n evert h e l ess does n ot
seem to l i m i t itself to a cou ntry s u c h as Italy. I n fact, it
s e e m s that m a n y c i t i e s are res i g n e d to l i v i n g w i t h
'th e i r ' part i c u l a r d i s h e s , w i t h w h atever m e a l i s
i d e nt i f i ed w i t h t h e m .
I n t h e exa m p l es a bove, the concepts o f ' c ity' a n d ' d i s h ' act
toget h e r s i nce they are i m m a n e nt l y assoc i ated with each
other. In read i n g c o n s u m pt i o n hab its, M a rv i n H a r r i s pro­
poses a c u lt u ra l m ate r i a l i st's view in h i s argument that i t
is t h e s o i l that con n ects t h e f o o d s to t h e spaces. Very s i m ­
p l y, t h i s means t hat a com m u n ity eats w h atever i s prov i d ­
e d b y i t s l a n d , b u t h i s argu ment i s m o r e ref i n ed than t h is.
A s to the H i n d u prefe ren ce for not eat i n g beef, for
i nstance, h e q u ite conv i n c i n g l y estab l ishes t hat h e re , t h e
l a n d has b e e n m ost i nf l uent i a l i n the evo l ut i o n of t h i s
avers i o n . E v e n ' r e l i g i o u s r u les' regard i n g f o o d , h e c l a i m s ,
c a n ofte n be read as a consequence of t h e way t h e s o i l
( t h e 'terroir' as t h e Fre n c h so n i cely put i t ) i s f a r m e d i n
t hat it a l ways a l ready f o r m s eat i n g habits. "The conver­
l o n g e r i t i s e n o u g h to say t h at t h e s o i I stands
between t h e people a n d its foods. O r at l east i t i s a s o i l
that comes w i t h a d ifferent n o t i o n o f s pacet i me. H o w e l se
do we ex p l a i n that Boston is famous for its Ita l i a n c u i s i ne,
Lyon for its N orth-African d ishes? Loca l t o u r i sts v i s i t i ng
H a n g z h o u are very m uch i nterested i n t h e fore i g n resta u­
rants t h ey can f i nd there ( n ot only Western d i ners s u c h as
M c D o n a l d 's or K F C , but also J a p a n ese restau rants, and
n owadays, p l aces where Korean food i s served ) .
W i t h respect to t h e p resent-day c ity, t h e connect i o n
between i t s food and its p e o p l e h a s g rown i nc re d i b l y com­
p l ex. I t i s a m u lt i p l icity of abstract forces t hat produces
c o n necti o n s w i t h t h e e d i b l e t hat seems to be i n creas i ng l y
a r b i t rary. H a r r i s wou l d have g reat d ifficu lty expla i n i n g why
the city of B oston i s l i n ked to Boston Cream Pie a n d n ot
to roast beef a n d cabbage or to t h e D u n k i n ' D o n uts that
a p pears to be t h e most popular Boston i an breakfast
eatery; or why the city of Lyon is not p r i m a r i l y l i n ked to t h e
potent p e a r l i q u o r and to t h e pa i n -a u -c h ocolat (chocolate
b u n ) that i s e m p hatica l l y m ore often c o n s u m e d a n d a pp re­
c i ated t h a n t h e andou i l l ette. M a rv i n H a r r i s's arg u m e nts
f a l l s h ort when one enters the s pace of the present-day
city for they do n ot answe r to t h e i n c reas i ng arbitra r i ness
a n d i l l o g i c a l i t y of ' r u l e s ' o r
' habits' formed with i n t h e
spaces o f t h e c ity. I n exp l a i n i n g
�
..f-1 � m a i n l y r u r a l l ife, h i s a r g u m e nts
u ..f-1 d o n ot te l l u s why the con n ec-
ro � t i o n made between a part i c u lar
.....
Q) d i s h to a city seems i s as ran-
,..c: �
rn ro d a m as l i n k i ng the word
·� ' H an g z h o u ' to the city of
"O
,,.. s H
• Hangzhou . . . Why i s it n ot c a l l e d

s Q)
s i o n of beef i nto forb i d d e n f l es h o r i g i n ated in the p ract i c a l K i n - s a i ? O r J i ng s h i ?
l if e o f i n d i v i d ua l farmers," h e c o n c l u d e s (Harris 1 991 : 221 ) . "O N evert h e l e s s , a l t h o u g h t h e
· � ,..c:
I n a sense, he r e m i nds u s of t h e pract i cal o r i g i n of ' r u les' � ..f-1 c o n n ect i o n betwe e n a d i s h
that nevert h e less seem to lead a d ifferent l ife t h e m o m e nt ro Q) 0 a n d a c i t y i s a r b i t ra ry, t h e
they are i d e n t i f i e d as a ' r u l e' ( o r ' ha b i t ' , or 'trad i t i on ' , a n d .....
H i d ea t h at t h i s l i n k i n g i t s e l f
s o fort h ) . A pers pective that m i g ht p e r h a p s t e l l u s s o m e ­ � ro ,..c: repeated l y takes p l ac e
t h i ng m ore a b o u t t h e relation between f o o d and t h e c i t i e s
..f-1 � u s e e m s n o t to be a r b i tra ry.
·�
o f H a n g z h o u , B o s t o n , B a n g a l ore, or Lyon i n the above­ u Q) ro Our scope m ig ht be l i m ited to
m e n t i oned cases.
,,..
,..c: Q) t h e c it i e s of H a n g z h o u , Boston,
� ..f-1
0 Q) ,..c:
I f we want to trans l ate H a r r i s 's t h o ughts regard i n g r u r a l Bangal o re, a n d Lyon , but we
I i f e to t h e present-day c ity, we need to push his argu ment ..f-1· d a re to state t hat t h e re are
·�
a b i t f u rt h e r. The city (as com pared to a r u r a l area) i s rn u many m o re cities that have cola-
beco m i n g i ncreas i n g ly c o m p l ex as it i s redef i ned by other ..f-1 � � n i zed d i shes, h ave created a
P. · � formal relation between t h e d i s h
Q) rn "O
c i t i es , by tech n i q u es, by med ia, by t h e i m m i g rants that
have sett l e d i n it, etc. I n t h e c ity, a m u lt it u d e of p h e n o m e ­
u H ..f-1 Q) a n d the c ity, t h at part i c u l a r
na i s capab l e of form i n g a n d refo r m i n g c o n s u m p t i o n i n one d i shes can perhaps e v e n b e
way o r t h e other. A n d this i s not s i m p l y a quantitative d i f­ � Q) ro c o n s i d e red i ntegral parts o f t h e
0 ,..c: · �
ference with t h e c o u ntrys i d e (the city i s n ever s i m p l y a
u ..f-1 u terr itory o f t h e c ity. T h e y b e l o n g

0
Q) Q)
larger corre l ate t h a n t h e rural area), but m uch m ore a to it l i ke its i n ha b itants a n d i t s
qualitative one. Because of t h e m ere mass of forces e nter­
bO rn streets, its t rees a n d its traff ic.
i ng t h e c ity a n d the speed by w h i c h they t rave l , the city ,..c: 0 rn T h u s , w h e n e v e r we are
t u r n s o u t to be rad i c a l l y d ifferent from the count rys i d e. N o � ..f-1 ro i nterested in t h e con n ec - 33
 t i o n s betwee n food a n d t h e c i ty,
we s h o u l d n ot focus p r i m a r i l y o n
w hy t h i s c o m m o n a l ity i s p ro­
d u c e d , but more so o n how t h i s
con n ection i s cont i n u a l l y b e i n g
re- pro d u c e d . We s h o u l d focus o n
t h i s i m ma n e nt con nect i o n as it m a n i ­
fests itself i n t h e t o u r i st g u i d es we
consu lt, in t h e restau rants we v i s it, i n
t h e streets w e wa l k t h r o u g h . We
s h o u l d focus o n h ow, w it h i n a m ost
s i n g u l a r event, a m e a l i s at once
defined as be l o n g i n g to the c ity of
Boston ; a p i e at once t u rn s i nto a
' Boston Cream P i e ' .

8 T H E P O L I S , T H E - P U il
I n order to u n d e rstand i n w h at way a city capt u res a m e a l ,
we s h o u l d p l ace more e m p h a s i s on how we concept u a l i z e
the 'city' and what h a p p e n s i n i t . O n t h e c ityscape, t h e
' u r ban mass' and the way it f u nct i o n s i s a m u lt i p l icity of
c rossroads t hat d rapes itself accord i n g to its territory a n d
a t t h e same t i m e s u r passes i t . I t f e e d s i t s e l f by fo l d i n g
itself w i t h t h e l a n d scape, t h e roads, t h e r i vers, t h e ' natural
hab itat' , the p e o p l e, a n d t h e d i s h es. And it a l ways reor­
g a n izes17 itself accord i n g to whatever becomes ' i m po r­
tant'. It i m manently c reates h i erarc h i es, d i s c r i m i n ates
betwee n t h e good a reas a n d the bad areas, betwee n the
' go o d ' p e o p l e a n d t h e n ot so good people, betwe e n the
'trad i t i o n a l d i s h e s ' a n d the n ot s o tra d i t i o n a l d i shes.
In a m i cro- p o l itical way, t h e re are a lways powers act ive
that esta b l i s h contact betwee n u nformed m atter a n d
unfo r ma l i ze d f u n c t i ons, forces o f u n i f i ca t i o n , forces of
d i versificat i o n . Wit h i n its c o m i n g together, t h e re is a lways
reorganization t a k i n g p l ace, an overcod i n g act ive w it h i n
t h e c ity.
I n ot h e r words, what we refer to as 'the city ' a l ways comes
in twos. The G reek concept of po/is a n d t h e Sanskrit con­
cept of -pur both capture this double art i c u l at i o n s i nce
-0 t h ese concepts refer to w hat can be c a l l ed 'the town­
0
0 form' and at t h e same time they make reference to what is
-
.
Q) conceptual ized as 'the State-fo r m ' . The town-form a n d
....
"'
....
t h e State-form a r e t w o concepts v e r y d ifferent from o n e
(/)
another, yet t h e y a re f u nctions o f o n e a n ot h e r. The town­
form a n d the State-form are two forms that fold i nto one
another l i ke m e l ody and h a r m o ny, l i ke the h o r i zontal and
t h e ve rt ical.
The town-form i s a p h e n o m e n o n of transconsistency; it
s hows u s the city within a n etwor k with ot h e r c i t i es. It
f u n ct i o n s as a correlate of many roads t h at come toget h e r
a n d d e f i n e i t . It i s a s u rface, a betwe e n , a m i d d l e, as it i s
t i ed u p i n a m u lt i p l icity o f s u rfaces, betweens, or m i dd l es.
In t h i s case, the po/is, the -pur, i s a fo rce of connect i o n .
The State-fo rm i s a p h e n o m e n o n o f intraconsistency.
" It makes p o i nt s resonate together, points t h at are n ot
necess a r i l y town - p o l es but very d i verse p o i nts of order,
geograph ic, et h n ic, l i n g u istic, moral, econ om ic, tec h n o l o g ­
ical part ic u l ar i t i e s . I t m a kes t h e town resonat e with t h e
cou ntrys i d e " ( Deleuze and G uatta r i 1 987: 432). I n t h i s case,
the city is a force t h at o r g a n i z e s itself and its s u r r o u n d ­
i n gs. W h at i s i ns i d e AN D w h a t i s o uts i d e t h e city.
C a u s i n g t h e m to f u nct i o n together. C a u s i n g t h e m to p ro­
d u ce o n e another wit h i n i m m a n e nce. T h e city con s u m es
what t h e cou ntrys i d e produces ( prod u cts, laborers), w h i l e
.-.· -- t h e cou ntrys i d e consumes what t h e city produces ( d e m a n d
34 for products, d e m a n d for laborers). They h ave the same
rhyt h m , t h e s a m e pu lse. H ere, t h e po/is, t h e -pur, i s a
force of organization.
T h e re l a t i o n betwe e n a c i t y a n d other c i t i e s is d if­
ferent f r o m_ t h e con n ect i o n t h e city has w i t h t h e
cou ntrys i d e : i n the tow n -f o r m , we see t h at t h e c ity
i s con nected to another city in terms of the road
(the c i ty a s a p h e n o m e n o n of 'tra n s co n s i st e n c y ' ) ;
i n t h e State-fo r m , t h e c i t y i s o r g a n i zed i n re l a t i o n
to t h e cou ntrys i d e by t h e wal l ( t h e c i t y as a p h e­
n o m e n o n of ' i ntraco n s i st e n c y ' ) . I n t h e tow n -form, we
see that t h e c i t i e s f u nct i o n together on t h e bas i s of equali­
ty i n a hori zontal way. I n the State-for m , we see that t h e
c i t y a n d the c o u nt rys i d e resonate o n t h e basis of
hierarchy, in a vertical way.
It i s t h e State-fo r m t h at w i l l get most of o u r att e n ­
t i o n i n t h i s p a rt. Fo r it i s t h r o u g h t h i s part i c u l a r
f o r m o f sove re i g nty, w h i c h w e w i l l ca l l ' c u l i n a ry
sovere i g nt y ' , t h at we can u n d erstand how a city
can capture a meal; how a s h i e l d s o u p t u r n s i nto a
' West Lake Shield Soup'; h ow it overcodes a cream p i e i nto
a 'Boston Cream Pie '; how it can t u r n ba l l s of st icky rice
with h e rbs i nto a B a n g a l o rean 'Ragi-ball', o r a sausage
f i l l e d with i ntest i n e s i nto a n Lyonese; A ndouillette'. It is
the State-fo rm, the force of o r g a n i zat i o n , t h at b r i n g s t h i s
about. I t i s t h e State-form t h at c reates ' State-
food ' . The town-form does not d o t hat. I t b r i n g s the i n g re­
d i e nts toget h e r, but does n ot s u bj ect t h e m to a f o r m a l
s e m i o l ogy; it does n ot dete rrito r i a l i z e t h e m accord i n g to
its organizat i o n . It d oes n ot ' name' the d i s hes o r i n c l u d e
t h e m w it h i n i t s territory.
T h e State-form controls, the State-form i m poses a c u l i­
nary sovere i g nty that names a n d i nc l udes a d is h i n order
to fortify its wa l l s. It creates d ifference i n a sense that it
names a s e lf, a city, as o p posed to t h e cou ntrys i d e, w h i l e
it n a m e s a State-food as o p posed to a correlate o f i n g re d i ­
e n t s . T h i s i s w h at we mean with t h e concept o f t h e wal l .
T hat a State-form r u l e s by d ef i n i n g " a " as o p posed to " b " .
I t r u les b y creat i n g oppositions. Max We ber a l ready t e l l s
u s t hat ( Weber 1 968) . That i s what w e m e a n to say w h e n we
argue t hat t h e w a l l is t h e i m portant i n st r u m e nt to the
State-form. For i n applying its wal l s, t h e State-form
17 A r e-o rganization, and n o t an organization, s i nce "an o r d e r always
and a l ready concerns prior orders" ( De l euze and G u attari 1987: 75).
A n organ ization i s always a re-organ ization s i nce it i s always an action
upon a n act ion. It i s by defi n ition a transformation, a transmutat i o n , a
metamorphosis. A most common twist that takes p l ace al I around us .
I n a n y situation o f everyday l ife, w e can see t h i s taking place ri ght
before o u r eyes.
striates, reorgan i zes, o rders.
This i s why the power of t h e city i s
never l i m ited by t h ese wal l s ; on the
contrary, it a lways r u l es both s i des. It
creates State-food i n formal relat i ons
to t h e i ngredi ents t hat com pose it. It
creates a city in a formal relation to
t h e c o u nt rys i d e that composes it. B y
creat i ng t h e power- re l a t i o n s , the
State-form necessari ly expan d s the
c ity beyo n d its g ates.
It i s a conseque nce of its cal I for
order, its control of t h e mecha n i s m s
of prod u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m pt i o n .
Fo l l ow i n g D e l e uze, we d i sagree with
t h e evo l u t i o n ist claim that a g r i c u l t u re
has created t h e city. O n t h e contrary,
it is the State-for m , as it is always
a l ready i n s i d e t h e c ity, that i n its
q uest for control, has created a g r i c u l -
t u re. That has ordered the production
of food to fit its need to consume.
A n y sovere i g nty t h u s a lways
r u l e s beyo nd its wal ls. And it
cont i n uo u s l y erects new wal l s i n
order to g a i n control both wit h i n a n d
o ut s i d e its borders. It i n corporates a
search for control t h at never ends. It
c o nt i n u o u s l y re-str i ates, reord e rs,
reorgan izes as to (re) g a i n contro l .
To f i g ht c haos. To g a i n control. To
f i g ht c haos. To g a i n contro l . . .

C A P P 0 I N T I N c; T Ii E I( I N c;
A State-form i s n ot a stat ic body h a n g i n g over o u r heads;
it i s operat i o n a l i n every event we p l ug i nto. It i s act u a l ­
ized w it h i n material ity i n a m icro-po l i t i c a l w a y as o u r case
of c u l i nary sovere i g nty c l e a r l y s hows. O n the one h a n d ,
State-food expresses c u l i nary sovere i g nty; on t h e other
hand, it produces it. The State-form i s i m m a n e n t l y
expressed by it a n d with i t . T h i s expre s s i o n w o r k s i n a two­
f o l d way. C u l i nary sovere i g nty i s a p h e n o m e n o n of i nt ra­
cons i stency a n d t h u s c o m b i nes the pos i t i o n s of t h e con­
verter and the capturer.
These two concepts a re taken from a classical st u d y o n
I nd a - E u ropean sovere i g nty by G eorges D u m ez i l ( D u m e z i l
1 988) . Varuna a n d Mitra, Jupiter and Fides, Raj a n d
Brahman, Odhinn and Tyr (The O n e- Eyed G o d a n d t h e O n e­
H a n d ed G o d ) are a l l expre s s i o n s of t h is d o u b l e mach i ne.
I n every case t h e re i s a d o u b l e mecha n i s m of d o m i n a t i o n
t h at i s a i me d at p ro d u c i n g an i nward orga n i zation. T h ey
a lways ope rate as a c o u p l e ; they f u n c t i o n as a p a i r. " T h e
t w o Ashvin a r e i nd e pe n d e n t a n d e q u i va l e nt to the p o i nt of
b e i n g i nd i st i n g u i s h a b l e " ( D u m e z i l 1 988: 1 80). "At m ost, one
can p rov i d e samples a n d say, for i nstance, t h at o n e of t h e
t w o components ( Varuna, etc.) covers t h a t w h i c h i s
i ns p i red, u n p re d i ctab le, f re n z i e d , swift, m a g i c a l , t e r r i b l e ,
d a r k , d e m a n d i n g , tota l it a r i a n , i u n i or, a n d s o o n ; w h e reas
the other (the Mitra s i d e ) covers t hat w h i c h i s reg u l at e d ,
exact, majest i c , s l ow, j u r i d i c a l , ben evo l e nt, l i g ht, l i beral,
d i st r i b u t i ve, s e n i o r, a n d so on" ( D u m e z i l 1 988: 1 77).
Once they were d i sti nct, the Satapatha Brahmana argues ,
but t h e n Varuna s a i d to Mitra: " . . . t u r n toward m e ( upa
mavartasva), so that we may be u n ited (samsrjavahai) ;
I ass i g n you p r i ority ( p u ras tva karava i ) " ( D um ez i l 1 988:
178). N ow they f u n ct i o n as a p a i r that orga n i ze s : kratu, t h e
p o i nt f ro m w h i c h power i s form u l at e d , a n d daksa, t h e p o i nt
from w h i c h power i s exec uted, the d es pot and t h e organ­
i z e r, t h e fearsome K i n g - M a g i c i a n a n d t h e technocrat ic
J u r i st-Pri est, or as we w i l l refer to them, t h e ' K i ng ' a n d
t h e ' J u r i st ' . A ny State-form i s organ i z ed t h o u g h t h i s
d o u b l e mac h i ne.
Ret u r n i n g to the i s s u e of food, we can say t h at t h e
K i n g , t h e l e g i s l at i v e power, defi n e s i t s t e r r i tory, it
r u l e s ; it d e c i d e s that a part i c u l a r meal b e l o n g s to
a part i c u l a r s pace, that ' a c u l t u re ' i n cor porates
' it's d i s h e s ' , and v i c e versa. A n art i c u l a t i o n of w hat
A N ll T Ii E .. J lJ I� I S T
D u m ez i l conceptua l ized as t h e K i n g , i d e ntifies, t u r n s a
corre l ate of i n g re d i ents i nto State-food. A K i n g decl ares
that the city of H a n g z h o u i s expressed in the Longg i ng tea
w h i l e it is expressed by it.
A tea farmer exp l a i n s : " A l s o , I have to t e l l you w h e re t h e
L o n g g i n g tea c o m e s from. T h e E m peror Chia-No l eft
B e i j i ng for a v i s i t to H a n g z h o u . W h e n he f e l t t i red, he
stopped and went to a tea farm er's h o u se to d r i n k some
tea. After d r i n k i n g , h e t h o u g ht t h e tea was q u it e good.
T h e re were e i g hteen tea t rees outs i d e t h e farm from w h i c h
t h i s t e a came. N owadays, t h e s e t e a t rees are st i l l h e re. Yo u
h ave to know that these t rees can b.ecome rea l l y o l d . They
a re st i l l ca l l ed The E i g hteen Tea Trees for t h e E m p e ro r. H e
n a m e d t h e t e a after t h e s e e i g hteen t rees, the D ragon
We l l " (04-28-0 1 a ) .
S i m i l a r l y, a King decl ares t h e ' Parker H ouse Roll' to
express t h e city of Boston, w h i l e t h e city of B oston i s
expressed by the ' Parker H o use R o l l ' . The manager o f the
Parker H ou s e a d m its: " . . . a n d the Parker H ouse R o l l s
act u a l l y were i nvented here, a n d perfected. T h e y act u a l l y
became f a m o u s because P res i d e nt R oosevelt was h av i ng
a State d i n n e r, a n d he was part i a l to t h e ro l l h e had w h e n
h e w a s h e re i n t h e hot e l . H i s wife wanted to be a b l e to
serve this ro l l , a n d s h e a l so wanted to g et the reci p e pub­
l i shed. S o they asked to h ave the rec i pe g i ven o ut, a n d
that made t h e papers. I t b e c a m e nat i o n a l l y recog n i zed,
a n d so t h e Parker H ou s e rolls i m m e d i at e l y became
famous. They have a lot of h i story, a n d we keep that tradi­
t i o n g o i n g " ( 1 0-31 -01 ).
In both sto r i e s we see t hat a n art i c u l at i o n of the K i n g
p ro c l a i m s the trad i t i o n ; i n t h e f i rst story, it i s t h e E m peror
Chia-No; i n t h e second story, it i s E l eanor Rooseve lt. B ut
w hat i s more i nterest i n g to see i s that t h e v o i c e s of t h e
K i n g s a r e e c h oed by t h e 'trad i t i o n a l restau rants '
as they take u p t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e K i n g i n defi n i n g
w h at t h e trad i t i o n i s s u p posed to be. I n t h e second
story t h i s i s m ost clear as h e re it i s t h e Parker H ou s e
i t s e l f that p ro u d l y reiterates the P a r k e r H ouse R o l l s . The
Parker H ou s e becomes a trad i t i o n a l restau rant a n d p l ays a
p i votal r o l e s i nce it is t h i s p l ace t hat ' keep[s] the t rad i t i o n
g o i n g ' . I n H a n g z h o u , t h e h u n d reds o f 'tra d i t i o n a l tea-hous­
es' take up this position of rep rod u c i n g this conce pt of
t rad i t i o n . T h o u g h n ot l it e ra l ly m e n t i o n e d in t h e f i rst story, 35
 it is t h r o u g h t h e m that the voice of t h e
E m peror echoes. The 'trad i t i o n a l
restaurants' re-art i c u l ate t h e power
of the K i n g . State-food is o r g a n ­
i z e d t h r o u g h w h at h ave b e c o m e
trad i t i o n a l resta u r a n t s .
C o n ce pts l i ke 'trad i t i o n ' , ' h e r i t a g e ' ,
' l ocal specia lty' a re i n need of a
' K i n g ' to d efi n e t h e m . Som ehow
authority has to favor t h e L o ng g i n g
tea over t h e j as m i n e t e a t hat i s pro­
d uced o n l y a m i l e away. S o m e h ow
author ity has to favor the Parker
H ou s e Role over the D u n k i n D o n ut
that i s produced o n l y one b l ock down
the road. In whatever way art i c u l ated,
it i s t h e a r b it rary King w h o d e c i d es
that the Andouil/ette is c o n s i dered
Lyonese trad i t i o n and not pain-au­
chocolat (chocolate b u n ) or t h e pear
l i q u o r. H i s royal exc l a m a t i o n s keep
e m phas i z i ng t hat the Sambar, a n d n ot
t h e sandwich, is part of the t rad i t i o n a l
B a n g a l orean b reakfast.
We fol low D u m e z i l s a r g u m ents on
sovere i g nty w h e n we notice t h at n ext
to t h e K i n g , t h e re is t h e J u r i st, t h e
execut i ve power t h a t cont i n u o u s l y
reshapes the pract ices accord i n g t o
t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e K i n g as h e i denti­
-0 f i e s , reo r g a n i zes, a n d redef i n es.
0
0 W h ereas t h e power of t h e K i n g
.....
'
arrows at t h e t o u r i st. C u l i n ary sov­
e re i g nty overcodes the o u t s i d e r
i nto a t o u r i st a n d t h u s m a kes i t
f u n ct i o n u n d e r i t s contro l .
Fo r with t h e C o d e (the t o u r i st g u ide)
•
i n h a n d , t h e t o u r i st i nterprets the city
accord i n g to t h e voice of t h e K i n g .
A n d with t h a t h e redefines t h e city,
ove rcod i ng it accord i ng to H i s
d e m a n d s . T h e K i n g e m p l oys t h e
t o u r i st i n two ways. O n the o n e h a n d ,
t h e t o u r i st i s created by a n o t i o n of _
' l oc a l ity' 18; on t h e oth e r h a n d , he pro­
duces t h i s same notion. On t h e o n e
h a n d , the t o u r i st i s attracted to the
city because of its ' part i c u l a r ity' ( i n
o u r case; State-food ) ; o n t h e other
hand, it i s the t o u r i st that produces
t h i s same part i c u l a r ity ( o r State­
food ) . The t o u r i st produces it w h i l e h e
i s c o n s u m e d b y it. I t i s t h u s that t h e
utte rmost conservative reg i m e comes
i nto being. Between t h e restau rant
and the t o u r i st. C reat i n g the t o u r i st
that cont i n u es to be i nterested i n
those local s p e c i a l t i es o f t h e Fre n c h
c u i s i ne, a n d t h e t rad i t i o n a l restau­ chowder. . . 'Clam Chowder'. A n d w h e n
rants, the 'bouchons ' of t h e city of you g o to a restau rant, t h e 'Clam
Lyo n , t hat, accord i ng to a Lyonese Chowder' is very, very t h i ck. I d o n 't
j o u r n a l i st, are " ... m u s e u m - l i ke i n a know if you ate t hat a l ready. . . at
sense t hat t h e i r s o l e f u n c t i o n i s to Leg a I 's or a p l ace I i ke t h at. A p r u d e nt
m a i nt a i n the tradition and keep the New E n g l a n d housewife wou l d n ever

<ll i s p ract i ced t h ro u g h t h e t r a d i ­ h e r itage" (07-27-02). Both t h e t o u r i st use al I t hat cream to make a big pot.
-

"'
-
t i o n a l restau rants, it i s t h e
(J)
'to u r i st ' w h o becomes t h e m ost
i m p o rtant cog in the m a c h i n e of
.... the J u r i st s i n c e it is t h e t o u r i st
a::
cc t h ro u g h w h i c h t h e Laws of
11.
' State-food ' are p ract i c e d . As we
s a i d ear l i e r, q uo t i n g D e l e uze, i n its
att e m pts to control w h at l i es outside
it, t h e State-form m akes t h e city res­
o nate with what l i es outs i d e it (t h e
c o u ntryside). Li kewise, it a i m s i t s
1 8 Appadurai seems to subscribe t h i s i m por­
tance of the outsider i n the construction of
' l ocality' when he states: " I view l ocal ity as
primari l y relational and contextual rather than
as scalar or spat i a l " (Appadurai 1 996: 1 78).
19 Derrida makes the same claim concern i ng
the role of art. He asserts that it is not the
' s ignature' of the artist that comes fi rst; it i s
the 'counters ignature' o f society t h a t fi rst h a s
to create a context i n w h i ch a r t can t a k e p l ace
before the artist i s able to make the ' s i g n ature'
36 ( Brunette and W i l l s 1 994) .
a n d t h e restaurant are organ ized
accord i n g to t h e perpet u a l and con­
servat ive mach i n e of c u l i nary sover­
e i g nty pro d u c i n g State-food a lo n g the
way... t h e "Lotus Root filled with
Sweetened Ric e " , t h e ' West Lake
Shield Soup', the 'Ragi-ba/ls ', the
'Clam Chowder', t h e famous d ried
sausage a n d their a n d o u i l l ette, etc.,
are all a l ready overcoded by t h i s
a p pa ratus.
The ' K i n g ' and the ' J u r i st' are
eq u a l l y act i v e forces t h at o p e r­
ate i n a b i - u n i vocal way as
D u m ez i l a l ready c l a i m e d ; t h e
l e g i s l a t i v e a n d t h e j u d i c i a ry
f u n ct i o n a s a p a i r. They defi n e one
another. Together they form the u n ity
of compos i t i o n of c u l i nary sovere i g n ­
ty. Eve ry t i m e t h e y are art i c u l ated d if­
ferently, but they are composed i n a
s i m i l a r way. They worked h a n d i n h a n d
i n redef i n i n g t h e B oston 'Clam
Chowder': " M y mother made a l ot of
For her fam i l y, she wou l d a l ways u s e
m i l k" ( 1 1 -27-0 1 ) . T h e restau rant c o u l d ­
n ' t h ave d o n e it with out t h e h e l p of
the tour i st s i nce it is the J u r i st, the
j u d i c i ary, w h o creates t h e co ntext i n
w h i c h t h e K i n g , t h e l e g i s l ator, can
propose its b i l l . T h u s , we can even say
that the f i rst step is taken by t h e
J u r ist s i nce y o u f i rst n e e d the idea of
a C o d e ; i n order to form u l ate a Law,
you f i rst need to have an idea of tradi­
tion before the owner of a famous
bouchon can proud ly state, "Th i s i s a
typical local p l ace" (07-1 2-02a).19 Fo r
a l t h o u g h the d ef i n it i o n of trad i t i o n i s
c reated by t h e 'Association pour la
Defense des Bouchons Lyonnais '
(Associat i o n for t h e M a i ntenance of
the Lyonese Bouchon) as t h e i r com­
mands create a st r i ct opposition
betwe e n t h e bouchons 19 and t h ose
restau rants n ot cons i d e red 'trad i t i o n ­
a l ', it i s t h e t o u ri st, t h e o n e w h o p o p u ­
l ates i t , w h o acce pts a n d acts accord-
i n g to t h i s rhetoric. The t o u r i st g i ves
the trad i t i o n a l restau rant its stage,
creat i n g the s pace for its perform­
ance. It i s the t o u r i st who c reates t h e
concept o f t h e t rad i t i o n a l restaurant
before the t r a d i t i o n a l restaurant cre­
food for the locals anymore" (07-26-
02b) s i nce t h ere was no 'ty pical foo d '
before t h e t o u r i st a r r i v e d . T h e
t o u r i st i s n o t the i nventor o f t h e
l o c a l d i s h - t h e t rad i t i o n a l
rest a u rant i s i n c h a r g e o f t h at -
c i t y center, they reorgan-
i ze p u b l i c transportat i o n , the
notion of h i story, t h e d ef i n it i o n
o f a restau rant. To u r i sts
( r e ) d ef i n e w h atever t h e ' l oca l '
p e o p l e co n s i d e r t h e i r i d e nt i t y . ..

ates the t o u r i st.
The K i n g d raws up t h e b i l l, but we
cannot say t h e K i n g i s i n 'control'; t h e
K i n g i s n ot i n charge o f t h e J u r i st ;
t h ey a r e a lways i n a re l at i on o f sym­
b i o s i s for t h i s b i l l t h e King i ntends to
s u b m it has to f i t t h e context the
J u ri st has c reated . In ot h e r words,
restau rants have to adj u st to the
wishes of the t o u r i st. In the case of
the Beggars C h icken in H a n g z h o u , t h e
J u ri st even ove rru l ed the K i n g : " . . . t h e
Beggars C h icken u s e d to be se rved
covered i n m u d . N ow they have taken
the mud away " (05-07-01 ). The t o u r i st
does not l i ke m u d on h i s p l ate, so
the ' l ocal d i s h ' s h o u l d be served
without it; they have redef i n e d it,
reorg a n i zed it.
I t i s the t o u r i st w h o j u stifies t h e
decree o f the K i n g b y h i s act i ons. We
h ave a l ready e m phasi zed t hat a
State-form i s not created as an
i ns i d e , but rat h e r i n s i sts o n control­
l i n g t h e relation between t h e i n s i d e
and t h e outs i d e. T hat i s w h y Bad i o u
c a n note t h at t h e State-form i s not
based o n a s o c i a l bond w h i c h it wou l d
express, but rat h e r o n its d i s s o l ut i o n ,
w h i c h i t forbids (Badiou 1 988: 1 25).
Thus, it i s not s u r p r i s i n g that one
wo u l d hear t h i s arg u m e nt: "I wou l d
say t h a t a l o t o f t h e typical f o o d has
become food for tour i sts, and not
b ut i n t h e exec u t i o n of its o r g a n ­
i zat i o n , t h e t o u r i st p l ayed a
p i votal ro l e . The t o u r i sts acts i n
re l a t i o n t o the demands o f t h e K i n g ,
str i at i n g the city i n t e r m s of food,
restaurants, food streets ... 20 The
t o u r i st i s thus m ore t h a n act i ve l y
i nvolved i n i t s creat i o n o r i t s n o n - d i s ­
s o l u t i o n . M uch m o r e s o than t h e l ocal,
it i s t h e t o u r i st who p l ays a key r o l e in
t h e m a i ntenance of t h e State-for m .
T h i s i m manent r u l e of the tra d i t i o n a l
restau rant/tou r i st organ i zes a g reat
deal of the major c i t i e s today. I n
terms of t h e c i t i e s w e v i s ited, its r u l e
c a n b e experi enced i n t h e St. Jean
sect i o n of t h e old city of Lyo n , t h e
West Lake area of H a n g z h o u , Q u i ncy
Market in B oston , MG Road i n
Bangal ore . . . I n these popu l ar sec­
tions, it is most obv i o u s t hat t h e
restaurant/to u rist overcodes t h e
e n t i re s pace. " M ost o f t h e p e o p l e w h o
v i s it u s a re t o u r i sts" ( 1 1 -06-0 1 ) a d m its
t h e manager of D u rg i n Park 22 , a very
'trad i t i o n a l ' restaurant l ocated in the
Q u i ncy Market sect i o n of Boston. B ut
t h e restau rant/t o u r i st, t h e K i n g / J u r i st,
d oes n ot stop t h e re ; it has reorgan­
ized t h e city in every way. I t i s n ot
s i m p l y i n charge of c reat i n g State­
food and specific restau rant areas; its
o r g a n i z a t i o n penetrates every part of
the c i ty. As i ts streams redef i ne t h e
Yet, n ext to t h e person on t h e ' i n s i d e '
of the c i ty-wa l l (t h e l oca l ) a n d t h e
person on the ' ou t s i d e ' of it ( t h e
t o u r i st), t h e re i s a t h i rd p h e n o m e n o n
t hat s h o u l d n ot be neg l ecte d . O n e
t hat i s o uts i d e t h e reach o f the ent i re
apparatus of c u l i nary sovere i g nty.
O n e t hat escapes or f e n d s off its
organ i zat i o n . It i s n ot orga n ized
accord i n g to t h e wa l l s of t h e city
s i nce it i s i n v i s i b l e to it and prevents
its power. It does n ot transcend t h e
State a p paratus, but traverses it,
u ns u scept i b l e to its organization. It
does n ot know of t rad i t i o n , of h ab it, of
' local d i s h e s ' , of State-food. It i s t h e
p o s i t i o n a s t h e ' n o m a d ' as D e l eu z e
refers to it; a state of p u re becom­
ing t h at a l ways escapes the
State-fo r m , b ut i s nevert h e l e s s
a l ways p re s e nt. T h e n o m ad d o e s n 't
form a b i nary oppos i t i o n w i t h t h e
State apparatus ( o r the t o u r i st, or the
l o c a l ) . This i s thus by n o m e a n s a
d i a lectics b e i n g p resented here. The
n o m ad i s not compat i b l e with t h e
State-form. The nomad i s the ' d rifter',
t h e ' pr i m it ive', t h e 'te rror i s t ' , o r even
the ' v i ru s ' s i nce i t i n h ab its a 'smooth '
s pace u nobstructed by w a l l s . The
n o m ad i s i m m u n e to t he voice of the
King because of its deafness, a n d
i m m u n e to t h e sword o f t h e J u rist
because of its f o r m l essn ess.

D B E C 0 M I N G T 0 lJ I� I S T �
I� E S T A lJ I� A N T
We s h o u l d be caref u l n ot to l i m it t h e concept of the tou rist,
as it was i ntroduced above, to 'a person _on h o l i d a y ' ; o r t h e
concept o f t h e l o c a l to 'a person at h o m e ' ; or t h e conce pt
of t h e nomad to a ' person with no f i xed address'. T h e d i s-
B E C 0 lvl I N c; A L0 CA L
t i n ct i o n s between the t o u r i st, the l ocal, a n d t h e nomad are
by no means absol ute. Wit h i n the event, o n e can a lways
take up the pers pect ive of a local. O r take up the pers pec­
t i ve of a nomad. O r of a t o u r i st 23, whe n ever one i s cap-

20 The bouchon used to be a p l ace where the canut s i l k workers came to eat (in the early morning and the afternoon ) , but of the bouchons that are
now present i n Lyon, o n l y one or two actu a l l y served a s i l k worker. Most of them began their b u s i ness less than twenty years ago, whereas the s i l k
workers left Lyon about o n e h u n d red years ago.
2 1 Strangely enough, relativist anthropologists have great d ifficulty rea l i z i n g that they are overcoded by this m a c h i ne of ' l ocal food ' . . . and that they
actua l l y play a vital role i n creat i n g what w i l l become known as 'trad itional foo d ' . or ' l ocal food culture'. With the i r categori zati ons, with their defini­
tions ('this i s local'. 'that i s not local'}, they too serve the State.
22 T h i s restaurant advertises using such statements as ' E sta b l i s hed Before You Were B o r n ' and 'Your grandfather, and perhaps you r great-grand­
father, d i ned with us, too'. It opened i n 1 826. 37
 tu red by t h e c u l i n a ry sovere i g nty a n d whe n ever one f u n ct i o n s w i t h it.
I t d o e s n ot matter w h ere o n e is l ocated ( o n e can eas i l y become a t o u r i st
i n o n e's own tow n ) ; w h at m atters i s h ow a person i s affected by w h at
s u r ro u n d s h i m . I n terms of becom i n g a t o u r i st, w h at is i m portant i s h ow a
person becomes caught by t h e orga n i z i ng mac h i nes of t h e State a pparatus that
creep u p o n h i m . H ow a person i s overcoded by its reg i me. The t o u r i st i s the
o n e capt u red by t h e c u l i n ary a pparatus, t h e o n e act i n g accord i n g to its Laws.
S i m i l a r l y, we s h o u l d b e caref u l n ot to l i m i t the n o t i o n of a ' l ocal resta u rant' to
any part i c u l ar estab l i sh ment. A ny eat ery can b e co m e a ' l oc a l restau­
rant' w h e n i t p l u g s i nto a d ef i n i t i o n of local foo d , w h e n it i s c a u g h t
u p i n t h e mac h i n e s o f t h e State-fo r m , w h e n it e x p r e s s e s its v o i c e .
T h e s u pe r market, for exa m p le, can be stro n g l y affected by c u l i nary sovere i g nty.
The supermar ket can very wel I become a local restau rant w h e n it d e c i d es to
s e rve local ( prepackaged ) food to t h e t o u r i st. O n e s u perm arket owner i n
H a n g z h o u s a i d : " M ost of t h e t o u r i sts come from other parts of C h i na, s o they
b u y t h e t rad i t i o n a l H a n g z h o u food, for exa m p le, the tea a n d the lotus root, and
some special s u gars. The t o u r i sts form 50% of my c l i ents, s o I a l s o have these
t rad i t i o n a l products in the store" (04-29-01 ) . Even home can become a local
restau rant w h e n o n e d e c i d es to serve t rad i t i o n a l m e a l s a n d t u r n my g uests i nto
t o u r i sts; as o n e m a n from B oston exp l a i n s : "I n ever had this as a k i d , b u t a c i r­
c l e of f r i e n d s of m i n e who enjoy cooki ng , I m a ke 'Boston Baked Beans"' ( 1 1 -27-
01).
A s prev i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , a l t h o u g h the State-fo r m b u i l d s t h e c i t y wa l l s ; its
powers are not rest r i cted by them as o n e m i g ht i nt u it i v e l y t h i n k. O n t h e con­
tra ry, t h e wal l s a re i n st r u m e nts of control that d ef i ne t h e city versus t h e c o u n ­
trys i d e i n o r d e r to m a ke t h e m resonate. The State-form d o e s so by c o n t i n u o u s ­
l y erect i n g w a l l s i n order to mark its territory ( pref e r a b l y a t its borders), a l ways
a l ready i nterested i n w hat l i es beh i n d it m ost marg i na l wa l l s, beyond its ' pa r­
e rg o n ' , as D e r r i d a reads it i n Kant's Kritik der Urtei/skraft ( D e r r i d a 1 987) , a l ways
i n search of control outside its ' s pat i a l ' territory. It is n ot o n l y active w i t h i n its
'"O ' ow n ' s pace, but i t i s necess a r i l y i nvolved in t h e process of i nvad i n g other
0
0 s paces i n c l u d i ng c i t i es.
-
.
Q) W h e n ever a State a p parat u s e x p a n d s its r u l e by enter i n g a n other
-
c i ty, t h e n a m e s reverse, but t h e i r f u nct i o n s re m a i n t h e s a m e : t h e
(/)
' l oca l ' c u i s i n e i s redef i n e d as a n eth n i c o r a fore i g n c u i s i n e ; t h e
tou r i sts b e c o m e t h e l oca l s a n d t h e l o c a l s b e c o m e t h e tou r i sts. The
' Pa k i stan i foo d ' t hat i s reproduced by t h e 'Specialites Pakistanaises ' restaurant
i n Lyon a n d consumed by t h e Lyon ese, t h e Tan door rest a u rant in B a n g a l ore t hat
reproduces a north I nd i a n c u i s i n e and is c o n s u m e d by t h e Bangal orese, the
S h a n g h a i restau rant i n B oston . . . Each t i me, the concept of trad i t i o n overcodes
t h e m . Each t i m e, the power of the State a pparatus comes i nto b e i n g in its
( re)creat i o n of a notion of State-food .
The nomads are d eaf, d um b, a n d b l i nd to t h ese c h a ng es. The nomads do not
change pos i t i o n ; they n eve r d o.24 Whe n ever they traverse the city, they are n ot
affected by any k i n d of orga n i za t i o n or reorg a n i za t i o n . The nomad does not
subscribe to a notion of t rad i t i o n , to a n o t i o n of i d e nt ity, to a d ef i n it i o n of t h e
se lf. T h e nomad i c wor k i n g force t hat i s a lways t rave l i n g a r o u n d t h e w o r l d
s i l en t l y c o n s u m e s t h e f o o d it b r i n g s . I n s u c h p l aces a s B oston a n d Bangal o re,
the c i ty st i l l has c l e a r marks of these m i g rations. I n B a n g a l o re, you can see
" . . . p e o p l e f rom a l l parts of I nd i a . . . what they have d o n e is, that they have i s o l at­
ed t h e m s e l ves by restau rants, a l so. T h e re is A ndhra style, Muglai, Punjabi daba,
Gujerari daba, . . everyo n e has t h e i r own restau rant. I can go t h e re for a change.
.

B ut p r i m a r i l y t h e people t h at g o to those restau rants are from t h e same com­

m u n ity." (03-02-02). In Boston, i t i s very clear that each eth n i c g ro u p has con-

23 MacCanne l l ( M acCanne l l 1 999) even uses t h e perspective of t h e tourist to descr i be the general
38 gaze of modern l ife.
 q u e red its own p i ece of l a n d : "A lso,
in t h e early part of the twe n t i et h cen­
t u ry, you had a s m a l l part of C h i nese
com i n g to B oston . They l i ved at a sec­
tion in downtown Bost o n , w h i c h
b e g a n to be k n own a s C h i natown.
Genera l l y, they were l ocated in very
specific sect i o n s of the city ... t h e
C h i nese i n C h i natown, the Ita l i a n s i n
t h e N orth e n d , and t h e Lebanese i n
the South e n d , t h e Port u g uese i n East
Cam b r i d g e, you can go o n l i ke t h i s for
a l o n g t i m e " ( 1 1 -0 1 -01 ) .
I t i s o n l y w h e n t h es e rest a u rants
are d e l i berate l y target i n g the
n o n - n o m a d s , t h e n e w ' l oc a l s '
a n d t h e tou r i sts, t h at t h ey are
captu red a n d p l a y i n g t h e i r part
w i t h i n the State apparatus. O n ly
t h e n do they beg i n serv i n g State­
food. O n l y t h e n d o they d ress up i n
'trad i t i o n a l c l othes' a n d beg i n to p lay
'trad i t i o n a l m u s i c ' . O n l y t h e n does
the mach i n e of the K i ng/J u r ist over­
code them and start r u n n i n g at f u l l
speed. A n d t h i s i s essen t i a l l y what i s
happe n i ng today i n c it i e s s u c h as
_Boston a n d B a n g a l o re when t h e
l o c a l s c l a i m : " T h i s i s t h e South I nd i a.
A n d w h e n p e o p l e go o ut, they eat
N orth I nd i a n food, and C h i nese . . . .
W h e n w e go o ut, we l i ke to t ry ot her
k i nd s of foo d " (02-22-02) . A n d a j o u r­
n a l ist from B oston even a d m its t hat:
"Thai food is everywhere. It has
become t h e m ost popular eth n ic food
among everyday f o l k s " ( 1 1 -23-01 ) . He
m a kes u s aware t hat the form u l a of
the Thai resta u rant has i ndeed s pread
all over town e n t e r i n g all t h e major
streets a n d shopping malls cod i n g t h e
s pace of the c ity accord i n g to its own
s e m i ot i cs, its own i d eas of ' et h n i city' ,
i t s o w n State-food . . .
N ot o n l y in B oston and B a n g a l ore, but
also in c i t i es such as Lyon a n d
Hangzhou w h e re i m m i g rat i o n was n ot
,
. very s u bsta n t i a l , t h e 'ethnic', or 'tradi-
tional' resta urants can be f o u n d
thro u g h o ut t h e city n owadays. The
S i c h u a n eat e r i es in H a n g z h o u and t h e
Tur k i s h kebab p laces in Lyo n , for
exa m p l e , are not l ocated saf e l y with i n
the i r own com m u n i t i e s ; they d o not
serve nomad food a nymo re. T h ey
serve State-food as they h ave pene-
trated e n e m y territory, as they opened
t hat i s t h e m o m e nt t h e y
� i ncrease its contro l ; they for­
ro t ify its wa l l s as they spread its
Q) s 'trad i t i o n ' , its 'cu lture', its ' particu­
l a r i t i e s ' . . . At that m o m ent, t h e restau -
0
� rants become incorporated w it h i n t h e
..f....> � State-mecha n i s m , a c u l i nary mecha­
•
� Q) Q) n i s m that produces State-foo d ; t h e
..f....>
Q) �
resta u rant cons p i res w i t h t h e
Q) ..f....> � t o u r i sts, a n d i s t h u s overcoded i nto a
,..... local or 'trad i t i o n a l restaurant' .25
� � 0 T h e d ifference between a restaurant
..f....> � r:n a n d a t rad i t i o n a l restaurant seems to
Q) ro ,..o b e s m a l l . I nf i n it e l y s m a l l . A n d a r b i -
,..0 "' ro trary. I n Lyo n , t h e restaurants t hat
r:n ro ,.....
r:n c l a i m to serve t h e trad i t i o n a l c u i s i ne
� u � of t h e city are l a b e l ed bouchons. B ut
0 0 ro t h e m e a l s t hey serve a re not too d if-
•l"""'I
..f....>
,..... Q) ferent from the m e a l s served in t h e
u Q)
� �
s restaura nts t hat a r e n ot c a l l e d bou-
chon s . The o n l y d ifference seems to
• l"""'I ..f....> 0 b e t hat t h e one i s l a b e l ed 'trad i t i o n -
..f....> a l ' , w h i l e t h e oth e r i s n ot ; t h e o n e i s
r:n
"'
..f....>
� l a b e l e d ' l oca l ' , t h e other i s n ot. There
•
r:n
l"""'I
� i s n o d o u bt that any restau rant can
� l"""'I
H
•
,..0 s h ift from t h e o n e position to the
Q) Q) other. Somet i mes o n e can t u r n i nto a
�
� 0 H tra d i t i o n a l restaurant by b e i n g
� ..f....> ro accepted by a n organ izat i o n t h a t h as
t h e authority to g rant certificat i o n to
t rad i t i o n a l resta urants (as i s t h e case
t h e i r o u t l ets i n the city centers. W h e n in Lyo n ) 26• S o m et i mes t h i s can be
they start f e n c i n g with concept s l i ke d o n e by s i m p l y p l a c i n g a map ( of t h e
'trad i t i o n a l restaurants' i n an att e m pt ' c o u ntry of o r i g i n ' ) i n t h e w i n d ow, a
to ove rth row t h e ' l oca l ' i n a tact ical t rad i t i o n a l i nstrum ent on the wa l l, or
way, that i s t h e moment t h ey beg i n a certain d i s h o n t h e menu. O r, con-
s e r v i n g t h e i r part i c u l a r State-for m , verse ly, a restau rant can escape t h i s
t h e i r part i c u l a r c u l i nary sover e i g nt y ; a pparatus b y n ot construct i n g these
24 Deleuze a l s o argues that t h e nomad i s act u a l l y t h e one that d o e s not move: " T h e nomad d i s -
tri butes h i mself i n a smooth space; h e occupi es, i n hab its, holds that space; that i s h i s territorial
principle. It is the refore f a l se to define the nomad by movement. Toyn bee i s profo u n d l y right to
suggest that the nomad is on the contrary he who does not move" ( D e l euze and Guattari 1 987: 381 ) .
2 5 I t is interest i n g to note that t h e more conservative cities such a s Lyon a n d Hangzhou, cities
that are very successfu l l y r u l ed by the State apparatus, cities that were not very much i ntruded
upon b y other States i n the past, a r e today st i l l a b l e to create a h ierarchy a m o n g themselves and
these newcomers. It is i nteresting to see that a predominantly conservative city l i ke Lyon is sti l l
capable of creating a h ierarchy of cuisi nes with itself undisputed l y on top. The city of Lyon is still
a b l e t o define the C h inese or A rabic c u i s i n e as inferior to itself with the result that these 'eth n i c '
p l aces c a n , f o r the m o s t part, o n l y survive as l u n cheonettes o r take-out restaurants. In Hangzhou
(which hard l y h a s a 'fore i g n ' cuisine), w e see that other C h i nese c u i s i nes are treated t h e same
way: the Sichuan places are popu l a r, but st i l l relegated to serving only cheap, fast food on a rela-
tively s m a l l scale.
26 In t h i s part i c u l a r case, once it is recogn ized as a bouchon by the 'Association pour la Detense
des Bouchons Lyonnais' and t h u s g i ven the title 'Authentique Bouchon Lyonnais' (Authentic
Lyonese Bouchon) , h i s restaurant wou l d be featured i n a s p e c i a l e d i t i o n postcard and receive a
s i g n on i t s d o o r ind icat i n g t h a t h e r e 'tradit iona l ' Lyonese d i s hes could be found. 39
 s i g n s , or by n ot becom i n g a m e m be r
o f a c i rc l e o f t rad i t i o n a l resta u ra nts.
Yet, a l t h o u g h it m ig ht be not too d iffi ­
c u lt to c h a n g e f r o m a restau rant i nto
a t r a d i t i o n a l restau ra nt, its f u nct i o n i s
com p l et e l y d ifferent. Fo r wh ereas a
restau rant can p re pare w hatever it
l i kes, w h e n it s u bordi nates itself to a
c u l i n ary sovere i g nty (when it t u r n s
i nto a 'trad i t i o n a l resta u rant'), it
becomes focused o n rep ro d u c i n g the
' p izza N a p o l et a n a ' , t h e ' boeuf
B o u rg i g n o n ' , the ' P h i l ad e l p h i a
steak' . . . 27: o n State-food. It becomes
a cogwh e e l in t h e mac h i n e of the
State apparatus. I t rec reates it. I t
reproduces it.

E T W O F O l� lvl S O F G O \f E l� N lvl E N T
T h e batt l e s t h at are fo u g ht by t h e J u r i st are
a l ways a i m ed at execut i n g and fort i fy i n g the power
of the State a p paratus. O n ly the J u r ist c o n c l udes that
t h e people s h o u l d l i n k p i zza to Ita ly, a position one
Bra h m i n woman from B a n g a l ore i s g l ad to f u l f i l I : " H e re
you h ave so many p e o p l e that do n ot know t h e pizza i s
Ita l i a n o r Fre nch ; they t h i n k it i s from t h e U . S . A ." (02-1 2-
02) . O n l y t h e J u rist can d e c i p h e r good from bad, the local
from t h e g l o b a l , a n d t h e t rad i t i o n a l from moder n . B ut how
does the J u r i st p rocee d ? H ow i s the power of a State-form
executed ? H ow does t rad i t i o n stay i n p lace? How does
State-food contro l ? How does t h e J u rist p ract i c e governe­
mental ity? Let u s take a look at t h at by t rave l i ng to
Bangal o re, I n d i a.
" I n my native p l ace, we have bamboo s hoots once in a
year. Ten d e r ones. So we h ave a part i c u lar r u l e . . . we s h o u l d
n o t e a t bam boo s h oots after Shivratri, a fest ival. The rea­
son is that after the Shivratri, the new season comes i n . If
you t h e n cut t h e m , the s hoots w i l l n ot g row a nym ore. But
before t hat, it i s o kay. Those a re the r u l es p e o p l e have
ke pt. We d o n 't have any r i g hts to e rase t h e p l ants a n d t h e
-a a n i m a l s t hat s u r r o u n d us. T h e y h ave the r i g ht to l i ve. I f
0
0 everybody wou l d e a t b a m b o o s h oots a l l t h o u g h the year,
....
'
"' t h e re wou l d be no bamboo t ree l eft" (02-1 8-02).
-
b a m b o o s hoots after Shivratri! ' , a n d the J u rist executes
t h i s r u l e . From that moment on, a wa l l was e rected m a k i n g
a d i sti n ct d iffe re_n ce betwee n w h e n y o u a r e a l l owed to eat
bamboo shoots and when you are n ot. M ost i nterest i n g i n
t h e story i s , o f course, t hat even when t h i s woman m oved
to the city of B a n g a l ore, the r u l e of the State a pparatus
cont i n ued. The voice of the K i n g i s repeat e d l y c a l l e d i nto
being whe never s h e i s confronted with bamboo sh oots
even w h i l e l i v i n g ' outside' the terr itory of the State-f o r m .
It cont i n u o u s l y pops u p with other events, m ut i l at i n g t h e m ,
overco d i n g t h e m , reorg a n i z i ng t h e m , accord i n g to the
d e m a n d s of t h e King .... N ow s h e l i ves i n B a n g a l ore; t h e
K i n g st i l l d e m a n d s h i s Laws be o beyed.
In t h e second case, we see that t h e re i s n o longer any s i g n
o f 'where t h e fo rce o f organ i zat i o n came from ' . T h i s t i me a
K i n g has stood u p a n d ord e re d h i s p e o p l e. T h i s t i me, it i s
s i m p l y a r u l e that h a s to be f o l l owed. ' D o y o u r p rayers!
D o n ' t eat rice!' And re peat t h i s over a n d over a g a i n . ' D o
t h i s every fortn i g ht ! '
T h e n ot i o n of r u l e s t h at s i m p l y m u st b e f o l l owed,
t h i s operat i o n a l force of re p re s s i o n t h at i s a i med
at l i m i t i n g t h e d e s i res by c l a i m i n g ' you can n ot d o
t h i s or you c a n n ot d o t h at' i s w h at we w i l l d ef i n e
as t h e f i rst form of gove r n m e nt. Fo l l owi n g

-
"' A n ot h e r story. A g a i n from B a n g a l o re where I spoke to two
VJ
you n gsters who were Kab i r panths ( m e m bers of t h e sect
t hat f o l l ows the words of K a b i r ) : " H e is act u a l l y a sai nt,
both wo r s h i pped b y H i n d u s and M us l i m s . He was l eft by
H i nd u s a n d p i cked u p by M u s l i ms. H e was a g reat perso n ;
h e h e l pe d people a l o t t hat were i n trou b l e (somet h i ng l i ke
that). We h ave faith i n h i m ; we b e l i eve i n h i m. We wors h i p
h i m every fort n i g ht. Every fort n i g ht w e have a p rayer. We
have a pooja. We a l l s i t together; we perform a pooja; we
have l u nc h . We h ave a l l k i n d s of tasty foods, a n d i n the
eve n i ng we s it and chant p rayers a ltoget her. B u t afte r
prayers we a r e n ot s u p posed to h ave rice. I d o n 't know w h y
t h i s i s 28" (02-28-02).
' D o n ot eat b a m boo s h oots after S h i v rat i ! ' ' D o n ot
eat r i c e w h e n e v e r you h ave pooj a ! '
T h e f i rst case i s a c l e a r archeology o f the process o f reor­
ganization. For it n ic e l y s hows h ow somet h i n g t h at starts
out as a ' l aw of nature' i s q u ic k l y form u l ated as a ' Ge n er a l
R u l e ' . I t i s d iff i c u l t to p i n p o i nt exact l y w h e n it happened,
but we can read that t h e idea of not eat i n g bamboo s hoots
t h r o u g h o ut the e n t i re year became a R u l e, became strictly
organ i zed a n d thus overcoded by a State-form t h at t u r n e d
i t i nto State-food, that made i t f u nction with t h e
40 K i n g / J u r i st. At one moment the K i n g recites, ' D o not eat
Fo ucau lt ( Fo u c a u l t 1 995) , we w i l l ca l l t h i s t h e c l as­
s i c a l way of exerc i s i n g power, o r the c l a s s i c a l way
of execut i n g State power.
H ere, every violation of t h e rule i s a pot e n t i a l crimen
majestatis; an u nd e r m i n i n g of t h e power of t h e K i n g , and
thus, a n attack o n t h e King by a ' c r i m i n a l ' . This transcen­
dental form of gove r n ment i s executed by t h e sword, n ot
n ecessar i l y i n order to attack, but more so, by t h reate n i ng .
It i s a f o r m o f gover n m e nt t h a t c o m e s f r o m above. T h e
sword i s l ifted ; the Code i s o p e n e d . We c a n a l ways hear
the g uffaw of the d o u b l e mechan i s m of t h e State-form:
' We hereby d e c l a re, t hat thou s h a l I not eat r i c e whe never
you have pooja! Thou shal I not eat bamboo s hoots after
Shivrati!'
27 It comes as no surprise that creat ivity i s hard l y appreciated in 'eth­
n ic'/local/foreign restaurants. One top-chef from Lyon s u m m arized it in
this way: "Once you are abroad, you are not creative anymore. It i s the
same for French c u i s i ne. The creative cooks, i n terms of French cook i n g
i n Amer ica, a r e n o t the French cooks t h a t went there, b u t the
A mericans" (07-30-02a). In this context, it i s i nterest i n g to see how few
'et h n i c ' resta urants are g i ven any appreciation by the M i che l i n G u i de.
28 Actu a l l y, here my i nterpreter j u m ped in and added: " .. .'palahara'. The
l iteral mea n i n g i s 'fruits and other t h i n g s ' . No cereals."
I n many of t h e stor i es we have h eard
so far, we can see t h i s c l a s s i c n o t i o n
o f gover n m e nt a t w o r k . T h e t o u r i st
g u i d es practice t h e Laws of t h e city
by o r d e r i n g : ' W h en ever you v i s i t
H a n g z h o u , y o u m u st eat t h e Dung Po
Pork! W h e n ever you v i s i t Lyon , you
m ust eat the Salade Lyonaise!'
I m p l i c i t l y they state t h at w h e n ever
you o n l y eat n ood l es, you have n 't
rea l l y been to H a n g z h o u ; whe never
you only eat a h a m b u rg e r, you haven't
rea l l y been to Lyon . You have n ot s u b­
jected yo u r s e lf to State-food ; you
have n ot s u bj ected yo urself to its par­
t i c u l a r organ i zat i o n .
t i me, h owever, t h i s ' o ri g i n ' i s
l ost o r a t l east concealed.
M o reover, it i s a l ways so stron g l y
e n meshed with i n ot h e r Laws a n d d oc-
t r i n es, f o l ded i nto a m u l t i p l ic ity of
p h e n o m e n a, that it is u n recog n i z a b l e,
c o m p l etely a l i e n ated from its so­
c a l l e d ' o ri g i n ' .29 B ut t h i s i s n ot w h at
matters. It i s not i m portant w h at
ord e r i s g i v e n , b ut o n l y t h at a n
o r d e r i s g i ven . . and i n a very s pe­
.

T h i s i s n ot a mechan i s m t h at can o n l y cific way: it l i m its, it commands, it

be f o u n d i n the way t h e c i t y defines
itself; we can see t h e same p h e n ome­
n o n at work wit h i n so-ca l led fest i vals
o r ' n at i on a l celebrat i o n s ' . The S p r i n g
Fest ival i n C h i n a w i l l o r d e r y o u t o
h ave 'trad i t i o n a l ' d i s h es (05-12-01a).
T h e m a n ifold fest i v a l s of B a n g a l ore,
whether con n ected to caste, sect, c u l ­
t u r a l backg round, o r to some organ i­
zat i o n , a re all conn ected to specific
d i shes a n d specific 'trad i t i o n a l '
rec i p es: "There i s a fest ival c a l l e d
Ramayan, t h e b i rthday o f L o r d Rama.
Then we g et l e m o n j u ice with salt and
sweet. And we a l s o get cucumber a n d
oth e r t h i ngs. We m ix it i n some k i n d of
salad c a l l e d hesribele. Because it i s
v e r y c o l d for the body." (02-1 9-02)
Thanksg i v i n g i n the U . S . A . a l s o h as
very specific orders on what to eat:
" Tu rkey and stuff i n g and mashed
potatoes a n d cranberry sauce a n d
vegetables a n d p u m p k i n p i e and a p p l e
p i e and other p i e s . . ." ( 1 1 -21 -01 b). A
R u l e that i s c a l l e d i nto b e i n g every
year. By the s u perma rkets, the s h ops,
the t e l e v i s i o n s hows, the advert ise­
m e nts, t h e n e i g h bors, the calend ar,
t h e weath e r, a n d they a l l coope rate i n
t h e n a m e o f t h e K i n g , s pread i ng t h e
Word, t h e C o m m a n d m ents . . .
Somet i mes a trad i t i o n c a n be c l e a r l y
con nected to the t i m e w h e n a K i n g
-stood u p and decl ared that f r o m n o w
o n , t h i s d i s h i s the Law. M ost o f t h e
ordains.
T h e second form of gove r n ment uses
other tacti cs. In this form, govern­
m e nt i s o b v i o u s l y a l s o a i med at exer­
c i s i ng power, yet it operates in a
d e c i d e d l y more ' i nv i s i b l e ' way. It i s
const ruct i ve, i m m a n e nt, a n d pos i t i ve
i n its app roach, o r, as Fou c a u l t con­
cept u a l i zes it, 'normalizing' a n d 'dis­
ciplining'.
A M u s l i m wo m a n from an i m pover­
i s hed area of B a n g a l ore spoke about
food i n h i b i t i ons. I n terms of meat, s h e
sometimes a t e m utto n , ch icken, a n d
f i s h . S h e a d d e d that s h e had n o i n h i­
b i t i o n s i n terms of meat. S h e
exp l a i ne d , " Wh at i s natu r a l l y g i ven i s
g i ve n from t h e Gods. T he re i s n o pro­
h i b i t i o n in t h is. It i s o n l y we who make
the c h o i ces" (02-25-02c). She did n ot
m e n t i o n t hat s h e 'was not a l l owed to
eat pork', or that even for m ost
M u s l i m s, it was h i g h l y i n a ppropriate
to c o n s u m e beef in a pred o m i n a n t l y
H i n d u I nd i a. N ot b e c a u s e s h e forgot
to m e n t i o n it. In her experience, beef,
and most certainly pork, were not clas­
sified under the notion of consumables
in t h e same way as other p e o p l e have
been g i ven d ef i n it i ons about w hat is
con s i d e red e d i b l e and w hat is n ot e d i ­
b l e.
A Brah m i n woman from a s m a l l v i l ­
l a g e n e a r B a n g a l ore was a p p a l l e d by
the i d e a t hat p e o p l e ate dead a n i m a l s

29 A n i ce exa m p l e o f t h i s i s Thanksgiving. A feast stron g l y connected t o food that i s often

accompanied by a h i story of how t h i s tradition came about. The meal served on Thanks g i v i n g Day
is s u pposed to be a re-creation of the meal the fi rst colon ists shared with t h e i r I n d i a n 'friends' i n
Ply mouth in t h e early 1 7th centu ry. B u t regard i n g t h e m e a l consu med today, many historians have
argued that whatever was served at that t i m e has remarkably l ittle to do with the 'trad itional'
Thanksg i v i n g meal of today. Those f i rst Thanksg i v i ng meals wou ld probably have consisted of
such foods as roast venison, stewed or boi led fowl, l obster and/or fish, breads (both corn and
wheat) , stewed d r i ed fruits, pos s i b l y one o r two boiled vegetables, and water. N o mashed pota­
toes, p u m p k i n p i e, w h i pped cream, o r cranbe rry sauce. 41
 w h i le h e r staff ( of l ower castes ) ,
w h e n ever the opport u n ity arose, l a i d
t h e i r h a n d s o n h e r k ittens, a n d n ever
gave a second t h o u g ht about c o n s u m ­
i n g t h e m . Whe never they were c o n ­
fro nted with t h e k ittens, they d ef i ned
t h e m as food s i n ce, i n their experi­
ence, t h e k itten was coded by a
reg i m e of ' e d i b i l ity'. T h e m i st ress had
a d ifferent perspective; s h e d i d n ot
exper i e n ce a r e l at i o n between t h e k it­
ten a n d t h e t h i ng s s h e found on h e r
p l ate.
As was earl i e r d i scussed, i t i s a l ways
wit h i n the event, wit h i n a part i c u l a r
s i t u at i o n , t hat matter i s d e f i n e d a s
e i t h e r e d i b l e o r n ot. I t i s n ever t h e
case t h at s o m et h i n g i s ed i b l e ; i t
b e c o m e s ed i b l e w i t h i n a s pe c i f i c
s i t u at i o n . Somet i mes t h e p i g
becomes pork, a n d somet i mes n ot.
Somet i m es the cow becomes beef,
and somet i mes n ot. Somet i mes t h e
kitten becomes a d i s h , a n d somet i mes
not. In each case, m atter i s overcoded
wit h i n the event by a n o t i o n of ed i b i l i­
ty or i n ed i b i l ity. Every event, h owever
c u r i o u s l y it evol ves, is potent i a l l y
s u bjected t o s o m e form o f reorgan iza­
tion, a n d we s h o u l d be s e n s i t i ve to
-0 the i m pact this reorga n i za t i o n has on
0
0 t h e way we exp e r i ence o u r w o r l d . It
.....
'
Q)
-
can redef i n e a c h icken as e i t h e r a pet,
or as a food. It can redef i n e water as
r a i n , but a l s o as sea, as a d r i n k, or as
a weapon. I t becomes l if e for the
t h i rsty; it becomes energy for t h e
eco n o m i st, a n d s o l i d g ro u n d for t h e
mosqu ito.
The way we are affected wit h i n an
eve nt, the way our d es i res are affect­
ed by specific matter, a l ways i nvolves
a part i c u l a r d ef i n it i o n . " D e s i re i s
n ever e it h e r a ' natura l ' o r a ' s p o.nta-_
n e o u s ' dete r m i nation," D e l e u z e
c l a i m s ( Davidson 1 997: 1 85) i s a l ways
a l ready an org a n i z at i o n , or better, a
re-orga n i zation s i nce it is overcoded
by a K i ng/J u ri st t hat d ef i n e s what i s
e d i b l e a n d w h a t i s n ot a n d t hat i m m a­
n e n t l y enforces t h i s d ef i n it i o n wit h i n
t h e events w e e n d u p i n .
I n comparison w i t h t h e f i rst form of
government, t h e tact ics of t h e second
form are m u c h less ove rt. In this sec­
o n d form of g overn m e nt, the State­
form is at work in a far more s u b t l e
way. T h i s s e c o n d strategy is t h e
strategy o f m o d e r n t i m e s a s
Fo u c a u lt ref e r s to it. I t i s n ot
based o n re p re s s i o n , as i n o u r
f i rst exa m p l es , b ut o n n o r m a l i za­
t i o n . It i s n_ot based o n a negative
app roach (with such c o m m a n d s as
'you s h o u l d n ot d o that'), but has a
positive appeal as it paves t h e roads
we are i n c l i n e d to fo l l ow. The res u l t is
the same: the young woman does n ot
eat bamboo s h oots at Shivrati; t h e
M us l i m wo m a n d o e s n ot e a t po rk. B ut
the tact ics of o r g a n i z a t i o n are d iffer­
e nt.
A l t h o u g h i n l iteratu re, m u c h e m p h a­
s i s has a l ways been p l aced on the
f i rst strategy, Fou c a u l t ma kes a
strong p l e a for the second form of
gove r n m e nt, w h i c h , accord i n g to h i m ,
i s a g reat d e a l m ore powerf u l a n d
pract iced far m o re often. T h i s articu­
l a t i o n of t h e State-form d oes n ot
stare you i n t h e face a n d l ift its sword
in front of your eyes; it stands beh i nd
your back. Or better, it might stand
b e h i n d yo u r back. I t i s o m n i p resent. It
i s i m m a n ent.
I n general, the c u l i nary sovere i g nty,
as we have d e f i n ed it, is executed by
the J u rist in two ways: it represses
and d i sc i p l i ne s ; it uses its power
e it h e r in a n egat i ve way o r in a posi­
t i ve way; it o r g a n i zes by limiting the
d e s i res a n d by directing t h e m . I n
everyday l ife, t h e two forms of g ov­
e r n m e nt f u nction with i n one another.
They are a lways a l ready active with i n
o n e anoth er.

It!
-
en F T H E W A I� M A C H I N E
But what about t h e nomad? The c haracter t hat is n ot o n l y
o uts i d e t h e State-form but i s i n v i s i b l e t o it? T h e character ,
t h at does n ot l i ke nor d i s l i ke State-food, but that d o e s n ' t
s u bj ect itself to its formal s e m i o logy. The c haracter that
can n e it h e r be c o n s i d e red t h e local nor t h e t o u r i st. The
character t hat does n ot u n d e rsta n d , or i s even u nw i l l i ng to
u nd e rstand t h e 'va l ue of t rad i t i o n ' , why ' West Lake Shield
Soup' s h o u l d h ave anyt h i n g to d o with H a n g z h o u , what i s
so B oston i a n about 'Boston Baked Beans' . T h e ch aracter
that consu mes h i s m e a l s i rrespect ive of it, n ot i n f l i cted by
the c u l i nary sovere i g nty t hat t e l l s h i m t h i s d i s h is conn ect­
ed to a p l ace, that it has a h i story, or that it is s u p posed to
be i m portant to p e o p l e h e does n ot know.
H ow does a State-form d e a l with these forces t hat escape
its capt u re? N ot to those w h o l i ke o r d i s l i ke its d ef i n it i o n
o f State-food, but to t h o s e w h o act i nd e p e n d e n t l y o f it.
T h i s t i m e we are i nterested in how the State a pparatus
deals with what evades it: t h e 'fac e l ess e n e m i es ' that do
n ot acknowledge its existe nce, t h at stay clear of its con­
trol. This t i me we are i nterested in what way the State­
form is d r iven by its fear of n o n -order, of the d estab i l i z i n g
42 ' i nv i s i b l e ' forces that it kn ows m u st be p resent.
T h e State-for m i s a l ways caught u p i n t h e p rocess o f con-
t ro l l i n g a n d of g a i n i n g control as we d i scussed in t h e pre-
v i o u s p a r a g r a p h . I n s ide, t h e State-for m has t h e power to
keep t h e peace. O n l y at its outs k i rts, at its m a r g i ns, its
part i c u l a r sovere i g nty weakens. Th ere, it i s i n a constant
state of war. The H o l y War with the U n known. I t i s in a
constant batt l e to t u r n chaos i nto order, to t u r n the o ut­
s i d e i nto t h e i n s i d e, to overcode, to expand its power.
" Wa r is a matter of vital i m portance to the state; a m atter
of l ife o r death, t h e road e it h e r to s u r v i va l o r r u i n . H e n ce,
it is i m p e rative that it s h o u l d be stu d i ed t horou g h l y, " S u n
T z u s a i d (Tzu 1 998: 21 ) .
T h e refore, we s h o u l d i ntroduce the concept of the ' wa r
m a c h i n e ' , a s D e l eu z e a n d G uattari refer to it ( D e l e u ze
and G u attari 1 987: p l ateau 1 2) , a p h e n o m e n o n , a f o rc e by
w h i c h they try to express w h at h a p p e n s at the
marg i n s of the State-f o r m , w h at h a p p e n s at t h at
i ntersect i on w h e re its control weakens, w h e re its
orders fa l l s i l e nt. T hat i s w h e re, they say, we can find
t h e war- m ac h i ne at work. At t h e area w h e re t h e State
a pparatus i s u nd e r attack, a n d w h e re the State a p paratus
attacks . . .

The war machine is a phenomenon of
acceleration, of metamorphosis, as
Patton stresses ( Patton 2000), of
speed i n g up w h atever l i es o uts i d e of
t h e State apparatus yet can be appro­
p r iated by it. Its aim i s n ot t h e p ro­
d uction of war: "War- m ac h i nes tend
m u ch m ore to b e revolutionary, or
artistic, rather t h a n m i l itary " ( D e leuze
1 995: 33) . It i s t h e conce pt of war we
a l ready saw with H obbes w h e n h e
c l a i m e d t h at " . . . t h e nat u re o f War
cons i steth n ot in actu a l l f i g ht i n g , but
i n t h e known d i sposition t h e reto d u r­
i n g a l l t h e t i me t h e re is no assurance
to t h e contrary" ( H obbes 1 996: 62) . The
war-mach i ne, t h e mach i n e of cod i n g ­
d ecod i ng , i s t h e mach i n e t h a t q ues­
t i o ns. It i s the mach i n e t h at produces
the v e h i c l es used to q u est i o n the
State-apparatus a n d its o r g a n i zat i o n ,
b u t that can a l s o b e
used to e x p a n d it.
� Ve h i c l e s t h at can n ot
� o n l y q u est i o n part i c u -
0 l a r t rad i t i o n s (Why
� should I l i n k the pizza
� to Italy? W h at m akes
� the Ragi-Bal/ ' b e l o n g '
to Banga lore?), but
� t hat can even q u estion
(J) t h e w h o l e n o t i o n of
,..c: sovere i g nty (Why
+.J
s h o u l d a part i c u l a r
,..c: d i s h be l i n ked to a par-
+.J
·�
t i c u l a r city?). A n d
� veh i c l es that can w i d e n
the r u l e o f the c u l i nary
� sovere i g nty, that can
ro i ncrease its fame, its
� r u l e. The war mach i n e
can be found i n t h e
�
,..... confrontat i o n ; it i s
0 act i ve with i n it, wit h i n
� t h e u p roar wh ere d i so r-
der i s t r a n s l ated as
(J)
order, or order as d i s -
,..c: order. T h e war mach i n e
� h a s a power o f m eta-
morphos i s, of creat i ve
m utat i o n a n d change. It is l ocated
betwee n the order and d is order, never
o n t h e side of the State, n ever o n the
side of what i s outs i d e it.
The war mach i n e and the State a p pa­
ratus n everth e less d o n ot f u nct i o n
very we l l together. E nt ro py, the study
of transformations, teaches u s with
its Second Law of T h e r m odyn a m i cs
t h e d iffi c u l t p o s i t i o n t h e State has to
occu py. As this Law c l a i m s t hat e ner­
g y i s a l ways in p u r s u i t of total
chaos 30 , i t i s o n l y because o f what we
conceptu a l ized as the State-for m , the
phe n o m e n o n of organizat i o n , the
a pparatus of capt u re, that order i s
p roduced. Sand wi 11 n ot constr uct
g l ass of itself; it is an o ut s i d e force of
organ izat i o n that d e f i n e s it as s u c h ,
that capt u res it in terms of g l ass. A n d
that has to prese rve it. This i s what
i nertia i s a l l about. I t is o n l y t h ro u g h
the State a p paratus t h at d i sorder is
fought.
W h at is outs i d e t h e reach of t h e
State a p parat u s , t h a t w h i c h i s
N OT o r g a n i zed (the u nformed
m atters and nonfo r m a l f u n c-
t i o n s ) is m u c h m o re at
ease w i t h t h e war
.s-�
m a c h i ne. For a l t h o u g h the
war m a c h i n e c a n be a p p ro p r i at­
ed by bot h t h e State a p pa rat u s
a n d t h e n o m a d , t h e nomad i s
m u c h m o re s k i l lf u l i n m a k i n g u s e
o f it. " H obbes s a w c l e a r l y t h a t the
State was against war, so war is
against the State, a n d thus m a kes it
i m poss i b le. I t s h o u l d n ot be c o n c l u d ­
e d t h at w a r i s a state o f nature, b u t
rat h e r t h at it i s t h e mode o f a s o c i a l
state t h at wards off a n d prevents t h e
State" ( D e leuze and G uattari 1 987: 357).
N everthe less, t h e State-form has to
make use of t h e war machi ne. In order
to expand, but a l s o in order to m a i n ­
t a i n i t s contro l .
T h e m a rg i n s of t h e State-fo rm, wh ere
we f i n d the war mach i n e (or act u a l l y,
a m u lt i p l icity of war mach i n es) at
work s h o u l d n ot be seen as a s i n g l e
front l i ne. I t i s a war " . . . w i t h o ut battle
l i nes, with n e i t h e r confrontat i o n n o r
retreat, w i t h o ut batt l e s eve n "
( D e l euze and Guattari 1 987: 353). I t i s
p u re strategy. A l t h o u g h t h e State­
form w o u l d d ef i n it e l y p refer a batt l e
l i n e 3' ( i .e . , an order), whatever i s o ut­
s i d e it does n ot c o m p l y with its
d e m a n d s ; it attacks from every a n g l e ;
a State-fo r m i s n ot o n l y by d e f i ­
n i t i o n a Po l i c e State i n t h e sense
t hat its J u r i sts a re continuously reor­
g a n i z i ng it, s i nce it is a lways a l ready
u n d e r attack by forces that q u est i o n
i t s organ i z at i o n , it a l s o a l ways
u n d e r s i e g e and u n d e r m a rt i a l
Law. I t can b e attacked a n d w i l l b e
30 Ludwig B o ltzmann derived the form u l a
S = kb logW, w here W stands for t h e tota l o f
possibilities o t a system with equal energy and
kb i s the B o ltzmann constant. Entropy p l ays a
most i m portant role i n one of the most i m por-
tant p r i n c i p les of physics, namely, that a sys-
tern of many parts wi l l always strive for the
most p resumable condition ( a maximum i n S),
which i s at the same t i me the most chaotic
condition.
3 1 I n a George B u s h 's statement i m med iately
following the attacks on the Pentagon and the
Wor l d Trade Center on September 1 1 , 2001 , i n
which he referred to h i s enemy as a 'faceless'
enemy, he elegantly i l l ust rated the cry of the
State apparatus for a front l i ne. 43
 attacked from any p o i nt. The war
mach i n e i s a l ways at work at any
p o i nt w h e re o r g a n i zat i o n is q u es­
t i on e d , at any p o i nt w h e re order f a i l s .
Ear l i er, w e refe rred to the p h en o m e­
n o n t h at exec utes t h e powe r i ns i d e
the State-fo r m a s t h e J u r i st. O u t s i d e
the State-fo rm, o r a t t h e borders, a t
i t s marg i n s , we f i n d t h e S o l d i er. Both
are a i med at defe n d i n g the control of
the K i n g and, w h e re pos s i b l e, ex pand­
i n g it.32 The S o l d i e r does t h at by
using its arms w h e reas the J u r i st a n d
the Pol ice make use o f a Code of
Laws.
The S o l d i e r. . . whe n ever he can spot
t h e n o m a d , whe n ever the nomad
rem oves its 'cloak-of-invisibility ',
t h e State apparat u s f i g hts these
' barbarians' by i m m a n e n t l y d raw i n g
t h e d i st i nct i o n between the g o o d g uys
and t h e bad g uys, between t h e o b e d i ­
ent a n d t h e d i sobed i e nt, the e d i b l e
a n d t h e i n e d i b l e , t h e tastef u l a n d
the d i stastef u l . Accord i n g t o t h e i r
d ef i n it i o n s , accord i n g to t h e i r
State-for m .

G T Ii E lvl A N Y A I� T I C lJ L A T I 0 N S 0 F T Ii E S TATE - F 0 I� lvl A N D

C A P I TA LI S M
It s h o u l d be clear by now t hat t h e State-for m , t h i s a pparatus of capt u re, t h i s ·
reg i m e of organ i z a t i o n , as we h ave i ntroduced it h e re ( i n terms of c u l i nary sov­
e re i g nty), does n ot co rres pond with a N a t i o n State, a m u l t i n a t i o n a l assoc i a t i o n
(such as t h e E U , AS E A N , o r t h e U N ) , o r any p u b l ic i nstitution whatsoever.
Somet i m es the con cept of t h e State-form can f u nct i o n with t h e m , but these are
by n o means its s o l e compa n ions. The State-form i s repeated over and over
a g a i n . It s h o u l d be a pparent t h r o u g h some of the p rev i o u s stories that a ny
orga n i z at i o n t h at i n v o l v e s t h e d o u b l e capture of the K i n g / J u r i st
i n stal l s a State-form. Any apparatus t hat i nt e n d s to org a n i ze behavior, that
i nt e n d s to control act i ons, e m p l oys an a p paratus of capt u re.
The State-form i s a mechanism that f u n c t i o n s with a p h e n o m e n o n . It is a tran­
scendental i nst i t u t i o n that overcodes as we l l as it i s an i m manent a p paratus
t hat ru les. A transce n d i n g p h e n o m e n o n of organ ization t h at becomes i m ma­
nent wit h i n the event st r i at i n g it accord i n g to its p o l it i cal economy. A n d it i s
i m portant to note that it always operates u n d e r t h e s a m e ru les: " States a lways
have the same com pos i t i o n ; if t h e re i s even one truth in the pol i t i c a l p h i losophy
of H eg e l , it i s t h at every State carries wit h i n itself t h e essen t i a l m o m e nts of
"O existence . . . There is a u n ity of com pos i t i o n of a l l States, but States h ave n e i ­
0
0 t h e r the s a m e d eve l o p m e n t n o r t h e s a m e o r g a n i z at i o n " ( D e l euze and Guattari
1 987: 385). I n ot h e r words, a l t h o u g h t h e State a p parat u s is e x p ressed i n
m a n y d iff erent ways, i t f u n ct i o n s i n a s i m i l a r way. I t i s a lways a i me d at
(/)
control by capt u r i n g , by ex i l i ng , by reorg a n i z i n g . . . by creat i ng and striating an
i n s i d e in its re l a t i o n to an o u t s i d e. Whether it concerns food, people, the State­
l­ form art i c u l ates an o r g a n i zat i o n . It a l ways overcodes, by c l a i mi n g : ' E it h e r you
a::
ci: are with us, or you are agai n st u s.'33
a.
The State a p parat u s s h o u l d be concept u a l ized as t h e mechan i s m t h at o rd e rs.
An 'a bst ract mach i n e ' of r i g i d o r g a n i z at i o n . It can pop up from wit h i n every
marg i n of society articu lated each t i m e in a d ifferent way, yet a lways of the
same compos it i o n . The State-form a l ways f u n ct i o n s by c reat i n g b i nary o p p o s i ­
t io n s , by p l a c i n g w a l l s to make o n e s i d e resonate with the ot her. Sovereignty is
a tactics, nothing more than that. Because of its compos i t i o n , t h e State appa ra­
tus i s n ot we l l re lated to a p h e n o m e n o n s u c h as the war mach i n e as was prev i-

32 It i s by no m e a n s coincidental t h a t the aris­ 34 It is a common error to think that the State

tocracy (the o l d houses) has traded the sword
for the Code when the Nation-State assumed
its conte mporary form ( i n the 1 9th century).
All l o n g i n g to be taken i nto the borders of
Versa i l les, they changed their profession, but
not t h e i r conviction.
33 I n his speech on Israel and the Palest i n i a n
State (June 25, 2002), G e o r g e W. B u s h argued:
· ...- " I've said in the past that nations are either
44 with u s or agai nst us i n the war on terror."
i s at least capable of preventing capita l i st
structures. Le n i n 's interpretation of Marx and
E n g e l s ( Le n i n 1 943) is questionable because
his idea of the State that fi ghts for a society
without h i erarchy i s not i n keeping with the
way the State functions. The State is by def i n i ­
t i on expl oitative s i n ce it is o n l y i nterested i n
organizing society accord i n g to i t s o w n log ic,
h i erarc h i es, and oppositions.
 �
of com pos i t i o n of the State­
forms that g i ve c a p i ta l i s m its
T h i s is what C oca- C o l o n izat i o n
is a l l about: it i s o r g a n i z e d
.s-\,
Q) m o d e s of rea l i zat i o n .34 a ro u n d a c a p i ta l i st mach i n e,
N +.-J
- � ro T h us, it s h o u l d come as n o s u r p r i se w h i c h is d ef i n ed by 'the g e n e r a l ­
,...... that t h e A l l i es d e c i s i o n to coope rate i zed d ecod i n g o f f l ow s ' w h i l e it
rn ro � i nt e n s i v e l y afte r Wor l d War 11 in order executes its power accord i n g to
+.-J
�
� +.-J to rest ruct u re, reorga n i ze society in the Stat e-fo r m . O n the one h a n d , it

� ·s
+.-J a way t hat was never before seen m a kes use of t h e apparatus of capi-
ro rn
( c o n s i d e r, for exa m p le, B e n e l ux, the tal i s m as " . . . money i n the form of cap-
H
u �
ECSC, the Mar s ha l l Plan, and the ita l takes d i rect control of t h e p rocess
ro
� U n i versal Decl arat i o n of H u m a n of production itself" ( Patton 2000: 92)
� � ro R i g hts) st i m u l ated an i m me d i ate a n d t h u s esca p i n g t h e coded, c l osed
� o s u bsta n t i a l c a p i t a l f l ow. I t act u a l l y s paces of t h e State-form and o p e n i n g
ro u �
u gave r i se to an apparatus o f capt u re u p a smooth econo m i c s pace that
Q) Q) Q) t h at i n creas i n g l y became o r g a n i z e d trave l s with g reat speed. O n t h e ot her

�� � s
+.-J
•
around t h i s i d ea o f capital f low, t h at
f u n ct io n e d with the State apparatus
h a n d , it f u n ct i o n s with t h e State-form
i n sofar as it m akes use of t h e same
rn
Q) H
(it was com posed in t h e same way), codify i n g a pparatu s ; it creates and

U') � �
but art i c u l ated in such a way that t h e i n s id e a n d an o u t s i d e, a c o n s u m e r
+.-J
Q)
Q)
0 �
o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s focused o n control­ and a n o n -co n s u m e r, m akes t h e m res­

� � rn H l i ng consu mers rat h e r t h a n c i t i z e n s . o n ate with one another, and has a

� rn ro 0
o u s l y m e n t i o n e d (though it cont i n u ­
o u s l y makes u s e o f it). Yet it re l ates
very we l l to a very d ifferent apparatus:
the Machines of Capitalism.
" I t was t h r o u g h t h e State-form a n d
n ot t h r o u g h t h e town-form t hat c a p i ­
t a l i s m t r i u m phed," D e l e u z e a n d
G uattari state ( De l euze and G u attari
1 987: 434) . O r as B ra u d e l c l a i me d e a r l i ­
er: " C a p ital i s m o n l y t r i u m p h s when i t
becomes i d entified with t h e state,
when it i s the state " (Braudel 1 977: 64-
5). Not because capital i s m is neces­
s a r i l y a part of the State o r g a n i z at i o n
( t h e w a r mach i n e i s a l s o n o t a part of
t h e nomad, of w hat I ies outside the
State), but because sovere i g nty's
focus o n order ( i n whatever way t h i s
i s expresse d ) paves the way f o r capi­
t a l f l ows. " F l ows of property t h at i s
s o l d , f l ows o f m o n ey t h a t c i rc u l ates,
f l ows of product i o n and means of p ro­
duction making ready i n t h e shadows,
f l ows of workers beco m i ng d eterrito­
r i a l i ze d : the encou nter of all these
f l ows w i l l be n ecessary, their con­
j u n ct i o n , a n d t h e i r react i o n to one
another ... i n order for capital i s m to be
born a n d for the old system t h i s t i m e
to d i e from witho ut, a t t h e s a m e t i m e
as the n e w l ife beg i ns a n d d es i re
rece ives its name" ( D e l eu z e and
G uattari 1 984: 223-4) . It is the u n i ty
T h i s new ( N o rt h At l a n t i c ) Wor l d
O r d e r gave rise to t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l
company. By a p p l y i n g t h e r u l e s t h a t
State orga n i za t i o n has g i ven t h e m ,
these compa n i e s m a n a g e d to c reate
t h e i r own K i ngdoms, t h e i r own appa­
rat us of control that wants to control
c o n s u m p t i o n somet i m es by re p res­
s i o n , by l i m it i n g our d e s i res, but most
of a l l, by d i sc i p l i n i n g , by d i rect i n g o u r
d es i res.
The m u l t i n at i o n a l c o m pa n i e s
a p p ro p r i ate t h e m o d e l o f t h e
K i n g / J u r i st ; t h ey f u n ct i o n w i t h
t h e l e g i s l at i ve a n d t h e exec u t i ve
power, t h e converter, a n d t h e
capturer. A s with t h e Nation State,
the d o u b l e mechan i s m of the e nter­
p r i s e t h at is a i m e d at prod u c i n g an
i m ma n e nt i nward organ ization t h u s
defi nes i t s ' own territory'. O n l y t h i s
t i me, spaces a r e n ot organ ized
accord i n g to t h e l aws of the Nation
( ' T h i s i s under my j u r i s d i ct i o n , a n d
that j s u n d e r yo u r s ' ) , but accord i ng to
t h e laws of C a p ita l i s m ('These are my
consu m e rs, t h ose are yours'). T h e
m u l t i n at i o n a l s c reate a n i n s i d e
a n d a n outs i d e by constantly
c reat i n g a b i n a ry d i st i n ct i o n
betwe e n those w h o do consume
its prod ucts and those who d o
n ot. Betwe e n p e o p l e w h o d o d r i n k
C oca- C o l a, a n d p e o p l e w h o d o n ot.
Betwee n p e o p l e w h o do wear N i ke
s p o rtswear, a n d those w h o do n ot.
b l i nd s pot for those i nsen s i b l e to its
power. It thus produces State-food
(or State-d ri n k) , but c o u p l es it to t h e
capita l ist mac h i ne t h a t i s n ot c o n -
f i ned by b o rders o r by codes at a l l .
" I n a sense, capita l i s m has h a u nted
a l l forms of society. . ." ( De l euze and
G uattar i 1 984: 1 40) as it t rave l s by free
f l ow. N i ke town i s n ot organized l i ke
t h e po/is; p l anet Reebok and Mac
Wor l d are n ot a i m i n g to become the
'Fourth Reich '; t h e m u lt i nat i on a l com­
p a n i es a re structu red para l l e l to t h e
State-for m a s they a r e org a n i zed
t h r o u g h a clear center, but they a l s o
make use o f the capita l i st m a c h i n e that
acce l erates t h e m i n every d i rect i o n .
Coca- C o l a i s probably t h e best exa m-
ple of h ow t h e State a pparatus has
been u t i l ized with i n an enterprise a n d
has t h u s p l ugged i nto a capit a l i st
mac h i ne s i nce t h i s company has been
m ost s uccessf u l i n s pread i n g its r u l e
across t h e e n t i re g l obe a s a N e w Yo rk
Times e d i t o r i a l stat e d : "You can r u n
from it, b u t y o u c a n 't h i de. S o o n e r o r
later, n o m atter h ow f a r y o u t h i n k
you 've ventured from t h e comforts
and conve n i ences of the modern
wo r l d , C o ke w i l l find you. G o to t h e
footh i l l s o f the H i m a l ayas, the h u rri-
cane pounded f i s h i n g i s l a n d s off t h e
coast o f N i caragua - g o to t h e b i rt h -
p l ace o f c i v i l i z a t i o n , if y o u l i ke.
C oca- C o l a w i l l be wait i n g for you "
( Penderg rast 2000: 242). 45
 H E lvl P l l� E T H E S P E E D A N D
C A P I T A L I S lvl
It was act u a l l y the i m p l o s i o n of t h e S ov i et U n i o n , t h e g reat
c o m m u n ist State 35, that seemed to o bstruct the g ro w i n g
o f t h e e n t e r p r i s e s , w h i c h S p i va k a r g u e s (Sp ivak 1 999: 275),
s moothed a way for a much m o re total and absol ute cap­
t u r i n g of the world. " C a p ita l i s m ... has o n l y existed i n , and
can be said to req u i re, a wo r l d -system in w h i c h the p o l it i ­
cal u n its a r e not coexte n s i ve with t h e b o u n d a r i es o f t h e
market-economy" ( Wa l l erste i n 1 979: 66) . The i ntrod uct i o n
o f t h e B e n e l ux, the E C S C , t h e Mars h a l l P l a n , a n d the
U n i versal Decl arat i o n of H u m a n R ig hts was a f i rst step in
remov i ng o bsta c l es. B ut it was t h e fall of t h e S ov i et U n i o n ,
a n d m oreover t h e f a l l of the t h reat that t h e West experi­
enced co m i n g from t h e S ov i et U n i o n , that c o m p l et e l y
s m o o t h e d the world to the capita l ist demands a n d t h u s
made its g l obal expan s i o n poss i b l e. I t w a s t h i s m a j o r
event i n world h i story t h a t p rovoked its capita l ist f l ows to
acc e l e rate the power of enterprises s pread i n g t h e i r re i g n
i n every d i rect i o n . A n d a l t h o u g h it i s a l ways m ost d u b i o u s
to attach i m portance to a date, 1 989 ( m u c h m o r e s o t h a n
1 968 w h e n t h e student rebe l l i on s i n P a r i s t o o k p l ace) c o u l d
we l l be regarded t h e b reak w h i c h i n sta l l e d t h i s new e ra.
T h i s n ew age s h o u l d n ot be seen as t h e t i me in w h i c h t h e
m u l t i n at i on a l s overpowered t h e Nat i o n -State. T h e y d i d n ot.
The N a t i o n -State, or any oth e r p u b l i c orga n i zat i o n with its
way of d ef i n i n g c i v i l i a n s a n d n o n -c i v i l i a n s , has n ever been
as act ive as today. T h e re have never been as many t o u r i sts
as tod ay. T here h ave never been as many ref u gees as
'"O tod ay. B u t the m u l t i n at i on a l s are also g a i n i ng territory
0
0 (creat i n g m o re consu m e rs a n d more non-consumers). J u st
....
'
Q) as are N GO's a n d many m ore ' organizations' that have had
....
"' the opportun ity s i nce 1 989 to crysta l l i ze. Wa l l e rste i n b o l d ­
....
en
ly states t h a t i n terms o f t h e way the States a re co'm posed,
" . . . all state structures h ave g rown progres s i ve l y st ronger
l­ over t i m e " ( Wa l lerstein 1979: 274) .
a::
et C o m b i ned w i t h t h i s i n c reased strength, t h e d ifferent
a.
State-struct ures a re a l ways i ntertw i n e d . The f i rst com pany
ever to exist, t h e Vere e n i g d e Oost i n d ische C o m pag n i e (the
East I nd i es C o m pany), estab l i s h ed in 1 600, was a l ready
stron g l y connected to t h e a pparatus of t h e Nation State
(the D utch Rep u b l i c and the adm i n i strat i o n s of the d iffer­
ent c i t i e s from w h i c h it o perated) by sett i n g u p a m o n o p ­
o l y i n the spice t r a d e . A n d t h i s has n ot changed tod ay. T h e
advent o f t h e concept o f C oca-Co l o n izat i o n , i ntroduced b y
t h e com m u n i sts i n France i n 1 949, s hows a s i m i l a r accre­
t i o n . A s C oca-C o l a was i ntroduced at the same t i m e as
t h e M a rs h a l l P l a n , t h e com m u n i sts i n s i sted t h at t h e C oca­
C o l a's d i stribution operat i o n d o u b led as a s py n etwork
(Pe n d e rg r ast 2000: 242) . A ccord i n g to t h e m , C oca- C o l a was
an u n m istakable part of the A m e rican I m p e r i a l ist Mach i n e
that attacked France i n search o f territo ry. The s a m e sus­
picion arose wit h i n t h e com m u n ist party i n t h e Soviet
U n i o n w h e n Pep s i C o l a became i nterested i n e n t e r i n g t h e
Sov i et terr itory, w h i c h f i na l l y t o o k p l ace i n 1 972. Today, t h e
46 soft d r i n k compa n i e s a n d t h e U.S. a d m i n i strat i o n (es pe-
T H E P O W E i� O F
c i a l l y i n C a l ifo r n ia) are again under f i re by l eftist m ove­
m e nts because t h e i r part n e rs h i p a l l owed t h e soft d r i n k
m a c h i nes o f these enterpri ses to enter h i g h schools a n d
m i d d l e schools i n t h e i r eve r l as t i n g search f o r n ew territo­
ry, for new c o n s u m e rs.
The i r fear was n ot g ro u n d l ess. The d iffere nt a p pa ra­
t u s e s of contro l , t h e d ifferent State-fo r m s however
they are expressed, have a l ways c h e r i s h e d t h e i r
contacts a s Wa_l l e rste i n a l ready s h owed ( Wa l l e rstei n
1 979) . T h e y a lways u s e each other's data b a n k s ; t h e y swipe
each other's tech n i q u e s o n h ow to appropriat e the war
machi ne, o n how to expand their power. .. their unity of
composition has always made them live with one another.
W h at i s d ifferent today starts w i t h t h e s i z e of it.
T h ere h a s a l ways b e e n a m u lt i p l i c ity of States;
t h e organ izat i o n s h ave a l ways m e r g e d i nto one
a n ot h e r, but today we see that t h i s takes p l ac e o n
a g l o b a l s c a l e . A n d as these organizations a l l re late t o
o n e another, as they en/ace w i t h each oth e r, they have
s l ow l y t u r ned i nto one g l obal network of control - one
g l obal s prawl of order t hat has become worldwide with t h e
fa l l o f t h e Soviet U n i o n , and t h a t i s n ow r u l i n g t h e world.
O n e s mooth s pace of world capita l i s m of u lt ra-ra p i d
apparently f ree-f l oat i n g f o r m s o f c o nt ro l t hat a r e t a k i n g
o v e r from the c l osed organ izations o f before. M ore a n d
m o r e the State-form t u rned i nto t h e capitalist State-form
as it has s l owly turned i nto t h e key mechan i s m for the
coord i n at i o n a n d control of capita l i s m .
The d ifferent State-forms, i n t h e i r formal i nterrelatedness,
i n t h e i r f u nction as the coord i nators of capit a l ism,
altogether const ruct w hat Hardt a n d N e g r i ca l l ' E m p i re ' ,
t hat a m o r p h o u s mass o f o r g a n i z at i on s that i s i m m a n e n t l y
a i m ed at contro l l i n g everyt h i ng , i n every p l ace, at every
t i me. T h e goal of E m p i re is absol ute order u n d e r a s i n g l e
L o g i c of R u le. And it i s s l ow l y but stead i l y b u i l d i ng u p. I n
the a n a l y s i s of H ardt and N e g r i : " E m p i re i s m ateri a l i z i n g
before o u r very eyes" ( Hardt a n d N e g r i 2000: x i ) .
E m p i re, l i ke the State, i s n ot a t ranscen d e ntal u n ity t hat
hangs over o u r heads. E m p i re i s t h e capit a l i st m u lt i ­
t u d e o f o r g a n i zat i o n s t h at contro l s i n i m m a n e n c e.
It i s " ... n ot born of its own w i l l but rat h e r it i s cal led i nto
be i n g " ( Hardt and N e g r i 2000: 1 5) w it h i n every eve nt. It is
sewn into it. The c o m p a n i es and t h e b u reaucracies, t h e
3 5 Wa l lerstein makes a strong argu ment that a soc i a l ist State i s a con­
trad iction i n terms: "These so-cal led soci a l i st states are i n fact social-
ist movements i n power i n states that are st i l l part of a single capit a l i st
worl d economy - our f a m i l iar economy - policy antinomy. These 'soci a l ­
i s t ' states f i n d themselves pressed by the structural exigencies o f the
world-economy to l i m it their i nternal social transfo rmations. They are
not therefore i n fact soc i a l ist economies, though we may be wil l i ng to
ca l l them soc i a l i st p o l i cies" (Wa l lerstein 1 979: 85). In other words, there
never even was a social ist State; it was only a way of b l ock i n g the roads
of Capital ism. And it did not work.
 • Coca- C o l a m a c h i nes and
Q) N a t i o n States, a l ways
,..... i ntend to be p rese nt. The
� S o l d i e rs and t h e J u r i sts of
� E m p i re are everywhere.
c..i...- The t o u r i sts, t h e con-
0 s u m ers . . . a l l of us can
potent i a l l y f u nction with i n
u these capita l ist m a c h i nes,
· �
bO these d ifferent art i c u l a-
0 t i o n s of t h e State appara-
� tus.
Wit h i n E m p i re reo r g a n i za-
Q) t i o n hard l y takes p l ace by
,.....
repress i o n but a l l t h e more
bO by d i rect i n g , by pav i n g
� some roads a n d neg lect i n g
·�
r:n ot h e rs. It works by e re-
at i n g o r re o rg a n i z i n g
ro the normal and the
H a x i o m at i c . We can see
Q) t h i s happe n i ng i n t h e
ro n o t i o n of ' breakfast' i n
� I n d i a, an idea that was
� u n known u n t i l recen t l y.
B ut a l o n g with t h e redef i n -
H i t i o n of such concepts as
Q) ' healt h ' , E m p i re (with its
ro
H strong post-co l o n i a l ten-
0 d e n c ies) has been a b l e to
reorg a n i z e the mealti me. I t
Q) has managed to create a
...f...--1
'standard', a l o g i c t hat i s
� hard n ot to fo l l ow. With the
,.....
0 h e l p of t e l e v i s i on, corn-
r:n m e rc i a ls, s u perm arkets,
,..a a n d n e i g hbors, it i m ma-
ro nerit l y reorga n i zes: "There
was no concept c a l l e d a
r:n breakfast previous ly. Even
·�
if t h ey d i d th at, it was o n l y
Q) i n r i c h , u pper-class fam i -
H l i es w h e re they d i d t h ese
·�
0- t h i ngs. A n d these dosa,
s chapali's, were o n l y eaten
i n t h e u p pe r-class fam i-
µ.J l i es. N ow, p e o p l e i n the
c..i...- m i d d l e-class a n d t h e
0 l ower-class fam i I ies
have . . . breakfast n ow.
,.....
ro Prev i o u s l y, they used to
0 eat o n l y at, say, e l ev e n ;
bO they wo u l d come h o m e a n d
j u st e a t somet h i n g , and
Q) t h e n go back for work a n d
� come back i n t h e even i n g .
� They used to h ave two
meals a day. B ut n ow it is, l i ke, b reak-
fast in the m o r n i n g with a variety of
t h i ng s " (02-19-02).
I n I n d ia, b reakfast is norma l i z e d ; it
has orga n i zed the l i ves of p e o p l e i n
I n d i a i n s u c h a way that it has become
somet h i ng that goes without say i n g .
E m p i re not o n l y s u g g ests what we
could consume, but a l s o when, how
ofte n , a n d even w h e re t h i s con s u m p -
t i o n takes p l ace. ( R oad houses a n d
TV- d i n ners are an i nterest i n g conse-
q u ence of t h i s same mechan i s m i n
the Western world i n t h i s pers pec-
t ive.) E m p i re does not h o moge-
n i ze. I t s m u lt i p l icity of o r g a n i zat i o n s
expresses t h e i r powers d ifferen t l y
every t i me. E m p i re is l oyal to t h e
l aws of c a p i ta l i s m , a n d they d o
n o t create u n iform ity. O n t h e con-
trary, they g o in many d i rect i o n s as
l o n g as t h e s i n g l e p r i n c i p l e o f capital-
i s m re m a i n s i n tact; t h e i n crease i n
prof it, c reat i n g m o n ey t h r o u g h m o n ey,
or rat h e r, creat i n g v a l u e t h ro u g h
v a l u e. Capital i s m i s not i nterested i n
the social or the c u l t u ra l in c o m m o d i -
ties or in customs. It does n ot re l at e
to t hat at a l l. It only relates to itse lf,
as Marx a l ready s a i d ( D e l euze and
G u attari 1 984: 392), c reat i n g t h e d iffer-
e n t i a l relation Dy/Dx, "where D y
d e r i ves from labor power a n d consti-
t utes t h e f l uctuat i o n of variable capi-
t a l , and where Dx d e r i ves from capital
itself and const itutes the f l uctuat i o n
of constant capital" ( D e l e u z e and
G u attar i 1 984: 227-8).
T h u s, whereas E m p i re has s ucceeded
in ' norm a l i z i n g ' m e a l t i m e s in I nd i a
f r o m two to t h ree m e a l s a d ay, we see
a n oppos ite development i n t h e
Western world. I n I nd i a, some forces
with i n E m p i re h ave been a b l e to con-
v i nce p e o p l e of the need to take t i m e
tor breakfast, i n the Western world,
others h ave managed to make b reak-
fast b e c o m e less and l e s s popu l a r.
A n o l d m a n from B oston was rem i-
n i s c i n g over t h e good o l d d ays of t h e
breakfast: " A g a i n , once u pon a t i m e . . .
36 Deleuze and G uattari a l ready warned us that capit a l i s m act unaware o f social codes l i ke t h e
f a m i l y. In fact, i n descr i b i n g the 'free capita l i st worke r', t h e y a l ready m a k e reference to the "dis-
s o l ution o f t h e family" ( D e l euze and G uattari 1 984: 225). A move that h a s definitely a l s o taken
place i n India where breakfast m i g ht have been i ntroduced recently, but t h i s i n n o way resem b l es
the f a m i l y meals descri bed by this e l d e r l y man i n Boston.
the trad i t i o n was t hat the �
� '9,c,
�
fam i ly sat down for the morn i n g �
b reakfast. The fam i l y was t h e re,
wait i n g for father to come down, a n d
t h e morn i n g n ewspaper, h a v i n g break-
fast together. It's n ot the way it is
today " ( 1 1 -01 -01 ) . A n d it i s n o t o n l y
b r�akfast t hat has been taken out of
the fa m i l y e nv i ro n m ent in the U n ited
State s ; a l l m e a l s a r e i n creas i n g l y
s u bj ect to cap i t a l i st forces ( l ocated
with i n E m p i re) that demand them to
r u s h , t o c o n s u m e more i n less t i me,
and even not to 'waste' t i m e on
prepa r i n g f o o d . T h u s, the m e a l a n d
t h e p re parat i o n o f t h e m e a l at h o m e
g et i nto h ot wate r: " Pe o p l e a r e bus ier,
work i ng m ore h o u rs, y o u know; they
h ave to. T h e re's nobody a t home, l i ke
it used to be, to cook a n d prepare
m e a l s for the d ay. Then, t h e re was
s o m e body at h o m e to make breakfast,
to make l u nch, a n d t h e n after th at, to
p repare d i n n e r. A n d that j ust d isap-
peared" ( 1 0-30-01 ) .36
E m p i re i s not a homogeneous org a n i -
zat i o n that i nvokes isomorp h i c
c h a nges. E v e n its ' s i n g l e l o g i c of
r u l e ' , its u n ity of compos i t i o n , is
o r g a n i z e d d iffere ntly each t i m e
res u l t i n g in many d ifferent and even
o p pos ite forces. S o m e o r g a n i zat i o n s
favor t h e notion of ' b reakfast'; others
d o n ot. E m p i re i s f ree from val ues,
f ree from n o r ms, free from anyt h i n g
that e v e n rese m b l e s a vast structu re.
I t is a l ways among a m u lt i t u d e of
o r g a n i zat i o n s t hat an axiom regard i n g
t h e n u m be r of meals se rved per day i s
p roposed. I t i s a l ways among a m u l t i -
tude of organizations t hat a standard
i s s e t regard i n g h o w w h ite cheese i s
produced, what k i nd of f r u i t j u ices
o n e can find i n a s u permarket in
H a n g z h o u , h ow m a n y m e a l s are
se rved a day. It cannot force u s to fol-
low its axioms, but its proposals do
force us i n a part i c u l a r d i rect i o n . Of
course, we can have a b i g fam i l y meal
every afte rnoon, but the capita l ist
o r g a n i z a t i o n s (t h e n o r m a l i zation of
47
 the 9 to 5 job) m a kes it p ract i c a l l y
i m pos s i b l e to arrange t h is.
In s h o rt, we can say that with i n t h e
post-1 989 e ra, the h o m o ge n i z i n g p o l it­
ical econ o m i c structu res have
al l owed a l l k i n d s of o r g a n i z a t i o n s to
i n crease t h e i r territories and it has
al l owed t h e m to merge creat i n g an
ove r a l l g l o bal n etwork of States, of
org a n i zations. H a rdt a n d Negri have
labeled t h i s E m p i re, a m u l t i p l i c ity of
apparatus with the same u n ity of
compos i t i o n , but with a d ifferent
art i c u l at i o n . O r actu a l l y, with a m a n i ­
f o l d o f d ifferent organizat i o n s wit h i n
it t h at, i n practi ce, g row i nto t h e i n n u ­
merable art i c u l at i ons t h r o u g h w h i c h
E m p i re att e m pts to form u l at e o rders
to contro l o u r l ife. T h e pacts, the
a l l i an ces, t h e s i ster-companies, the
use of agents - the State-ap parat u ses
have all been twisted i nto a ( no n ­
h o m og e neous) n etwork that cont i n ­
u o u s l y i nt e n d to struct u re o u r l i ves
in a m i crop o l it ic a l way. A l l k i n d s of
-
orga n i zat i o n s i nterested i n p ro d u c i n g
State-food. I n pr od u c i n g 'trad i t i o n a l
d i shes' a n d C oca- C o l a. B ut a l s o i n
n o r m a l i z i n g the t i mes at w h i c h food
s h o u l d be eaten, w h e re it s h o u l d be
eaten , how it s h o u l d be eaten ... I n
p ro d u c i n g a n o t i o n of b reakfast and i n
q u ic k ways to pre pare food. E m p i re i s
i nterested i n a l l forms of o r g a n i z a t i o n
t hat s o m e h ow can make p rofit.
Reorg a n i z i n g e m p i rical situat i o n s i n
very d ifferent ways.

lvl O H E O I� c; A N I Z A T I o N , lvl O I� E N o lvl A D I S lvl

From the idea t h at w it h i n E m p i re the a m o u n t of o r g a n i za­
t io n s has g rown, from t h e i r i ntercon nected n ess, from the
way they have ref i n e d t h e m s e l ves m ore a n d more in order
to contro l our l i ves, o n e can nevert h e l ess not c o n c l u d e
t h a t E m p i re has ' c o n q u e red ' t h e world o r that it has t u r ned
the ' pr i m it i ve' i nto the c i v i l i ze d , the n o m ad i nto the local.
This i s n ot at all w hat has happened. In every organ i za­
t i o n , in every a p pa ratus of capt u re, in every opposition
betwee n t h e local a n d t h e t o u r i st, t h e re res ides a nomad
or a m u l t i p l i c ity of nomadic-becomings. T h e re n ecessar i l y
i s a category t h at escapes t h e o r g a n i zat i o n , t hat i s a b l e to
s h i rk itself from its control.
D e l e u z e a n d G u attari make a s i m i l a r argument in t h e i r
avers i o n o f t h e t rad i t i o n a l a n t h ro p o l o g i c d i s t i nct i o n
" between the State-form and t h e 'primitive ' com m u n it i e s :
0
0 "The se lf-s uff i c i e n cy, autarky, i n d e pe n d en ce, preex istence
....
'
Q) of p r i m i t i ve c o m m u n i t i es, i s a n eth n o l o g i cal d re a m : n ot
-
"' t h at these c o m m u n i t i e s necess a r i l y d e p e n d on States, but
-
(J)
they coex i st with them in a c o m p l e x n etwo rk" ( Deleuze and
Guattari 1 987: 429-30) . The p r i m i t i ve as an autonomous cate­
g ory, t h ey argue, was n ever t h e re ; there was n ever a
b i n a ry o p pos i t i o n betwe e n a State a n d a n o n ­
State i n the s e n s e t h at t h e s e w e r e t w o d i sti nct
'forms of soc i et y ' . T h e p r i m i t i ve, o r the nomad as t h i s
text conceptual izes i t , s h o u l d a l ways be s e e n a s a p o s i t i o n
i n relation to t h e State a p paratus i n t h e same w a y t h e
State apparatus i s a p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to t h e p r i m i t i ve o r
the n o m a d . T h e y a r e both a l ways al ready a t w o r k wit h i n
o n e another. T h e p r i m i t i ve-form i s a becoming-disorganized
in the sense that it wards off the g r i d s of t h e State-form i n
order to esta b l i s h a s u p p l e structu re, a s m ooth s pace,
w h i l e the State-form i s the p o s i t i o n that overcodes t h e
p r i m i t i ve f o r m with its r i g i d structure c reat i n g a st r i ated
s pace.
S o w h at has c h a n g ed with the com i n g of capita l i s m , with
t h e rise of E m p i re i n the post 1 989-era, as it b ro ke t h ro u g h
the coded orga n i zat i o n s o f t h e State-form s m o ot h i ng t h e
world o r a t l east organ i z i n g it a r o u n d the n o t i o n o f capital?
H ow can we see t h e State-form a n d the nomad i n o u r capi­
tal ist e ra?
48 We m u st a c k n o w l e d g e t h at the acce l e rat i o n of t h e
orga n i zat i o n s w a s p r i m a r i l y a q u a l itat i ve c h a n g e .
Fo r w h at has h a p pe n e d w i t h t h i s d e n s i f i c at i o n i s
t h at t h e i r wa l l s h ave m u l t ip l i ed d ra m at i ca l l y c r i s s­
c ro s s i n g t h e wo r l d i n s u c h a d rast i c way t h at war­
f a re s l o w l y t u rn e d i nto t r e n c h warfare. The wa l l s
have n ot d i sappeared; they have m u l t i p l i ed i n s u c h a s pec­
tac u l a r way t hat we s i m p l y n o l o n g e r notice t h e m . The
S o l d i e rs have not d i sappeare d ; they are everywh e re, but
have managed to stay out of s i g ht. The arm ies of the world
are hardly ever used for act u a l warfare; t h e i r task i s to
t h reaten, to i m p ress by t h e i r n u m bers and the s k i l l s that
are att r i b uted to t h e m . The city wa l l s have evol ved i nto
e l ectro n i c gates, as V i r i l i o c l a i m s ; t h e access roads t h at
where once b l ocked by fortresses or by its gates are today
obstructed by e l ectro n i c gates; " . . . t e l e m at i c s rep l aces t h e
doorway. The s o u n d o f gates g i ves way to t h e c l atter of
data b a n ks and t h e r ites of passage of a techn ical c u l t u re
whose p rog ress i s d i s g u i sed by t h e i m m at e r i a l ity of its
parts and n etworks" (Viri l io 1 991 : 1 3) . The orga n i zat i o n i s
art i c u l ated i n a d ifferent way, b u t it f u n ct i o n s j ust t h e
same. They are st i l l t h e re to d ef i ne. Yet, m ore a n d more
from t h e i m percept i b l e . E m p i re has a s s u m e d an
a l most G o d - l i ke ro l e as it is m a k i n g use of s k i l l s
we w i l l n ever see, i nv o l v i n g an army we w i l l n ever
see. E m p i re d o e s n ot m a ke u s e o f s i t e s o f c o nf i n e m e nt
anymo re, but it does compartmental ize. It does create a n
order, o n e t h a t d o e s n ot o bstruct t h e capita l i st f l ows o n
w h i c h it depends. I t d o e s n ot c reate maids anymore, a s
D e l e u z e argues, but modulations ( Deleuze 1 995).
W h en ever the capita l i st m a c h i n e s start work i ng , they
o perate in a ve ry d ifferent way from the State-for m . They
d o work with a codifyi n g system l i ke the State-a pparatus,
but create purely syntactic rules that are not linked to a cen­
tral organ (a King-Jurist) and tra vels in a free flow (capital).
C a p it a l i st forms of control are t h u s no centra l i z i n g pow­
e rs, but rat h e r " u ltrarapid forms of apparently free float­
i n g control t h at are t a k i n g over from the o l d d i s c i p l i nes at
work wit h i n the t i m e sca l es of c l osed syst e m s " ( Deleuze
1 995: 1 78). But w h e reas the State-form e rects vertical walls,
i n p l a c i n g borders between t h e local and t h e t o u r i st ( o r
t h e c i v i l i a n a n d the n o n -c i v i l i a n ) , a n d i s t h u s u n a b l e to g e t

J B I O P O W E I� : T H E TELEV I S I O N
The g rotes q u e advert i se m e nts t hat cou l d be found
t h ro u g hout t h e city of B a n g a lo re are only one way i n w h i c h
t h e m u lt i p l i c ity o f o r g a n i zat i o n s today t r i e s to control u s ,
t r i e s to conve rt u s i nto t h e o p po s i t i o n o f consu m e r/non­
consu mer. The n etwork of a pparatus of capt u re that
i ntends to i n c rease its g r i p on u s uses a l l k i n d s of tech­
n i q ues to e n g rave our bodies, or even to enter our b o d i es
i n order to make it f u nct i o n with the m a c h i nes they set
i nto motion.
Today, t h e mass media are most often e mp l oyed by organ i­
zat i on s to structure a n d expand t h e i r terr itory, to attack
the m asses in order to i n c l u d e t h e m . I t is t h e re, w i t h i n
t h e med i a, w h e re t h e batt l ef i e l d s are s i t u ated
tod ay, and t h u s , w h ere t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of orga n i za­
t i o n s act i ve l y rec ru its a i m i n g at the expa n s i o n or
target i n g the e x pa n s i o n of t h e i r part i c u l a r a p para­
t u s of c a pt u re. M ostly because t h e mass m e d i a today
have expanded to every corner of the wor l d . They h ave per­
meated the ca p i l l a r i e s of o u r l i ves. From m u l t i p l e s i des.
They m i g ht construct a notion of local ity as, for i n stance,
Appadu rai (Appadurai 1 988) s hows w h e n h e stresses the
a g r i p on t h e nomad, t h e capital ist mach i n e , i n
its d e pe n de n cy o n money, i nsta l l s horizontal
ramps based on m oney, a n d is u n a b l e to get a g r i p o n
t h o s e w h o h ave n ot a l l owed money to p l ay the central
r o l e i n t h e i r l i ves.
T h i s was most a pparent in B a n g a l o re . For it was h e re t hat
t h e b i g m u lt i nat i o n a l s in part i c u l a r l ead t h e attack on the
p e o p l e i n t h e poorer areas of t h e city by i n u n d at i ng these
n e i g h borhoods with advert i s e me nts. For t h e m ost part,
h a n d - p a i nted and cove r i n g t h e e n t i re s i d e of an apartment
b u i l d i n g o r o n g i ant b i l l boards that rose h i g h above the
c ity. H ug e ads u r g i n g people to buy the l atest C itroen or
some d e l ecta b l e Cad b u ry chocolates. It was good b u s i ­
n e s s for t h e p a i nters, a n d t h e p e o p l e w h o a l lowed t h e ads
to be p a i nted o n t h e i r wa l l s also p rof ited.
B u t p e o p l e w h o were h a p py to have at l east some kind of
roof above t h e i r heads are never g o i n g to buy a new
C itroen. And people who are happy to earn a h a n df u l of
rice a n d dhal each d ay would n ot buy a box of ex p e n s i ve
Cad b u ry chocolates. They d o n 't even t h i n k of it. They do,
h owever, l i ke t h e c o l o rs used in t h e advert i s e ments, the
i mages, a n d t h e profit rea l ized by t h e h o meown ers a n d the
p a i nters. B ut t h e re was n o q uest i o n t hat they were g o i n g
to b u y it. The s logans, t h e brands, meant n oth i n g t o them,
at l east n ot i n t h e way t h e m u lt i na t i o n a l s had p la n n e d it.
T h e s i g n s d i d not aff ect t h e i r d e s i re s .
T h e p e o p l e o f B a n g a l ore became t h e nomads i n the way
they re l ated to t h i s part i c u l a r cap i t a l i st a pparatu s ; they
became those w h o were neither capt u re d n o r n ot capt u red
by it. They were i n v i s i b l e to the m u lt i n a t i o n a l s for they d i d
n ot conform t h e i r p re m i ses. They t u r n e d i nto u nformed
m atter a n d u nformalized f u n ct i on s t h at escape its organ i­
zat i o n .
g reat i m p o rtance of t h e mass med i a i n creat i n g a c u l i nary
trad i t i o n (a concept of State-food) i n I n d ia. B u t t h ey j u st
as eas i ly promote the C oca- C o l a mach i n e t hat i nt e n d s to
escape t h i s local ity by creat i n g vectors a l l over the world.
By popp i n g u p at t h e footh i l l s of t h e H i ma l ayas, at t h e h u r­
r i cane-pounded f i s h i n g i s l a n d s off t h e coast of N i carag ua,
and m ost of a l l, at the b i l l boards near yo u , at the rad i o you
l i ste n , at the t e l e v i s i o n you watch . Today, i nfor m at i o n tech­
n o l ogy as it has l e d to even m o re ways i n which a commer­
c i a l message can be expressed, i n w h i c h an organ i zat i o n
c a n create a territory. C o n s i d e r the I nternet, m o b i l e
p h ones, o r any o t h e r contem porary med i a device.
A l l o r g a n i z a t i o n s are m ost i nterested in i m po s i n g t h e m ­
s e l ves o n u s t h r o u g h the m e d i a a lt h o u g h we s h o u l d notice
that the media are not n ecessar i l y o n their s i d e. J u st as
eas i l y, they transpo rt a n o m ad m essage, a terrorist mes­
sage. And maybe the g u e r i l l a tec h n i q ues of the n o m ad
m i g ht even be m ore effect ive than the organized a p p roach
of the State-fo r m . Maybe the n o m a d i c forces fit the m e d i a
better because o f t h e ever-ch a n g i n g c haracter o f t h e
med ia, because o f its c a p r i c i o u sness. The m e d i a have 49
 b e c o m e the w a r mach i n e o f today f o r m . The t e l e v i s i o n i s t h e u l t i mate
s i nce they have become the s ite war mac h i ne s i nce, in convey i n g t h e
Cl)
wh ere the State-forms and t h e Cl) m essage, i n i ncreas i n g t h e land o f the
n omad-forms f i g ht t h e i r batt les. � -+-I State-a pparatus o r t h e territory of t h e
·� ·� I
Espec i a l ly t h e new mass m e d i a
� CJ) "'O n o m a d , it i s t h e f o r m o f t e l e v i s i o n t hat
b r o u g ht t h e batt les between a n y u CJ.) ro h as had t h e g reatest effect on o u r
State-form and a n o m a d 'only one ro � everyday l i ves, t h a t has d eterr i t o r i a l ­
s
screen away'. T h r o u g h t h e n ewspa per,
s ;...i 0
i zed it m ost d ramatical ly. O n w h at w e

Cl)
rad i o, t e l e v i s i o n , a n d t h e I nt e r n et, eat, o n w h e r e w e eat, o n h o w we e a t. . .
t h e i r batt l e s h ave entere d o u r h o m es.
� � O u r i nte rests s h o u l d g o o u t t o
ro
s Cl)
�
T h r o u g h the m o b i l e phone and i n stant t h e w a y t e l ev i s i o n works, to t h e
message services, they c l i ng to o u r
0 � w a y t e l e v i s i o n forms the
CJ.) u -+-I
bodi es. C o nsta n t l y a s k i n g f o r o u r
� Cl) expressed m e ssage, to t h e way
atten t i o n , a s k i n g u s to be a n act i ve � "'O it is c a pa b l e of organ i z i n g , of
part of t h e m . T h a n ks i n large part to ;...i
Cl)
� CJ) f u n ct i o n i n g w i t h both t h e State
t h e mass med ia, brands, s l ogans, Cl) ro Cl) form and w i t h the nomad i n a
>
s CJ) -+-I
,......
Laws, AN D the n o m a d i c can now ro most s u c c e s sf u l way, for two
0 -+-I
become o m n i present. � s ro reas o n s :
u
T h e power of t h e new m a s s
Cl)
� � � Fi rst, b e c a u s e o f w h at can b e
m e d i a l i e s not i n t h e content, b ut 0
Cl) c a l l e d i t s ' i nterpas s i v e ' p o s i t i o n
. � t.+--1 �
i n t h e form t h ro u g h w h i c h t h i s � s i n c e t e l ev i s i o n m a n a g e s to c re­
Cl) -+-I Cl)
·�
content i s expres s e d . The way i n Cl) ate s peed between two obj ects
> -+-I
w h i c h t h e m e d i a a re used to express a Cl) ro � w it h o ut m ot i o n . " Pa i n t i n g cannot
ro u -+-I -+-I
message d iffers g reat l y. M c l u h a n deceive us, for it does n ot have at its
poses i n h i s n oteworthy c l a i m t hat
� � rfJ -+-I d i sposal t h e real hue of l i g ht,"
'the M e d i u m is t h e Message' ro ·�
CJ) Cl)
� S c h l e g e l a l ready stated some 200
·�
bO
(McLuhan 1 967) , an often m i s read
"'O � � ·�
years ago (Vi r i l i o 2000: 44). But t e l e v i ­
arg u ment as Ooster l i ng e m p h a s i zes: Cl) ro -+-I
t.+--1 s i o n can. Its f l i c k e r i n g i m ages
Cl) CJ)
s w i t h t h e i r m u l t i - l aye red s i g n s
" ... this d oes not mean t h at only the
"'O
0 �
packag i ng i s i m portant. N e i t her, that
every content merges i nto its d es i g n . Cl) -+-I Cl) s need t o be b u rned onto o u r ret i ­
n a s . I t capt u res u s i n a m ost effec­
""C
� �
0
0 T h e s l o g a n d o e s n ot g i ve ex pre s s i o n � t.+--1 0 t i ve way p l a y i n g o u r d e s i res.
'
"' to a ste r i l e esthet i c i s m or a n et h i cal � 0 � t.+--1 Te l ev i s i o n produces the Gorgon myt h ,
i n d iffere n t i s m . M c l u h a n i nt e n d s to as M c l u han poses it (McLu han 2001 ) ,
-
UJ
e m p hasize the way media are form i n g ent way of ap proac h i ng us. They com­ as i n i t s i n c l us i o n o f t h e v i ewer, it pet­
consciousness" (Oosterl i n g 2000: 28-9). pose w hat we could ca l l t h e N i pkow rifies it. "With perfect psycho- m i met i c
Or, as h e h i ms e lf formu lates it, t h e g a l axy: a u n i verse created around t h e s k i l l, they carry o u t t h e commands of
way m e d i a compose " . . . d y n a m i c m o d ­ i nvent i o n o f t h e t e l e v i s i o n , d ef i ned b y t h e TV i mage. They po re, they p ro be,
e l s o f the u n i verse i n act i o n " ( McLuhan the sensat i o n s d e r i v i n g f r o m e l ectro­ they s l ow d own and i nv o l ve t h e m ­
1 997: 6). T h e old mass media compose mechanical product i o n . These m e d i a s e l ves i n d e p t h " (M cLu han 2001 : 308).
the G uten berg g a l axy ( McLuhan 1 962) : ( f r o m the rad i o to t h e te lev i s i o n to T h i s i s w hat D e l e u z e refers to as
a u n i verse created around t h e i nven­ i nte rn et) ask t h e C oca- C o l a d r i nker to ' s o c i a l s u bject i o n ' , for h e re, the
tion of p r i nt, d ef i ned by the sensa­ be i nc l uded in t h e message, to be part human being i s n ot u s i ng a mach i n e
tions d e r i v i n g from project i o n . These of t h e abst ract s pace it t r i e s to pro­ ( o r a tool) t o i t s benef it, b u t i t i s actu­
m e d i a (from the book to the p hoto­ d uce, of the construction of its myth. a l l y the mach i n e t hat controls h i m . It
g ra p h to the m ov i e 37) st i l l a pproach In our capita l i st age, it has been the i s the m e d i u m itself t h at i s able to
the C oca-Cola d r i nker (to stay with N i p kow g a l axy, a n d espec i a l l y the i m pose its form o n the event overcod­
this case) as a c o n s u mer. As t h e one power of t e l e v i s i o n , that has proved i n g u s in how it expresses its m u lt i p l e
to whom a message i s proposed. The to b e the most i m portant c o m p a n i o n m essages. " O n e i s e n s l aved b y T V as
new mass med i a have a rat h e r d iffer- o f the State-form a n d o f t h e n o m a d a h u man mach i n e i nsofar as t h e t e l e­
v i s i o n v i ewers are . . . i nt r i n s i c com po­
37 Mcluhan defines t h e movie to b e t h e last i mage o f t h e G utenberg era, w h i c h h a s l ittle t o d o nent p i eces, ' i n put' a n d ' output', feed­
w i t h telev i s i on. T h e reason f o r t h i s , i s t h a t with telev i s i on, " . . .t h e i mage is defined by l i ght back o r recurrences that are n o l o n g e r
through, not by l i g ht on. It is t h i s fact that separates television from photography and mov ie, conn ected to the mach i n e i n s u c h a
relating it profou n d l y to stained g l ass. The spat i a l sense generated by telev i s i o n i s utterly u n l ike way as to p roduce or use it" ( D e l e u z e
that of the mov ie. And, of course the d ifference has noth ing to do with the 'content' of the pro­ and G uatta r i 1 987: 458).
50 gram[m]ing. Here, as ever, the med i u m itself i s the u l t i m ate message" ( Mcluhan 1 997: 1 1 ) . S e c o n d , the power of the t e l e v i -
 t h e major c u lt u r a l revo l ut i o n o f t h e The a p p l ication of i nfor ma-
twentieth century l i ke p r i nt had t i o n t ec h n o logy ( v i a t h e c o m p ut­
(J) changed t h e world 500 years before e r, t h e m o b i l e phone, or any other
� t h at. N ot so m uch because of the con­ m u lt i m e d i a device) s h o u l d , of cou rse,
� � tent of the message it s p reads, but n ot be u n deresti m ated. In the near
0 t..1--1 because i t s form that a l l owed a mes­ f u t u re, their powers w i l l defi n i t e l y
·�
0 sage l i ke 'Drink Coca- Cola ' to be c o m e fo rward m ore than t h e y do
ct1 h eard all over the world at the same today. B ut u n t i I n ow, they have n 't
s �
0 �
•
t i me. It a l l ows any Code to be trans­ been m uc h of a t h reat to t e l e v i s i o n .

� l ated i nto every poss i b l e lang u a g e M ost of a l l, beca use t h e i r i nter-acti ve­
(J) - �
� ;:J A N D to be contested by t h e n o m ad ness a n d t h e i r o m n i -t e m poral ity ( n o n ­
� ;:J � voices that act i rrespect ive of brands, s i m u ltaneous broadcast i n g ) n eces­
� ,.......c
� i rrespect ive of every form of o r g a n i za­ s a r i l y ask for the cont i n uous act i vity
rn 0 (J) tion. of t h e i nd i v i d u a l user. There i s a n
- �
:> u T h e Laws p roc l a i m e d i n the c o m m e r­ extreme g rowth i n t h e n um be r o f con­
(J)
� � �
c i a l breaks are o n l y a s m a l l (and ofte n nect i o n s (espec i a l l y i n C h i n a w h e re
0 ,.......c �
re press i ve) part o f it; m o v i e s , t e l e v i ­ t h e I nternet is l a r g e l y f ree for every­

(J)
- � s i o n s e r i es, g a m e s hows . . . they all o n e ) , but because of its i nter-act i ve­
rn ct1
�
-� deterritor i a l i ze us, cod i n g or overcod­ ness and its o m n i -t e m poral ity, i nfor­
·�
�
:> ;:J � ing u s in a m icropo l i t i c a l way. N ot s o m a t i o n t e c h n o l ogy st i l l has o n l y a
(J)� much by rep res s i o n , but a l l t h e m o r e f ract i o n of the powe r the t e l ev i s i o n
,.......c ,.......c (J) by norma l i zat i o n as Foucau lt m a y h a s w i t h i t s s i m u ltaneous a n d i nter­
(J) ;:J � h ave s a i d . By a n u nconscious recre­ passive b roadcasts. We do n ot d i s re­
� u � ation of its metamyth as M c L u h a n gard t h e effect of the I nternet, e-m a i l ,
m i g ht h ave s a i d . T h e power o f televi­ m o b i l e p h o nes, o r e v e n o f rad i o a n d
s i o n l i es i n its o m n i p re s e n c e sion s e r i es, of C N N / A l J az ee ra, of t h e b i l l boards. But it i s t e l e v i s i o n t h r o u g h
a n d u n i -t e m poral d i m e n s i o n ; it m o v i e s t h a t are broadcasted a l l over w h i c h b o t h E m p i re a n d i t s counter­
i s everyw h e re at t h e same t i m e . the world, is i m mense. In l a rg e part, forces h ave m ost s u ccessf u l l y s p read
Te l e v i s i o n , far g reater t h a n any ot h e r because of its a b i l ity to n o r m a l i ze, to t he i r t h o u g hts. M o re often and m ore
med i u m , has s p read i t s r u l e t h r o u g h ­ bring about the s m a l l est changes i n s uccessf u l ly t h a n ot h e r med i u m te le­
out the wor l d , a n d i s c a p a b l e of o u r d a i l y l i ves. A s o n e youngster from v i s i o n i s ( st i l l ) t h e locus of today's
s p rea d i n g a message to a large B a n g a l o re s o adeptly p h rased t h e warfare betwee n t h e State-form a n d
a m o u nt of p e o p l e i n an i n stant. Even power o f t e l ev i s i o n : " . . . y o u see o n e t h e n o m a d . S u bject i n g i t to t h e Laws
in a re latively poor country such as g u y d e l i v e r i n g p izza; t h e n s o m e peo­ of E m p i re one m o m e nt, l i berat i n g us
I nd i a " ... all v i l lagers have t e l e v i s i o n . ple order a p i zza" (02-21 -02). from any form of o r g a n i z at i o n t h e
W i t h o ut except i o n s . E a c h p e r s o n h a s Te l e v i s i o n is a very s u ccessf u l next, t e l e v i s i o n creates o u r l i ves i n a
a t e l ev i s i o n " (03-05-02). Te l e v i s i o n i s i n st r u m e nt of n o r m a l i z at i o n . very personal way. 38

K T H E A G E O F l lvl B A L A N C E
Te l e v i s i o n , m o re so t h a n ot her mass med ia, is e q u i pped
w i t h a m a g n i f y i n g g l ass any astro n o m e r could o n l y d ream
of. It can turn t h e s m a l l est issue i nto a wor l d-encom pass­
ing event; it i s o n l y t h r o u g h te lev i s i o n t hat one m a n i s a b l e
to c o d e the e n t i re w o r l d p o p u l a t i o n . The pot e n t i a l o f t h e
I nte rnet ap proaches t h at o f t e l ev i s i o n with i t s grow i n g
i nterest i n rea l -t i m e broadcasts ( w e b cams, l i ve footage,
v i rt u a l real ity, t e l e - p resence), but it is t e l e v i s i o n that is far
better a b l e to i ncorpo rate u s w i t h i n a State apparatus with
its o m n i presence a n d its i nterpass i v ity. V i r i l i o 's adage
of t h e " . . . p rev i o u s l y u n i m a g i n a b l e e q u at i o n : One
m a n = Total war" ( Vi r i l i o 2000: 1 9 ) i s a stat e m e n t t h at
a p p l i es to o u r e r a beca u s e of t h e part i c u l a r pos i -
t i o n t e l e v i s i o n h a s m a n a g e d to c reate. As the war
mac h i ne of our t i me. As the site of accel e rat i o n .
U n dou bted ly, the Nation- States, a n d even m o re s uccess­
f u l l y, the M u l t i n at i o n a l s, have p roved to be capa b l e of cap­
t u r i n g the world. The P re s i d e n t of Coca- C o l a and the
P res i d e nt of the U n ited States, both with t h e i r i m mense
a r m i es, a re we l l e q u i pped to i n i t i at e this total war. And
they h ave d o n e so with g reat s uccess. S u c h fast-food
c h a i n s as M c D o n a l d 's and KFC have a l s o won major bat­
t l e s as have s u c h major supermar ket c h a i n s as K-mart.
T hey have w i t h o ut except i o n used the new mass m e d i a,
a n d n ota b l y t e l e v i s i o n , to be t h e i r batt l e g ro u n d .
B ut it i s n o t o n l y t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l com p a n i e s or t h e

38 I f s u c h a t h i n g as ' i n d i v idual ization' i s occurring, it i s because o f t h e changing tactics o f the State, which s u bjectifies i n a most s i n g u l a r way. For
whereas within the d i s c i p l i nary society the organi zations st i l l d i sc i p l i ne accord i n g to its 'own' set of ru les, w i t h i n E m p i re, the tactics of capture
s l i de i nto one another creat i n g a continuous subjectification. 51
 Nation States t h at are capable of overpowe r i n g u s it i s a l l t h e same. S o everybody wants
by means of t e l e v i s i o n . The orders can c o m e to e a t b u l l nowadays. T h e y n ow s e e it
f ro m a n y d i re ct i o n s i n c e every n o m a d i c force ro is d ifferent from the cow" (07-30-02a).
is c a pa b l e of p i c k i n g up t h e m a g n i f y i n g g l ass T h i s n o m a d i c mach i ne, m ost of a l l
�
...f..-1
i n ord e r to en l a rg e a n d overcode t h e e nt i re m e d i ated t h r o u g h t e l e v i s i o n (th ro u g h
world. Te l e v i s i o n a n d o t h e r mass m e d i a a r e pat i e nt- -� t h e h o r r ifyi n g i mages of the st u m b l i n g
l y w a i t i n g f o r messages to be sent o ut. A n d w h e n
some m essage e m erges, it is capable of deterritori-
� cows c o m b i n e d with t h e i m ages of
h u man bei ngs s uff e r i n g from
a l i z i n g the e nt i re world in a s p l it second. Every ""d • C re u zfeldt-Jacob d i sease) , was n ot
nomad, any nomad, i n a l l its c a p r i c i o us ness, i s Cl) t....j....I o n l y act i ve with i n t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of
capable of u s i n g t h e war mac h i n e we c a l l t e l e v i s i o n 0.. 0 m eat, it attacked many s ides of con-
0..
s
i n a very effect ive way. For as a lways, it i s the s u m pt i o n ove rcod i n g every event i n
nomad w h o i s far m o re s k i l lf u l i n m a k i n g u s e of t h e
-�
w h i c h p e o p l e enter i nto compos i t i o n .
w a r m a c h i ne. Two recent exa m p les, two d ifferent � ro The owner of a q u a I ity cheese s h o p
a p pearances o f t h e n o m ad , show the e n o r m o u s pos- � Cl) noticed, " . . . today you can see that
Cl) H
s i b i l it i e s of this war mach i n e, this mag n if y i n g g lass m u c h m o re you n g e r p e o p l e come to
we ca l l t e l e v i s i o n . They both s h ow t h e way t h e rJJ
""d t h i s store . . . Maybe because of m ad
-�
n o m a d , by m a k i n g stag g e r i n g l y s i m p l e use of t e l e v i - �
... ,.......-
cow d i sease . . . The pro d u cts that we
s i o n , i s a b l e to deal major b l ows to any State-for m . s e l l are perhaps q u it e expens i ve, but
In d ifferent ways, but with a s i m i l a r g lobal effect. ro � t h ey are of h i g he r q u a l ity than you
�
·

0
Fi rst, V i r i l i o m e n t i o n s t h e terrorist: " Let's n ot forget
""d can f i n d it is any ot h e r p l ace. It i s
t hat i nternat i o n a l t e r r o r i s m i s i nsepara b l e from t h i s
Cl) ""d safer to 'buy h e re " (07-18-02a). Even i n
,.......-
s
media front a n d t hat te rrorist attacks make sense the s u permarket, t h e m a nagers notice
a n d have p o l itical value only because of t h e t e l e- � a trend towards better health after

rJJ 0
v i sed p u b l i city they i nv a r i a b l y have at t h e i r d i s pos- t h e com i n g of the mad cow d i sease:
a l " ( V i r i l i o 2000: 21). V i r i l i o wrote this before the rJJ u " M ore and m o re p e o p l e buy water. I
attacks of Sept e m b e r 1 1 , 2001 , but h i s prophetic ro H s e l l a l c o h o l , a n d I notice that p e o p l e

s Cl)
v i s i o n s h a v e s u re l y made sense i n l i g h t o f t h e fact are m o re a n d m o re b u y i n g water" (07-

s
t h at the A l Q u eda network has g r i p ped t h e wo r l d i n 1 1 -02).
fear ever s i n ce. By d o i n g very l ittle, espec i a l ly corn- H The terr itory of t h e mad cow d i sease
"O pared to t h e N a t i o n States or s u pra n a t i o n a l organ i - Cl) 0 was n ot l i m ited to t h e West. The mass
� �
0
0 zat i o n s that i nt e n d to f i g ht it. It was t h e razor m e d i a (and espec i a l l y t e l e v i s i o n )
-'
b l a d e a g a i nst t h e Star Wars p rog r a m , a n d it ...f..-1 0 s pread it a l l over t h e w o r l d . I nto t h e
-Q)
-"' was t h e razor blade t h at c e l eb rated the g l o r i o u s v ie- 0 H homes of p e o p l e a l l over t h e world.
Cl) ...f..-1
tory. T h u s a l s o onto those of t h e i n h a b i -
� rJJ
ro ro
The second case concerns a v i r us. With j u st as tants of H a n g z ho u w h e re they l e d to
I- much g l o ba l consequences, mad cow d i sease ( B S E ) a l l k i nd s of thoughts that h ad a g reat
It:
as it st ruck E u rope at the beg i n n i ng of t h i s second � � i m pact o n the way p e o p l e related to
...f..-1
ci:

�
Q.
m i l l e n n i u m , has dete rrito r i a l i zed the way i n w h i c h food. The c o n s u m p t i o n o f French
people throughout the world deal with food, with t h e 0 ro wines ( po p u l a r among t h e wealt hy)
rJJ
rJJ
concept of health, with i deas regard i n g the e n v i ro n - d ropped d ramatically w h e n the r u m o r
me nt, a n d a g reat deal m ore. By m e a n s o f t h e mass Cl) rJJ c i rcu lated t hat t h e w i n e was m i xed
m e d i a, a n d notab ly, t e l e v i s i o n , it has attacked many H ro with i nfect i o u s b l ood from these mad
people t h ro u g hout the wo r l d i n a very perso n a l way. 0 ,.......- cows. B ut it a l s o had g reat conse-
bO
A l t h o u g h d ifferen t l y expressed, d ifferen t l y experi-
enced, foot and mouth d i sease, by means of televi- s q u e n ces on t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of meat,

... bO
f resh vegetab l es, v i s it s to
s i o n , was very destructive to many orga n i zations. M c D o n a l d 's, a n d t h e i d e a l ized i m age
C o n s i d e r t h e city of Lyo n . In t h e health food stores, � � of t h e West. I n s u p e r markets, at farm-
0 � ·

-� �
" . . . p e o p l e j ust ask more and more q uest i o n s on food, ers markets, i n the streets, a n d every-

rJJ t....j....I
with mad cow d i sease and anyt h i ng t hat has hap- where i n H a n g z h o u , p e o p l e d i s cussed
pened recently" (07- 1 1 -02b). In an exc l us i v e restau- · � -� t h e i r new i d eas regard i n g food . I t very
rant, the c hef argues t h at " . . . p e o p l e were rea l l y > � m u c h affected t h e i r d a i l y l i ves.
af raid with the mad cow d i sease. B ut we t o l d t h e m Cl) bO Mad cow d i sease had the poten t i a l of
they were eat i n g b u l ls, n ot cows. A n d t h e n they
,.......- ro
Cl)
penetrat i n g every h o u s e h o l d i n t h e
started eat i n g it a g a i n . N owadays, it is often c a l l e d
veal. It i s strange t hat as l o n g as the a n i m a l i s a l i ve,
� s wo r l d . M i cro-po l i t i c a l l y reorgan i z i ng
t h e t h o u g hts and act i o n s of people
52 you make a d iffe rence, but w h e n it i s dead, you t h i n k around t h e world. N ot a b l y, b y means
of t e l ev i s i o n , t h i s e n o r m o u s m ag n ify­ ' Finnegan 's Wake' from com­
ing g l ass today manages to f u nct i o n m e rc i a l s l ogans, myths, n ews­
as a contact lens. It has t h e s a m e paper head l i n es, f o r m u l a s ; J oyce
transpare n cy. I t i s e q u a l l y u n noticed. p ract i ce d the art of nomadism in t h e
"As a l m ost i n v i s i b l e st r u ct u res, t h ey u l t ra-o rgan i zed wo r l d . W r i t i n g with
o r i ent a n d com pose the act i o n s and t h e f l i c k e r i n g t e l e v i s i o n . A m ost
t h e t h o u g hts of t h e i r s u pposedly e m p i r i c a l e n m es h m e nt of t h e Vo ices
autonomous users" (Ooste r l i n g 2000: from Everywhere t hat wal k with u s
28) . t h r o u g h o u r d a i l y l i ves:
Te l e v i s i o n , i n i t s material ity, i n i t s
creat i o n o f l i g ht, i n its a b i l ity to affect "Now, then, take this in!
p e o p l e t h ro u g hout t h e wo r l d in a One of the most murmurable
major way, i n its a b i l ity to paralyze loose corollaries ever Ellis
t h e m , has today become the m ost threw his cookingclass. With
i m portant method of attack; it is Olaf as centrum and Olaf's
through t e l e v i s i o n that Good and Ev i l lambtail for his spokesman
are re-d ef i ned, t h at R i g h t a n d Wrong circumcript a cyclone. Allow
are re-created, that t h e E d i b l e a n d t h e ter! Hoop! Round as a calf
N o n -e d i b l e a r e re-organ i zed. of an egg! 0, dear me! 0, dear
Te l e v i s i o n i s a b l e to f u n ct i o n with t h e me now! Another grand
J u r ist to serve t h e K i n g , but i s maybe discoberly!"
even m o re f i t to s pread t h e word of ( Joyce 2002: 294).
t h e nomad. Te l e v i s i o n is M e d u s a,
as it pet r i f i e s t h e v i ewer w i t h i t s
i m ages A N D it i s t h e b l i ndfo l d ed
f i g u re of J u st i c e ; it i s b l i n d to
w h oever c a ll s upon it. The
A l m i g hty Magnifying G l ass, the
I n st i t ute of I n stab i l ity has become t h e
m a i n p o i nt f r o m w h i c h d eterr itorial­
ization takes p l ace. It i s ext e r i o r to a l l
t h e part i es, b u t c a n be appropriated
by anyone of them. A nyt h i n g that
manages to p l ug i nto this mac h i ne is
s pread t h ro u g hout t h e world v i a its
g l ass f i b e r t entac l e s t hat rap i d l y
expand. M ore i nform at i o n . M ore reor­
g a n i z a t i o n . A n d notably, m ore
nomad i s m .
In t h e i r cont i n u i n g batt l e ,
E m p i re, t h at i nt r i cate c l uster of
l ate c a p i t a l i st orga n i zat i o n s, a n d
t h e nomad i c forces t h at avert it,
i m m a n e n t l y c reate t h e
n o m a d i zed i n d i v i d u a l t h ro u g h
-t e l ev i s i o n . O r, p u t a n ot h e r way,
together they are res p o n s i b l e for t h e
r i se o f t h e ' m ass i n d i v i d u a l '
( De l e u z e and G u attari 1 987: 215) t hat i s
capt u re d from every a n g l e t h o u g h at
t h e same t i me, escapes to every
ang le. James J oyce very conv i n c i n g l y
descr i bed t h e contem porary d i m e n ­
s i o n s o f t h e r e a l . S h atte r i n g t h e l i near
u n ity of t h e word, of l a n g u age, t u r n i n g
t h e m i nto a w h i m s ic a l b l u r s u rpass i n g
organ i zat i ons, h e com posed h i s book 53
 T E R RITORIES OF FOOD AND BECOM I N G M I N O TA R I A N

54
A ' '
T H E S ELF : T H H EE S E lvl l O L O G I E S
At a Boston park s ituated somew h e re between the I ta l i a n
q u arte r ( k n o w n as 'the N orth E n d ' ) a n d t h e C h i nese q u ar­
ter ( ' C h i natow n ' ) , I fe l l i nto a conversat i o n with a m a n . He
t o l d m e h e felt no need to g o to the s u perm arket; h e went
out for d i n n e r every eve n i ng . T h e n h e e x p l a i ned, "I prefer
to g o to t h e N orth E n d to t h e Ital i a n restau rants ... I p refer
Ita l i a n food, n o C h i n ese, Thai, or any other A s i a n c u i s i n e.
J u st Ital i a n . I am I t a l i a n , you k now. I j ust l i ke to hang o u t
with my fe l l ow I ta l ians. I know t h e p e o p l e t hat g o t h e re
very good. I know t h e restaurant own e rs. A n d it's good
food, of course. I l i ve i n t h e N o rt h E n d too. For all my l ife"
( 1 0-21 -01 b). In this short excerpt, t h e m a n m akes i nterest­
i n g l i n ks between h i mself and what s u r r o u n d s h i m . I n
o rd � r to d ef i n e h i m s e l f h e re l ates to a l l k i n d s of
forces outs i d e h i m to w h i c h he c l a i m s to be
stro n g l y con n ected .
I n anthropo l o g i ca l l iterat u re, George H e r be rt Mead f i rst
noticed th at the d ef i n it i o n of the self is d e r i ved from t h e
way i n w h i c h o n e i s connected to t h e s o c i a l world t h a t s u r­
ro u n d s t h i s se lf. He exp l a i n s : "The ' I ' is t h e res ponse of
t h e organ i s m to the att itudes of ot h e r s ; t h e ' m e ' is t h e
organ ized s e t o f att itudes o f others w h i c h o n e h i m s e lf
assumes" (Mead 1 934: 1 75). The m a n I m et i n t h e park was
o r g a n i zed by a s i m i l a r mech a n i s m . He art i c u l ated h i m s e lf
by relating to h i s 'fe l l ow Ita l i ans' a n d to the ( It a l i a n )
restau rant owners o f t h e N orth E n d . T h e y affected h i m a s
t h e y expressed ' Italy' to h i m. O r to be m o re precise, h e
defined himself by relating to those who represented what
he was affected by: Italy 39•
Mead g i ves us an i nterest i n g a n a l y s i s of t h i s se lf-as s u m p­
t i o n , or se lf-defi n it i o n , i n t h e m a k i n g of con nect i o n s to t h e
'others' t h at s u r ro u n d us, to 'biological individuals ' as h e
refers to t h e m l a t e r i n h i s text. O perat i n g with i n the f i e l d
o f s o c i a l anthropol ogy, Mead t h u s d ef i n e s t h e self i n i t s
r e l at i o n to ot h e r people: it i s o n l y in t h e way a p e r s o n
d e s i res w h at s u r ro u n d s h i m , o n l y i n t h e w a y h e i s
affecte d , that t h e o r g a n i zat i o n o f t h e s e l f takes
p l ace. Yet in accordance with t h e changes i n anthropology
after Mead in w h i c h the n o n - h u m a n world p l ays a m u c h
larger role (th i n k o f t h e w r i t i n g s o f d e C e rteau, Benj a m i n
a n d Appad u ra i ) , t h e re i s n o reason to l i m i t o u r way of
read i ng and expe r i e n c i n g t h e world and the position of the
human being wit h i n it only i n terms of how t h e self re lates
to ot h e r h u m a n bei ngs. O n the contrary, t l:1 e re i s a good
deal more that i s capab l e of affect i n g a n d thus const ruct­
i n g w hatever we c o n s i d e r the 'self'.
O u r exam p l e of the m a n i n the park s h ows us h ow t h i s c re­
ation of the s e lf c o u l d be expanded i nto rea l m s t h at
stretch beyo n d the parameters Mead g i ves us. I n h i s s h o rt
t a l k, t h i s m a n d i s c l oses two other ways i n w h ic h h e
3 9 Although he w a s not b o r n i n Italy interest i n g l y enough, and proba b l y
h i s parents were n o t born i n Italy either. It i s q u i t e pos s i b le t h a t t h i s
man w a s a l ready f r o m a seventh generation o f i m m i grants s i nce most
Ital ians i n Boston have been l i v i n g there for the past 200 years.
d e f i n es h i ms e lf as Ita l i a n . For in t h e excerpt a bove, we
can see that h e p roduces t h e s e lf n ot o n l y i n relation to
h i s 'Italian friends ', but a l s o in l i n k i n g it to 'space ' (the
N orth End) a n d to 'food' ( It a l i a n foo d ) .
A rc h itect D a n i e l L i b es k i n d states, " . . . t h e t r u t h s that h ave
been d i s c l osed in s pace are t h e very ones t hat have been
i n s c r i bed upon the f l e s h " ( L i be s k i n d 2000: 49) . This i s what
we see happe n i ng in the excerpt above; through space, i n
t h e way o u r m a n i n the park re l ates t o s pace, t h e body a n d
t h e m i n d a r e created. T h e N orth E n d , t h e I ta l i a n q uarter of
Boston, is capable of f u n ct i o n i n g with h i s not i o n of ' Italy'
para l l e l to t h e way h e i m a g i nes that his friends express
Italy to h i m. The self i s constr ucted with i n these spaces;
t h e way h e affects a n d i s affected wit h i n t h e m constructs
the self as t h i s self o perates as a part of it.
The same a l s o h o l d s for the food h e eats. By eat i n g
' Ita l i a n ' food , i n re l at i n g t o it, h e compos e s t h e
se lf. I n t e r m s o f the b o d y a n d i n t e r m s o f t h e m i n d h i s
i m age o f I t a l y i s heav i ly i ncarnated w it h i n what h e cons i d ­
ers ' It a l i a n food ' . H e consumes it every n i g ht. C o n s u m i ng
Italy and t h u s d ef i n i ng h i m s e lf as Ita l i a n . J u st as the self
i s constructed from the otli ers and from s pace, it i s a l s o i n
its re l a t i o n to food t hat t h e self i s affected a n d d ef i n e d .
O u r m a n ref l ects a l l t h ree ways i n w h i c h h i s self w a s c o n ­
struct e d : h i s I t a l i a n f r i e n d s , t h e I ta l i a n q u a rter, a n d t h e
I t a l i a n food. T h e y a l l express h i s d ef i n it i o n of Italy ( o r
l t a l i a n - n ess) to h i m i n a d ifferent way; i n a way that
affects h i m , they p roduce s i g n s he seems to absorb s o
eager l y.
There is no reason to s u ppose t hat t h e self is o n l y com­
posed of the t h ree forces briefly m e nt i o ned above. Many
forces can b e organ ized in terms of a self, and they wi l l. I n
t h i s conve rsat i o n , o u r ' m a n i n the park' practiced t h ree
ways of d ef i n i n g t h e s e lf; by connect i ng to f r i e nds, to
s pace, a n d to food. H e made use of t h ree s e m i o l o g i e s ; as
i s s hown in the excerpt above, he art i c u l ates h i s affec­
t i on s in these t h ree d ifferent ways. We cou l d c a l l t h e m
'territo r i e s ' : assem b l ages o f fragments t a k e n f r o m e l se­
w h e re that assume the v a l u e of properties. The terr itory of
f r i e nds, the territory of s pace, a n d the territory of food are
t r a n s l ated or i n cor porated i nto w h atever we ca l l 'the s e lf ' .
T hey a r e a l l d ifferent i n t h e i r art i c u l at i o n , but they a re ter­
ritories all the same. They a re at l east part l y capable of
construct i n g a part i c u l a r h u m a n be i n g s i nce a l l t h ree terri­
tories are being i n corporated wit h i n t h e s e lf. All t h ree ter­
ritories are b e i n g i nterrelated with o n e another, a n d i n
t h e i r re lat i o n , i n t h e i r mutual solidarity, they create t h e
s e lf.
O n ly i n its re l a t i o n s d oes m a n exi st. O n l y i n its re l at i o n s
to the outs i d e w o r l d a s e l f i s created. As S p i noza put i t :
" M a n h as no knowledge o f h i mself except t h r o u g h t h e
affect i o n s o f h i s o w n b o d y a n d t h e i r i d e a s " (Spi noza 200 1 :
3P53d e m ) . I t i s o n l y i n t h e c reat i o n o f t h e se lf, i n cont i n u­
o u s l y re l a t i n g the self to other territories, t h at t h e self
i m ma n e n t l y p roduces its own exist e n ce. A s a s u rface 55
 betwee n other s u rfaces, a territ o ry
betwee n ot her terr itories, a l ways
i nv o l ve d in the act of d ef i n i n g other
s u rfaces w h i l e being defined by t h e m .
W h e t h e r i n t e r m s o f the s o c i a l , i n
terms o f s pace, o r i n t e r m s o f f o o d , i n
e a c h case t h e self f u n c t i o ns as a cor­
re l ate of territori es. The ' I ' i s n ot an
assumed autonomous u n ity, but a n
i m manent connect i o n of territories
t hat i s a l ways s u bj ected to all k i n d s
o f chan ges. I t i s n ot s i m p l y a c o l l ec­
t i on of ' parts of a g reater w h o l e ' . I t i s
b y t h e cont i n u o u s act of m a k i n g
t h e s e con n ect i o n s to m u l t i p l e
CJ)
c:
0
t e r r i t o r i e s that t h e ' I ' ca l l s i t s e l f
i nto b e i n g . By the very act o f rel at­
0 ing.
>
Ql O u r focus s h o u l d be on the processes
�
in w h i c h these con nect i on s are estab­
....
ro l i shed, in w h i c h affect i o n takes p l ace.
c:
Ql O n the i m m anent way a territory i s
E
created. T h e process o f creat i o n .
T h e refore, l et's t a k e a n o t h e r look a t
o u r ' man i n the p a r k ' w e i ntroduced
above. For a l t h o u g h this m a n i s say i n g
t hat it i s I ta l i a n food t h at affects h i m,
he a l s o m e nt i o n s w h at he i s n ot
affected by. He prefers ltal i a n food,
but " ... n o C h i nese, Thai, or any other
Asian c u i s i n e " ( 1 0-21 -01 b ) . Wan d e r i n g
a r o u n d t h e c i t y center o f Boston,
being confronted with both Asian a n d
I ta l i a n restaura nts, h i s prefe rence
goes o u t to the I ta l i a n restau rant. It i s
Ital i a n f o o d that affects h i m . N ot the
Asian food .
T h e con n ect i o n s betwee n the territo­
r i e s are made o n t h e basis of what i s
c a l l e d ' d iffe rence'; it i s not t h e
C h i n ese, n o r the Thai, but the I ta l i a n
food h e i s attracted to. A n d h e s e e m s
act u a l l y q u ite strict i n th is. H e seems
n ot to t h i n k less of the ot her foods
p resented to h i m ; h e does n ot t o l e r­
ate the ot her c u i s i nes as Z i ze k wo u l d
say (Z i ze k 1 998). H e i s very i nt o l e rant;
h e s i m p l y i g n ores t h e m . H e s i m p l y
p l aces A s i a n food o uts i d e t h e food h e
B N 0 A N T Ii I� 0 P 0 C E N T I� I S lvl
T h e s e lf i s n o more t h a n a n a rt i c u l a t i o n of a t e r r i ­
t o r y ' b etwe e n ' , a c o r re l at e o f d ecoded f rag m e nts
taken f ro m other t e r r i t o r i e s and thus c o n st r u cted
t h r o u g h other t e r r i t o r i e s . I t is produced by ot her terri-
56 tories, w h i l e it produces t h e m . In t h at respect it i s n o d if-
i s affected by. It i s n ot- I t a l i a n food.
Q u ite r i g i d l y h e produces the self
accord i ng to strict r u les of d ifferent i­
ation, a process that forms t h e bas i s
for t h i s i m manent searc h for con nec­
tion.
In g e n e ra l , we con c l u d e f ro m
t h i s t h at t h e construct i o n o f the
s e lf by m e a n s of con n e ct i n g a l l
ferent from any other territo ry. A n d t h u s we see no reason
not to expand the a n t h ropo l o g i ca l and soc i o l o g ical per­
spectives that seem to focus s o l e l y on the 'human' s e m i ­
o l o g i e s ( o n the s i g n s that are constructed between h u man
be i n gs) to all s e m i o l o g ies, to all signs constructed
s o rts of t e r r i t o r i es - we do not
h ave to l i m i t t h i s n ot i o n of the
other to t h e rea l m of t h e s o c i a l -
takes p l ace accord i n g to t h e
process o f i m m a n e nt i n c l u s i o n
a n d exc l u s i o n . O r, a s D e l e uze
p h rases it, " . . . the i nt e r i o r i s only a
s e l ected ext e r i o r a n d t h e exter i o r a
p rojected i nt e r i o r" ( D e l euze Spinoza,
Practical Philosophy 1 988: 1 25). T h e r e
i s not h i n g ' p re-e x i stent' . Every
t i me, it i s in the act of c o n n ect i n g that
whatever we cal l 'friends ' i s sel ected
and p rojected in re l a t i o n to what we
refer to as o u r 'enemies ' and t h u s we
c reate t h e m ; every t i me, we i d e n t ify
our 'home' in re l a t i o n to w h at we do
not c o n s i d e r o u r 'home' and t h u s we
create it; we i d e n t ify 'food' from what
we do not c o n s i d e r ' food', and t h u s
w e create i t . I t i s t h i s process of
s e l ect i o n and proj ect i o n by w h i c h we
cont i n u o u s l y produce t e m poral f i g ­
u res. A construct i o n o f the b o d y a n d
m i nd as it f l ows f r o m d ifference. O n
t h e bas i s o f h o w w e are affected by
whatever we c o n s i d e r outside t h e
self.
Affect i n g a n d b e i n g affected i m ma­
n e nt l y creates the i n s i d e in its re la­
tion to t h e outsi de. The act of affect­
i n g i m manently creates the self, o r
any territory, o r any ' i d e n t i t y ' , a s
Stuart H a l l ( H a l l a n d D u Gay 1 996)
n ic e l y concept u a l ized it. A pop u l a r
conce pt today t hat (ety m o l o g ical ly)
bears the necessity of the relation as
it capt u res t h i s search for the i d e n t i ­
cal, f o r t hat territory to w h i c h we are
affected. B ut it is a process that
a g a i n starts with d ifference. Or, as
D e l e u ze concl udes, "That i d e ntity n ot
be f i rst, that it exists as a p r i n c i p l e,
but as a second p r i n c i p l e, as a p r i n c i ­
p l e become; t h a t it revo lve a r o u n d t h e
D ifferent: s u c h wo u l d be t h e nature of
a C o p e r n ican revo l ut i o n wh ich opens
u p t h e poss i b i l ity of d ifference h a v i n g
i t s o w n concept" ( D e l euze 1 994: 40- 1 ) .
between the territories. H araway has
done that when she a l l ows u s a peek
i nto t h e wo r l d of dogs ( Haraway 2003);
Appad urai even t r i e d to open up a
conversat i o n on t h e soc i a l l ife of
things ( Appadurai 1 986) . W hy s h o u l d
w e l i m it o u r i d eas on the s oc i a l , on
t h e format i o n of an i n d i v i d ua l , to the
h u ma n being? O u r focus u p until n ow
was st i l l too a n t h ro pocen t r i c s i n ce it
was sti l l t h e ( h u m a n ) self from w h i c h
w e started o u r a n a l y s i s.
We started with an anth ropoce ntric
pers pect ive, but we c o u l d j ust as w e l l
start o u r a n a l y s i s from t h e pers pec­
t i ve of the ' Ita l i a n f r i e n d s ' and h ow
t h i s g ro u p produces itse lf, or from t h e
pers pective o f 'the N orth E n d ' , or
from t h e pers p ective of 'foo d ' as all of
these concepts produce a n i n s i d e i n
o p po s i t i o n t o a n o u t s i d e ; a l l of these
phenomena produce an i d e nt ity
t h ro u g h a p rocess of d ifference. Of
cou rse, the re i s a d ifference i n the
way this part i c u l a r re l a t i o n betwee n
an i n s i d e a n d an outs i d e i s art i c u l at­
e d , but t h e i r com pos i t i o n , t h e way
they affect and a re affected, is the
same. In each case, we witness t h e
creat i o n o f a territ o ry accord i ng t o
ot her territories. W h e t h e r w e t a l k
a b o u t t h e h u m a n self, f r i ends, t h e
N orth E n d , or f o o d , w e w i l l s a y t hat
territories are b e i n g prod uced. Each
terr itory i nv o l ves an i nt e r i o r as a
s e l ected ext e r i or, and an ext e r i o r as a
projected i nt e r i o r. Each territory i s
constructed from other territories
w h i l e it produces ot her terr itori es.
The territory of ' It a l i a n food ' , to g i ve
o n e exa m p l e, i s j ust as i m ma n e n t l y
constructed as t h e self (that is, t h e
m i n d / body). I t i s j ust as m uc h an
i ns i d e produced as projected a g a i n st
an outside. It i s j ust as m u c h created
from t h i s o u t s i d e as it creates it. Or
to make use of the concept of territo­
r i es, ' It a l i a n food ' i s i m ma n e n t l y
d e f i n e d by a m u lt i p l icity o f other ter­
ritori es, but at the same t i me it i s a l s o
construct i n g t h e m . O r better, i t is
immanently redefined according to the
territories with which ii links while ii
also redefines these other territories.
Food c r i t i c A l Sta n k u s s hows h ow
t h i s constant redef i n it i o n takes p l ace:
"The N o rt h E n d was o l d-fas h i oned
Ita l i a n food. All red sauce, n ot h i n g
modern Ita l i a n . It was a l l I ta l i a n ­
A m e r i c a n : s p a g h etti a n d m eatba l l s ,
e g g p lant a n d pork c h o ps, n ot h i n g
n ew-wave I t a l i a n . A n d t hat started
about 15 years ago. T h ey became more
focused o n Italy" ( 1 1 -23-01 ) . W h e reas
Ita l i a n food in Boston used to be
stro n g l y re l ated to what happened i n
t h e New York area o f Little Italy, j o u r­
n a l i st Sta n k u s notices that today
' It a l i a n food' is i n c reas i n g l y defined
i n the way it relates to t h e cou ntry of
Italy. A n d as ' It a l i a n food ' related o r
con nected to t h e 'territory o f I t a l y ' , it
reconstructed its i nt e r i o r accord i n g to
Ita ly. S p a g h etti a n d meat b a l l s t u r n e d
i nto New Wave Ita l i a n coo k i n g . H e
cont i n ue d , " A n d w h e n t h e y o p e n e d
t h e i r restau rants ( ' Terra M i a' w a s o n e
o f t h e f i rst. . . and ' Fabrucc i ' ) , they
sta rted m a k i n g some fancy food. Food
that p e o p l e d i d n 't reco g n ize; no toma­
toes, n ot h i ng out of season, you know;
everyt h i n g was season a l . A n d t h ey
d i d w e l l , a n d a l l the ot h e r rest a u rants
we re n 't. And t h i ng s changed, a n d they
c h a n g e d dramat ic a l l y " ( 1 1 -23-01 ).
B ut it d i d n 't stop t h e re. In beco m i n g
i n creas i n g ly affected b y food com i n g
f r o m Italy, t h e territory o f I ta l i a n food
in Boston became deterrito r i a l ized
enteri n g a p rocess of c h a n g e that had
g reat effects o n many ot h e r territo­
r i e s . For as the N o rt h End was c l o s e l y
c o n nected to - a n d t h u s composed
from - the territory of ltal i a n food,
t h i s part i c u l a r area was also strong l y
deterritor i a l i zed by t h i s reo r i e ntat i o n .
A n d w hat c o u l d be made o f t h e i n hab­
itants of t h e N orth End, a n d of the
g reat rise i n tourism to t h i s part i c u l a r
area t h a t fol lowe d ? D i d n 't t h ese terri­
tories c h a n g e d ramat i c a l l y because of
their re l a t i o n to this c h an g i n g con­
eept. of ltal i a n food? T h e N orth End,
Ita l i a n food, t h e t o u rists that v i s it t h e
N o rt h E n d a r e a l l com posed i n territo­
r i e s that l i n k to one another; they
i n c l u d e p i eces of t h e ot h e r territories
i n t h e s e lf, w h i l e p i eces of t h e m s e l ves
a re i nc l uded i n ot her territ o r i es.
T h u s , c h a n g es do not j u st o c c u r
i n one t e r r i tory; t h ey n e c e ss a r i l y
take p l ac e i n a m u l t i t u d e of t e r r i -
t o r i es. Te r r i t o r i e s u n d e r g o i m ma-
n e nt d eterrito r i a l i z a t i o n s i n t h e i r
r e l at i o n w i t h o n e a n other.
T h e i d e ntity of ltal i a n food i s
c reated from the w a y it creates ' d if­
ference'; it creates an i nt e r i o r from
its ext e r i o r i n t h e way it i s cont i n u­
o u s l y deterrito r i a l ized, i n w hat it
proj ects as outside it, t h e reby g i v i n g
it n e w content.
The way t h i s p rocess takes p l ace i n
terms of Ital i a n food i s n o d ifferent
from how the self is constructed from
the territ o r i es t h at s u rround it. I n
each case, the o uts i d e and t h e i ns i d e,
t h e n o n -territory and the terr itory, the
n o n - i d e ntity and the i d e nt ity are cre­
ated t h r o u g h an i m manent process of
' d iffere n c e ' . Every i n s i d e is a m u lt i -
p i i c ity o f capt u re d fragments f r o m t h e
o u t s i d e. A m u l t i p l i c ity t hat i s i n n o
way ' c o h e rent' o r ' ho m og e n e o u s ' .
T h e re i s no a p p a r e n t u n ity i n how the
f r a g ments of food, people, h o u ses,
streets, Ita ly, Boston, a n d t h e USA
compose the territory known as the
' N orth E n d ' . S i m i l a r l y, there i s no
a pparent u n ity in h ow the f r a g m e nts
of ot her territ o r i es compose the terri­
tory of ltal i a n food (as any cookbook
would tell you ) . Soc i o l o g ists s u c h as
S i m m e l have stron g l y attacked t h e i r
f e l l ow s o c i o l o g i sts f o r b e l i e v i n g t h e
s o c i a l g ro u p c o u l d be c o n s i d e red ' a
u n ity'40 • E v e n i n respect to t h e self,
S p i n oz a exp l a i n s that the h u m a n body
i s a l ways a com posite ad i n f i n i t u m :
" T h e h u m a n b o d y i s com posed o f a
n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l s of d i verse
nature, each of which i s compos ite
to a h i g h e r d e g ree" ( S p i noza 2001 :
2P1 3Post1 ) .
A ny t e r r itory i s a l ways a l ready a
c l u st e r of deterrito r i a l i z ed frag­
m e n t s . They do not create a u n ity,
but as they manage to function
together, they operate as one. Because
"they are all s i m u ltaneously t h e cause
of o n e effect" ( S p i noza 2001 : 207);
because they i m manently manage to
express the ' N orth E n d ' , ' It a l i a n food',
'the self', or any oth e r 'territory', a n d
40 By contrast, t h e more D u rkhe i m i a n sociolo­
g i sts emphasize that a social g roup derives its
identity in how it d iffers from what i s outs i de
it, but they have problems with the idea that it
i s o n l y because o t what they are n o t that the
peop le o n the insi de are ' u n ited' ( S i m me l 1968). 57
 t h u s create one. A n y i n d i v i d u a l t h i n g processes of dete rritorial ization and D e l e u z e descri bes it ( De l euze Spinoza,

( o r territory), S p i noza reasons, i s reterritorial i z a t i o n . Practical Philosophy The

a l ways a m u lt i t u d e t hat f u n ct i o n s a s
one.
But this t e m poral 'parallel coexis­
tence' of its e l em e nts i s by d ef i n it i o n
a frag i l e one. "The i n d i v i d u a l s com­
pos i n g t h e h u man body, a n d conse­
q ue n t l y t h e h u m a n body itse lf, are
affected by ext e r n a l bod i es in many
ways" ( S p i noza 2001 : 2 P 1 3 Post3). A l l
t h e e l e m e nts have t h e i r part i c u l a r
' s peed ' ; t h e y c a n i nsta ntly be torn
away from t h e 'greater whole', a n d
"'
they w i l l b e . The i n d i v i d u a l s a r e con­
c
0
t i n u o u s l y confronted with t h e 'outside
territories '; the i r parts are cont i n u ­
0 o u s l y b e i n g e n c l osed o r exc l u d e d by
>
"' these territories redef i n i n g t h e m with
it. A ny territory i s a l ways i n a process
-
of chan ge, of i m m an e nt redef i n it i o n .
c
"' There i s n o s u c h t h i ng as I ta l i a n food,
E
the N orth E n d , or the se lf. A ny i d e n t i ­
ty i s a l ways a l ready s u bject to a
swa rm of d iffe rences, to perpetual
Every territory i s a l ways i n
t ra n sformat i o n ; t h ey are n eces­
s a r i l y i n vo l ved in p rocesses of
meta m o r p h os i s, p rocesses of
redef i n i n g the i n s i d e a n d t h e
outs i d e because o f t h e i r f u n c ­
t i o n i n g t h ro u g h r e l a t i o n s .
Te rritories a r e constant ly i nvolved i n
p rocesses of redef i n i n g t h e m s e l ves
accord i n g to and with ot h e r t e r r i to-
r i e s ; of capt u r i n g a fragment of the
territory of, for exa m p l e , food by fold­
i n g it i nto the d i m e n s i o n of I ta l i a n
f o o d , m a k i n g it f u n c t i o n with t h e terri­
tory of Italy; of capt u r i n g a fragm ent
of t h e territ o ry of B oston a n d fold i n g
it i nto t h e Ita l i a n q uarter o f Bosto n ;
o f capt u r i n g a f r a g m e nt o f t h e territo­
ry of I ta l i a n food a n d fo l d i ng it i nto
t h e Ita l i a n q uarter of B oston .
I n s h o rt, we c o u l d s a y t h at it i s a
kinetic a n d a dynamic d i me n s i o n that
n ecessar i l y d ef i nes any territory as
1 988: 1 25 ) .
k i n et i c d i m e n s i o n c o m poses t h e
t e r r itory i n n a m i n g t h e s peed -
t h e acc e l e rat i o n a n d d ece l e ra­
t i o n - of its i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e nt s .
It produces a vector t h a t e it h e r
i n c reases o r d i m i n i s h es its speed.
The d y n a m i c d i m e n s i o n , on t h e
other h a n d , f o c u s e s o n re l at i n g
t h e d i fferent territor i e s t o o n e
_ a n ot h e r c a u s i n g t h e m to affect
and be affected by one another
a n d t h u s ca u s i n g t h e m to create
one a n ot h e r. It p r o d u c e s c o n n e c ­
t i o n s t h at a re f o r m e d e i t h e r i n a
r i g i d o r i n a s u p p l e way. The two
d i me n s i o n s prov i d e a way to t h i n k of
t h e territory as a corre l ate t hat works
as one (one person, one c ity, o n e
m e a l ) , y e t t h a t c o n s i sts o f a m u l t i p l ic­
ity of e l e ments that rat h e r f u n c t i o n
toget h e r. That l i ve i n para l l e l coexis­
tence. That m ove in t h e same d i rec­
tion with the same speE!d.

c F O O D A N D T l-I E E V E l� Y D A Y P l� O C E S S E S O F
T E I� I� I T 0 I� I A L I Z A T I 0 N ( E T Ii N I C I T Y , F E lvl I N I N I T Y A N ll T
CHILD)
Ear l i e r, o u r m a n i n t h e park has made clear that the con­
nect i o n between food a n d eth n i c ity p l ays an i m portant r o l e
f o r h i m a n d for t h e c o m m u n ity h e consi ders h i mself to be a
part by cod i ng t h e food h e was confronted with s o l e l y i n
terms o f 'ethnicity'. ( H e c l e a r l y felt affected b y Ital i a n
f o o d , a n d w a s re p u l sed by t h e A s i a n c u i s i n e ) . A n d h e was
n ot the o n l y one. Espec i a l l y with i n so-ca l l e d ' m i g rant
c i t i e s ' , c it i es where many p e o p l e t hat a d h e re to d iffe rent
c u l t u ra l backg rounds l i ve together ( Boston a n d B a n g a l o re,
for exam p l e ) , the conce pt of ethn i c ity p l ays a n i m portant
ro l e in d ef i n i ng many of the territories that compose these
c i t i es. Espec i a l l y conce r n i n g the food people eat, t h i s con­
cept ofte n pops u p. From the many conve rsat i o n s cond uct­
ed i n B oston , it a ppeare d that the concepts of food a n d
eth n i c ity were m o s t act i ve wit h i n o n e another. W h e t h e r
I r i s h , B r az i l i a n , Portu g u ese, Mexican, or C a r i b bean, a l l of
these g ro u ps made strong connect i o n to food stuff i n c l ud ­
i n g t h e m with i n t h e i r terr itory. I n B a n g a lo re, food was con­
nected to A nd h ra Pradesh, to Tam i l Nadu, t h e P u njab. A
s u p e rmarket manager referred to t h i s strong connection
betwee n t h e concepts of eth n i c ity a n d food as " st i l l a
taste of home" ( 1 0-23-01 b ) i n d icat i ng how h o m e can be
expressed t h r o u g h food, how food i s capable of r e l a t i n g to
t h e concept of home, how taste conn ects to h o m e.
Ret u r n i n g to o u r m a n i n the park, t h e ' I t a l i a n taste of
h o m e ' to w h i c h he refers can be d ef i n ed as a rat h e r
58 ' r i g i d ' t e r r itory; a t e r r itory c a u g h t in a p rocess of
Ii E
m i n i m a l c h a n g e. A str iated territory t h a t seems t o
resist change. O n e top-c hef i n Lyon re marke d t hat ' Italy
can n ever get r i d of its pasta a n d its p i zza' (07-30-02a) . For
a l t h o u g h these part i c u l a r d i s h es h ave been se rved o u t s i d e
o f Ita ly, p i z za a n d pasta a r e often d ef i ned as ' It a l i a n ' with
respect to t h e way I ta l ian food i s defined i n relation to
ot her c u i s i nes, a n d h ave t h u s p roven t h e m s e l ves to be a
s o l i d part of t h e Ital i a n i d e nt ity.
Other c u i s i n es have a territory that i s n ot as r i g i d l y
d ef i ne d . T h i s d o e s n ot m e a n that t h e territory i s less pow­
e rf u l , less i nf l ue n t i a l in its relation to other terr itories. If,
for exa m p le, we com pare the I r i s h c o m m u n ity in Boston
with the Ita l ian com m u n ity, we can see many more restau ­
rants (and i n part i c u l ar, more pu bs) t h a t ref l ect a n
' l r i s h n ess'. B u t w hat i s I r i s h food ? I n t e r m s o f d i shes,
I ri s h restaurants produce I r i s h c u i s i n e in a much less ' d is­
t i nctive' way than t h e Ita l i an resta u rants produce I ta l i a n
c u i s i ne. Thomas O ' C o n n o r, author o f seve ral books o n the
Irish i n B oston, asserts that " . . . it seems to be a very d iffi­
c u lt t h i n g to descri b e what an I ri s h menu is; it's n ot that
d i sti nct i ve. It i s potatoes, roast beef, but that is B r i t i s h
t o o. . . c o r n beef a n d cabbage. B ut I don 't k n o w h ow m a n y
p e o p l e e a t t h i s nowadays" ( 1 1 -0 1 -01 ) .
T h e t e r r i tory of the I r i s h c u i s i n e a p pears to be
much more s u p p l e. I t c reates a se lf, a n i d ent ity
that i s not too d i st i n ct i ve, t h at does n ot work w i t h
b i n a ry d i st i n ct i o n s . It i s n ot folded so r i g i d ly, but
appears to be d rawn i nto a constant
process of unfo l d i ng a n d refo l d i n g .
N ot o n l y i n t e r m s o f food, b u t a l s o i n
terms o f s pace, have t h e I ri s h pro­
d u ced a s u p p l e territory i n sof a r as
t h ey have n ot separated t h e m s e l ves
from t h e ot her Bost o n i a n s by creat i n g
an ' I ri s h town ' ; they l i ve betwee n t h e
s paces o f t h e c ity, betwee n t h e n o n -
1 r i s h 41 • T h e I r i s h ( a n d t h u s t h e I r i s h
restau rants) c a n be f o u n d scattered
t h ro u g hout the town t h o u g h st i l l
' i ns i d e ' t h e c o m m u n ity.
I n general, one c o u l d c haract e r i ze t h e
d iffere nce betwee n a r i g i d and a s u p ­
p l e territory as f o l l ows, I n b o t h cases,
the territories are created in the way
they a re re l ated to other territo r i es.
A t e r r i tory is r i g i d w h e n t h e
c o n n e c t i o n s lead to a s i n g l e
p o i nt of power. A s i n g l e po i nt
of power t h at o r g a n i zes, t h at
d ef i n es. R i g i d t e r r i tor i e s are
c o n c e n t r i c in the s e n s e t h at they
w i l l a l ways l ead to o n e po i nt
f ro m w h i c h it orga n i z e s . I n other
words, r i g i d territories are created
when connect i o n s are made predom i ­
n a n t l y t h r o u g h i m itat i o n a s i s often t h u s i n cont i n uo u s deve l o p m e nt, that
the case with Ital i a n c u i s i ne, w h i c h m akes no effort i n ( re) creat i n g any
i s , f o r i nstance, repeat e d l y l i n ked to d i st i nct order.
t h e territ o r i e s of pasta a n d p i z za. Neve rt h e l ess, a l t h o u g h we c a n
C onversely, a t e r r i to ry is s u p p l e make a n a n a lyt i c d i st i nct i o n
w h e n e v e r it i s f re e t o m a k e c o n ­ between t h e r i g i d a n d t h e s u p p l e
n e ct i o n s i n any d i rect i o n . w i t h i n t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e real
W h e never i t i s n ot c a u g h t u p i n t h ey ove r l a p, they a re enta n g l ed ,
a p rocess i n w h i c h i t s m oves act i ve w i t h i n o n e another. T h e
a re s u bj ected to ' s t r i ct r u l e s ' . territory o f ' I r i s h food ' h a s a n uc l e us
W h e n ever cont i n uo u s variat i o n i n t h e of r i g i d ity w h i l e t h e territory of
deve l o p m e nt o f f o r m pre d o m i nates as ' It a l i a n food ' is st i l l i nterlaced with a
it is with I r i s h c u i s i n e that a p pears to s u p p l e f a b r i c w i t h o ut w h i c h t h e i r r i g i d
be capable of connect i n g to many d if­ pa rts wou l d n ot h o l d . Wit h i n each of
ferent types of food. I n both cases, t h e m u l t i p l ic ity of territories ( s o c i a l,
the process of d ifference i s f u nda­ spatial, and e d i b l e, but a l s o l i n g u istic,
mental to their creat i o n , but w h e reas i d e a t i o n a l , and a l l others) t h at s u r­
-ri g i d territories favor folding, s u p p l e r o u n d us d a i l y, both as pects - r i g i d ity
territo r i es i n d u l g e i n unfolding (and and s u pp l e n ess - are a l ways a l ready
with th at, refolding) . W h e reas r i g i d act i ve.
territories produce a n d are produced A territory is defined by how it is tra­
by re-creation, s u p p l e territ o r i es do versed and how it traverses. T h e ere-
so by floating freely. W h e reas r i g id
territories come with a relative deter­ 41 In earlier t i mes, there may have been areas
ritoria/ization as they - i n r e l a t i n g to where many I rish people l i ved together, but
other territories ( i n d eterritor i a l i z i ng ) they were never as r i g i d l y defined as the

- i mm e d i ate l y rete rritor i a l i ze, s u p p l e Italian quarter. A lthough they were organ ized
territories have g reater aff i n ity with in a very supple way, they quickly d i ssociated

absolute deterritorialization t hat i s ( O ' C o n n o r 2001 ) . 59

 ation o f t h e s e lf, f o r exa m p l e, takes betwee n these a n d other territories.
p l ace i n its part i c u l a r connections to Territories are a l ways b e i n g redef i ned
� ..f-.J
other territori es. At the same time - ,...... i n t h e i r constant i nvas i o n . A nyone
a n d as a consequence of the same ,..0 � can, for exa m p l e, enter the territory of
re l a t i o n - these other territories are "'O � "'O t h e f e m a l e. A nyone c a n be coded
d ef i ned by t h e se lf. I t i s a c o n t i n u o u s Cl) cd cd a wo m a n . N ot by ' i m itat i o n ' . O n e
..f-.J �
p l ay betwee n deterritor i a l i z at i o n a n d "'O does not h ave to wear d resses or
cd r-1 Cl)
•

reter ritor i a l i zation i n which all terri- Cl) Cl) ..f-.J � even u n d e r g o transsexual operatio ns.
tories are i m m a n e n t l y ( re)c reated. � IJ'J cd cd Tran sfo r m i n g o n e s e lf i nto a woman
The r i g i d ity o r the s u p p l e n ess of the
u Cl) has noth i n g to do with b i o l ogy or
� � "'O
territories that are i nvolved p l ays an � cd u ,...... genetics, but has everyt h i n g to d o
..f-.J u IJ'J
,...... • r-1

i m portant r o l e i n t h i s p o l i t i c a l game. with cod ify i n g a n d b e i n g cod ified .

Let us t h e refore take a c l os e r l o o k at
h ow t h e concepts of s u p p l e ness a n d
r i g i d ity g i ve shape to our world by
CJ)
c:
h ow t h e territories of mascu l i n ity and
0 Cl)
:J
fem i n i n ity i nt r u d e o u r d a i l y l i ves and
0
>
"'
st i l l appear to be organ i z i n g our mod-
ern capital ist world in a n i nescapa b l e
>. way.42 Together, these territories
"'
....
c:
"'
i m ma n e n t l y d i v i d e t h e world i nto two :
i n p u b l i c restrooms, i n c l ot h i n g shops,
E
etc. C o d i n g o n e s i d e 'male ' a n d t h e
"' ot her 'female'. Every t i me, t h e territo-
ries of male a n d female are m ost con-
I-
a::
structive to o u r s e l ves, to o u r i d e n t i -
t i es, as we l i ve o u r l i ves. T h i s o p p o s i -
<(
a.
t i o n of m a l e-fe m a l e , i n for m i ng o r
mate r i a l i z i ng t h e s paces t h r o u g h
w h i c h we d ef i n e o u r s e l ves, thus q u ite
r i g i d ly o r d e r s u s to be w h at we are
a n d w h at w e are n ot. A n d it d ef i nes
ad i nf i n it u m . It does n 't stop at c l ot h -
i n g shops ; it categorizes c l othes
( i nto m e n 's c l othes a n d w o m e n 's
c l othes); it org a n i z es t h e s pace o f t h e
city ( i nto m e n 's c l ot h i n g stores a n d
wom e n 's c l ot h i ng stores ) .
T h e ' op pos i n g ' territories of m as-
c u l i n ity a n d fem i n i n ity a r e never a
' g i ve n ' as B ut l e r a l ready c l a i med
( B utler 1 993, 1 999); they are c o nt i n u -
o u s l y produced anew i n their re-art ic-
u l at i o n . G e n d e r i s an effect of this re-
,..c:
� Cl) ,...... u I n stead, o n e can be coded woman by
Cl) ,..0 cd m a k i n g s i m i lar connect i o n s to partic-
� ,...... Cl) � u l a r territories, by creat i n g t h e self
cd cd s Cl)
i n a para l l e l way. By making s i m i l a r
Cl)
s s Cl) � gestu res, by hav i n g a s i m i l a r taste.
s ,..c:
r-1 "'IJ'J ..f-.J
•
..f-.J
Cl)
By connect i n g to territories t h at are
d ef i ned as female, t h at represent
"' ,..0 fe m i n i n ity.43
IJ'J �
r-1
• Cl)
�
"'O "'O �
� �
0
Territories ( l i ke fem i n i n ity) h ave an
i mm a n e n t n at u re; they are produced
,......
Cl) • r-1 with our various performances. By n o
r-1 ,......
• ..f-.J
r-1
•
means are they o n t o l o g ical categories
,..c: ,..c: � •r-1
IJ'J
u cd wait i n g to be i n habited by us. O n t h e
u 0
Cl) Cl) s 0-
contra ry, they are t h e re because other
territories relat e to t h e m . It i s o n l y i n
,..c: ,..c: s
0- t h e re l at i o n , i n t h e way they are
� ..f-.J • r-1 0
i n h abited, i n t h e w a y affect i o n takes
p l ace, that they are defined. There i s
art i c u l a t i o n , o r as H o l l a n d states, no such e n t ity as a woman; t h e re i s
" n e it h e r t h e express i o n of a n i n ne r o n l y a n i m manent concept of fem i n i n i-
e s s e n c e n o r t h e artefact o f a social ty produced by con nections as they
construct i o n . G e n d e r norms w h i c h a re are made. Fem i n i n ity i s a n i ce exam-
s u p po rted to express essent i a l i d e n t i - p i e of a territory t h at f loats, a s u p p l e
t i e s a r e i n fact t h e effect o f rec u r rent territory. T h at i s i n a state of change
acts that constitute t h e m as due to the d iffe rent territories it con-
s u c h " ( H o l l and 1 999: 1 20). T h e m a l e- nects to a n d i s con nected to.
f e m a l e o p p o s i t i o n is i m m a n e n t C e rta i n l y with respect to food t h i s
i n t h at it i s p ro d u ced a n d q u es- concept of t h e f e m a l e has u nd e rg o n e
t i o n e d over a n d over a g a i n . I t i s radical changes t h ro u g hout t h e past
a l ways a l ready d i storted, a ltere d , a n d cent u ry. M a i n l y d u e t o n e w (capital-
s u bj ected to rad ical deterritori a l iza- i st) t ec h n o l og ies ( i n terms of kitchen
t i o n ; by the re l a t i o n s that are c reated eq u i p m e nt a n d new tec h n i q ues of

42 I n many societies, t h i s opposition i s not as d i rect, not as strict. Levi-
Strauss has repeated l y shown that the more supple d u a l organizations
differ from their r i g i d counterparts i n their much more i nformal connec-
tion to a l l k i nds of territories whereas i n a more r i g i d society such as
our modern State society, t h i s d u a l organization largely stands on i t s
own. A lso, more 'su p p le' societies (that can be found, for exam p le, with-
in several other societies on the i s l and of S u l awesi in I ndonesia) have
no problem def i n i n g as many as five genders: ma le, female, fema l es that
a c t as ma les, ma les t h a t act as females, and neuter.
43 C onsequently, fem i n ists (at least up to the 1 980's) have often been
· · --
., very much focused on deny i n g the 'female' territories ascr i bed to them.
60 They try to avo id being related to the kitchen, and being coded the one
to serve the fam i l y. There i s no other reason why the successful British
author of cookbooks and telev ision host, N i gel l a Lawson, i n t a l k i n g about
' H ow to be a domest ic G oddess' was seriously critic ized by fem i n ists who
gave strong crit ique on her need to please others (though m a i n l y her chi l -
dren, n o t h e r h u s b a n d ) , h e r aff i n ity with the kitchen and coo k i n g ( H o l l ows.
2003).
44 Not i n any way questi o n i n g the contributions of the various fem i n i st
movements, one could say that the emanci pation of women has g reat l y
benefited from two utterly capita l i st revolutions: the coming of the
contraceptive pi l l has changed the sexual opposition between male and
female, whereas the coming of prepared foods altered the a l i mentary
opposition.
food p reservat i o n ) , t h e coded opposi­
tion between m a l e and f e m a l e g ot
s e r i o u s l y decoded. Because of the
ref r i g e rator a n d p re-packaged foods
food, the woman became i n creas i n g ly
less i d entified as t h e o n e t i e d to her
k itchen for several h o u rs a day 44• A n d
n ot o n l y i n the West as t h e house­
w i ves from B a n g a l ore exp l a i n e d :
" P revious ly, w h e n w e pre pared d osa,
we used to g r i nd the i n g r e d i e nts with
our h a n ds. N ow we u s e g r i n d e rs . A n d
w e a l s o b r i n g ready m i xed powders
from the s u permarket. A l so, we used
to cook o n wood, a n d now we u s e gas
stoves. We use that to cook on. And
we used to cook r i ce the raw way; now
we use a pressure cooker" (02-19-02).
A l l over t h e wo r l d , the terr itory
of fem i n i n i ty is no l o n g e r so
stro n g l y c o n n ected to prepa r i n g
food . T h e strong con nect i o n s between
the territories of fem i n i n ity and food
s l owly d i s s o l ve because of the changes
in terms of food p reparat i o n , A N D that
of t h e home, A N D t h at of the fam i l y
cycle, etc.
B ut as connections fade away, others
m i g ht appear. C reat i n g e n t i re l y new
territories as paths cross knott i n g
t h e m s e l ves i nto a s u rface. A n ic e
exam p l e i s t h e a d d i t i o n o f the c h i l­
d r e n 's m e n u i ntroduced i n A n g l o ­
Saxon countries afte r t h e
E n l i g ht e n m e nt. A n i nterest i n g h i story
that is stro n g l y con nected to t h e
n uc l e a r fam i l y as it c a m e i nto exis­
tence i n n i neteenth century m o d e r n i st
E n g l a n d as Seccombe s hows
(Seccombe 1 992) . As a conseque nce of
t h i s n u c l ear f a m i l y, came the ' i n ven­
tion of c h i l d h ood ' 4s - a b u n d l e of
i d eas w h i c h m ore or less rea n i mated
the P l at o n i c stance that the c h i l d ,
u n l i ke the a d u lt, st i l l has to 'develop
its rationality' p l a c i n g t h e m i n opposi-
tion to o n e a n ot h e r. The c h i l d was
defined as 'the human being that has
to learn ' ; the a d u l t was 'the human
being that knows '.46
And t h u s, w h e reas the ad u lt was
a l l owed to eat and enjoy everyt h i ng
t hat f o u n d its way to the d i n n e r table,
t h at w h i c h was served to the c h i l d
was restr i cted. They avo i d e d s u c h
'difficult' tastes as sour a n d bitter or
anyt h i n g that was even s l i g ht l y s p i cy;
adj u st i n g t h e s i zes of t h e port i o n s C h i na, f o r i nstance, t h at
a n d m a k i n g the d i s h e s 'conve n i e nt' you n g e r peop l e eat m o re m eat
(you w i l l n ot eas i l y f i n d a f i s h with a n d f r i e d foods (for energy) w h i l e
many bones i n a c h i l d r e n 's menu), t h e o l d e r p e o p l e eat m o re veget a b l e s a n d
o p pos i t i o n between a d u l t and c h i l d coo ked o r steamed foods ( i n order to
was expressed t h r o u g h t h e m e n u . I n keep i n b a l a n ce) . 47 It i s a g ra d u a l evo­
fact, t h e d iffere nce betwee n the c h i l d l ut i o n that does n ot work in b i nary
a n d t h e a d u l t was i m ma n e n t l y created oppositi ons. A s u p p l e meta m o r p h o s i s
with i n the m e n u s i nce it was t h e t hat i s n ot d ef i n e d by a clear concept
m e n u t h at defi ned the c h i ld accord i n g of age, but by the c h a n g i n g phys i o l o g y
to t h e a d u l t a n d t h e a d u l t accord i ng t o o f t h e m i nd and b o d y t hat req u i res t h e
the child. c o n s u m pt i o n patter n to c h a n g e a s
T h i s t e r r i t ory o f t h e c h i l d re n 's t h e y g row o l d e r. I t i s d iffe rent from
m e n u c a m e i nto b e i n g i n t h e the r i g i d c reat i o n of territories that
A n g l o -Saxon wo r l d , a n d w a s f o r one f i nds, for exa m p le, i n M c D o n a l d 's
a l o n g t i m e a l most u n k n ow n out­ restau ra nts w h e re b i n ary o p p o s i t i o n s
s i d e it. It has o n l y been s i nce betwee n c h i l d and a d u l t u l t i mately
t h e l at e 1 950's t h at it became s p l it t h e world i n two. There t h e r u les
w i d e l y u s e d in t h e n o n - A n g l o ­ b l atantly tell y o u : if you eat the chil­
S a x o n wo r l d . T h i s was l a r g e l y d u e dren 's menu, you should be the child!
to g l obal fast food g i a nts s u c h a s It s h o u l d be added t h at there are cer-
M c D o n a l d 's that, f r o m an A n g l o ­ t a i n l y other ways i n w h i c h t h e r i g i d
Saxon back g r o u n d , adopted a d i v i s i o n d ifference betwee n c h i l d a n d a d u l t i s
i n t e r m s o f food betwee n t h e a d u l t prod uced ; the educat i o n s y s t e m i s a
a n d t h e c h i l d as b e i n g ' n at u r a l ' s i nce terr itory t hat p l aces i nto o p p o s i t i o n
they i ntroduced it in p l aces where t h i s t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c h i l d who m ust be
o p p o s i t i o n d i d not exist before. edu cated (who needs to g a i n knowl­
C o n s e q u e n t l y today, s lowly but s u r e l y, edge) to that of t h e adult w h o m ust
t h e territory of the c h i l d re n 's m e n u i s work (who m ust put h i s knowledge
b e i n g i ntroduced a l l over t h e world. i nto pract ice). Def i n it i o n s of sexual ity
A n d with it, and with probably far s p l its m a n k i n d i nto two as it defines
g reater consequences, this part i c u l a r t h e c h i l d as t h e o n e who i s not sup­
opposition betwee n c h i l d and ad u lt posed to h ave any sex u a l experience
t hat i s produced by t h e i ntroduct i o n w hatsoever a n d t h e adult as t h e one
o f t h e c h i l d r e n 's m e n u i m ma n e n t l y w h o i s a l l owed to p ract ice it ( a l b e it
c o m e s i nto b e i ng . rest r icted to certa i n r u l es).48
We do not c l a i m that the d ifference N evert h e less, it i s a l s o because of the
betwee n c h i l d and a d u lt was an new terr itory of t h e c h i l d r e n 's m e n u
A n g l o-Saxon i nve n t i o n of the t hat t h e i d e nt ity, t h e s e lf, o f t h e c h i l d
Victorian A g e. O n t h e cont rary, in i s created. I n relat i ng t h e c h i l d to t h e
many situations, i n many p l aces c h i l d re n 's m e a l , t h e c h i l d became
t h ro u g h o ut t i me, one can f i n d s u b t l e redef i n e d and was act u a l l y pos i t i o n ed
d ifferences i n the eat i n g patterns of i n strong opposition to t h e a d u lt. The
t h e you n g a n d the o l d . It is c o m m o n i n c h i l d i s i m ma n e n t l y created by t h e
� Aries ( A r i e s 1 962) shows t h a t the d i scovery o f c h i l d hood i s a process t h a t accelerated i n t h e
1 7th centu ry, yet g o t i t s conte m porary ' modern' f o r m w i t h the c o m i n g o f t h e nuclear f a m i l y i n the
1 9th centu ry.
46 In this l i ght, it is i nterest i ng to read the Tao i st phi losophies that actu a l l y g i ve an opposite defi-
n ition of c h i l dhood. Here, it is the c h i l d sta n d i n g close to nature who is wise in its ig norance and
the adult who m u st try to become child to regain contact with the world, who must try to l i ve with
whatever s u rrounds h i m .
47 Thus, arguing from these theories, people in Hangzhou can c l a i m : "Western people a l ways
stick t o t h e eggs t h e meat a n d t h e m i l k. S o I t h i n k that t h i s i s why t h e western people i n basket-
b a l l , footba l l , a n d volleyba l l a r e more robust and stronger t h a n t h e C h i nese p l ayers" (05- 1 7-01 ).
48 T h e i ncrease of progressively stricter l a w s a g a i n st pedoph i l i a i n many countries bears witness
to the fact that the territories of sexual ity are beco m i n g more and more rigid today. 61
 c h i ld re n 's meal because i n i m ma­
n e n ce, the meals create a n o p p o s i t i o n
between c h i l d a n d a d u lt.
Our everyday lives have been territori­
alized in every way. O u r l i ves proceed
according to these territori es.
C o n nect i ng to t h e m , d i scon n ect i n g
from t h e m , recon n ect i n g to t h e m ,
m o v i n g accord i n g to t h e m . . . I n every
event in w h i c h we end u p, we are con­
t i n uo u s l y coded, decoded, and recod­
ed. N ot in the l east, in our relation
with food, we are everyw here con-
•
fronted with t h e territories of male
a n d f e m a l e a n d of a d u l t and c h i l d .
They t raverse every cons u m a b l e we
are confronted with; they h ave always
a l ready con n ected to t h e m . And t h ere
are many m o re territ o r i e s that s l i d e
i nto t h e m . T h at i m m a n e n t l y produce
t h e m in t h e i r relation to w hat i s o ut­
s ide. T hat can be con nected to, t h at
can be evade d , that can be i nc l uded.
In o u r everyday l i ves we are constant­
ly occu pyi n g one territory w h i l e s k i �t­
i n g around t h e other i m ma n e n t l y corn-
pos i n g o u rs e l ves by t h e territo r i es to
which we connect a n d by t h e o n es
t hat are not i n cl u d e d . R i g id territories
and supple ones. That come a n d go.
That are d ef i ned i n their relat i o n s a n d
i n t h e i r s p e e d s . Together t h e s e terri­
t o r i es const itute an i nt r i cate n etwork
that i s s u bj ect to a process of cont i n ­
u a l change. To entang l i n g , to d iv i s i o n ,
to emerge nce, to d i sappearance . . . .
It i s a kaleidoscopic process o f con­
nection t hat n ever e n d s.

I/)
c
D H I E I� A I� C H Y : T 1-1 E lvl A ..J Cl I� A N D T H E lvl I N Cl I�
0

We s h o u l d not t h i n k of t h e m u l t i p l i c i t y of t e r r ito­ o r g a n i z e d i n t h i s h i e rarc h i ca l structure: " M aj o rity i m p l ies

0 r i e s a s a n ' e g a l i ta r i a n ' structu re. The territories of
>
"' t h e c h i l d a n d t h e a d u l t are formed i n t h e i r re l a t i o n to one
another, but this i s d o n e t h r o u g h asymmetrical re latio ns.
"'
....
The ad u lt o r g a n i zes, d o m i n ates; t h e c h i l d i s organized
according to t h e a d u lt. W h e re it is the a d u l t who composes
c
"'
E
a sta ndard i n wh i c h t h e adult itself ru les, it i s t h e c h i l d
w h o cont i n u o u s l y escapes t hat pos i t i o n , w h o i s d ef i ned as
t h e n o n -a d u lt. The same h o l d s for eth n icity where, i n t h e
re l a t i o n between t h e white and the n o n -w h ite, it i s t h e
white w h o sets t h e norm f r o m w h i c h t h e n o n -w h ite
escapes as B habha has s hown u s ( Bhabha 1 986) . And it
certa i n l y holds for t h e relat i o n betwee n male and f e m a l e
where masc u l i n ity p l aces i t s e l f i n t h e c e n t e r of the u n i­
verse a n d d ef i n e s fe m i n i n ity accord i n g to it. Of course we
a g ree with Witt i g in her c l a i m that ' m e n ' and ' wo m e n '
a r e p o l i t i c a l categ o r i es t h at a r e d ef i n e d i n a re l a­
t i o n of power (Wittig 1 981 ) . J u st l i ke ' a d u lt' a n d
' c h i l d ' a re. J u st l i ke ' w h i t e ' a n d ' n o n-wh ite' are.
T h u s , i n a d d i t i o n to being d ef i ned by t h e i r d ifferent speeds
(the f i rst d i m e n s i o n ) a n d b e i n g created by t h e i r relation
(the second d i me n s i o n ) as was prev i o u s l y d i scussed, we
s h o u l d add a t h i rd d i m e n s i o n , w h i c h descri bes territories
i n hierarchical relat i o n s to o n e another. A n d wh ere t h e
f i rst d i m e n s i o n i s i n terms o f acceleration and deceler­
ation, t h e second i n terms of rigidity a n d suppleness, t h e
concepts o f ' m ajority' and ' m i n o r ity' c haract e r i z e t h e
t h i rd d i m e n s i o n .
T h e concepts o f majority a n d m i n or ity express a relation­
s h i p i n terms of power, but n ot n ecessa r i l y in terms of
n u m b e rs. I n other words, we s h o u l d n ot d ef i n e t h e
m aj o r ity b y t h e g reatest re l at i ve q u a nt i t y . O n the
cont rary, the apart h e i d system in South Afri ca, for exam­
p l e, s howed that a s m a l l group of wh ite people was capa­
b l e of contro l l i n g a large g ro u p of b l acks; t h u s , one s h o u l d
s a y t hat t h e territory o f the w h ites i n i t s r e l a t i o n to t h e
terr itory o f t h e b l acks was majoritarian. T h e concept s of
majority a n d m i n o r ity express a re l a t i o n of power. T h u s ,
the majority of males dominate the minority of females. A n d
·�-- the majority of adults dominate the minority of children . It
62 i s n ot the n u m be r that counts, but the way t h e i r re l a t i o n i s
a state of d o m i n a t i o n , not the reverse. It i s not a q ue s t i o n
o f k n o w i n g whether t h ere a r e more mosqu itoes or f l i e s
than m e n , but o f knowi n g how m e n constitute a standard
in t h e u n i verse in relation to w h i c h m e n n ecessa r i l y (ana­
lytica l l y ) form the majority." ( De leuze and G uattari 1 987: 291 )
We have t o c o n c l u de t hat i t i s st i l l t h e w h ite a d u l t
m a l e w h o i s t h e center o f power a n d w h o d ef i n e s
everyt h i n g e l s e accord i n g l y . It i s l i ke t h e solar system
in w h i c h the sun d oes not s o much deter m i ne the p o s i t i o n
o f t h e o t h e r ste l l a r b o d i e s (and t h e p l an ets, comets, d ust,
s o u n d , l i g ht . . . ), but m akes t h e m m ove accord i n g to it.
Newt o n taught us t hat it is the fo rces of g ravity w it h i n t h e
solar system to w h i c h w e s h o u l d d i rect o u r attent i o n .
S i m i l a r l y, with regard to terr itori es, it i s n ot so m uch t h e
m a j o r t h at d ete r m i n e s t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e m i n o r. It i s t h e
re l a t i o n between t h e majority a n d the m i nority and t h e way
t h e major makes t h e m i n o r m ove accord i n g to it that
d es e rves o u r att e n t i o n . If we t h i n k of it i n t h i s way, we w i l l
not fa l l i nto t h e trap of s i m p l y t h i n k i n g t h at it i s t h e m ajor­
ity t h at i s i n contro l . I t i s not. It i s a l ways i n t h e relations
in which they are i nvolved that their p o s i t i o n (territory) i s
created.
N i etzsche ( N i etzsche 1 994) c o m m e nted on this p h e n o m e n o n
with h i s c e l e b rated Master-Slave morality (wh ere the m as­
ter can b e read as the majority a n d the s l ave as the m i n o r­
ity). A n o p p o s i t i o n t h at, accord i n g to h i m , is n ot d i a l ectic
(as Hegel d ef i ne d it), but more of an i m manent re l a t i o n of
forces w i t h o ut a p re-set h i e rarchy, without any ' u nd e r­
stan d i n g ' . N i etzsche's d ef i n it i o n of t h e re l a t i o n between
the act i ve and react ive forces also focuses o n how these
two e n t i t i es d ef i n e each another wit h i n an event. They are
a l ways a l ready act i ve wit h i n one another; there is no slave
without a master and there is no master without a slave.
It i s t h e re l a t i o n between t h e major a n d t h e m i nor, t h e
master and t h e s l ave, on w h i c h w e m u s t focus. Patton
descri bes this re l at i o n : " ... t h e master aff i r m s h i mself a n d
h i s d ifference from t h e s l ave, w h i l e the s l ave negates t h e
v a l u es o f the other, a n d aff i rm s h i mself o n l y by negat i ng
those negated va l u e s i n t u r n " ( Patton 2000: 30-1.), a n d h e
cont i n ues with a q uote from De l e u ze: " T h i s i s t h e st range
,�. •! I '
1 't"1"•:1
I '
II,.1 1 1rtt l "r«rl " I " '
I ' j
1 111
" ' ·
" I ll,, " "
���ij�I
I
lli1
I f.i_ 'I \ I ' '
s y l l o g i s m of t h e s l ave: he needs two
negations in order to produce t h e
a ppearance o f aff i rmat i o n " ( Deleuze
T h e s l ave, t h e m i n o r i t y
1 983: 1 2 1 ) .
(the wo m a n , t h e c h i l d , t h e n o n ­
w h ite) , aff i r m s i t s e l f f i rst i n t h e
re l a t i o n it has w i t h t h e m a j o r
f ro m w h i c h it d ef i n es t h e s e l f .
T h i s i s why, i n speak i n g o f the m i n o r,
or s l ave, territories of the woman, the
c h i l d , a n d t h e n o n -w h ite (the eth n i c ) ,
we cannot cut t h e m l oose f r o m t h e i r
m a j o r or maste r l y counte rpart
( re s pect i v e l y, t h e territory of the
m a l e, t h e adu lt, a n d the wh ite). We
cannot d e f i n e t h e m except i n t h e i r
s u bj ected, react i ve re l a t i o n w i t h t h e
major. We cannot define them other
than in their moving a way from their
major. A n d t h u s, we do n ot speak of
t h e wo m a n , t h e c h i l d , a n d t h e n o n ­
wh ite; w e s p e a k o f a beco m i n g ­
I
w o m a n 49, a becom i n g - n on-wh ite, a n d
(/) a beco m i ng-ch i ld , for t h e i r territory
Q)
(th e i r i d e ntity) i s f i rst defined as a
cou nter-territory, a d ifference, a m ov­
i n g away from the r i g i d territory of
mascu l i n ity ( i n the case of becom i ng­
woman ) , of adult (in the case of
becom i ng-ch i l d ) , a n d of w h it e (in the
case of beco m i n g - n o n-white). "A
woman has to become woman, but i n
a beco m i n g-wom a n o f a l l m e n "
(Deleuze a n d G u attari 1 987: 292)
S i m i l a r l y, a c h i l d has to become c h i l d ,
b u t i n a beco m i ng-ch i l d o f a l l adu lts;
and a n o n-white has to become non­
w h ite, but i n a beco m i n g - n on-wh ite of
a l l wh ites. "A beco m i n g - m i noritarian
exists o n l y by v i rtue of a deterrit o r i a l ­
i z ed med i u m and s u bject that a r e l i ke
its e l e m e nts. T h e re is no s u bject of
t h e beco m i ng except as a d ete rritori­
a l ized v a r i a b l e of the majority; t h e re
i s no m ed i u m of beco m i ng except as a
deterritor i a l i zed variable of m i n ority"
49 It w a s Si mone de Beauvoir who fi rst took
the concept of f e m i n i nity out of the biological
realm with her famous adage that one i s not
born a women, but rather, becomes one. She
claims so because "Woman i s determi ned not
by her hormones o r by mysterious instincts,
but by the manner i n which her body and her
relation to the world are modified through the
action of others than h e rself" (de Beauvoir
1 972: 734)
( Deleuze and G u attari 1 987:
292). Fo r t h i s reason, D e l e u z e
exp l a i n s , we cannot s p e a k o f a
' beco m i n g - m a l e ' s i nce a beco m i ng
i s a l ways a mov i n g away from t h e
majority, f r o m the c e n t e r o f power.
T h e major, d o m i n a nt posit i o n ,
t h e r i g i d t e r r itory t h at c a n b e
fo u n d i n t h e c e n t e r o f power. I t
organ i z e s t h e wo r l d accord i n g to
the oppos i t i o n s it cont r i ve s :
M A L E (fema l e) , A D U LT ( c h i l d ) ,
W H I T E ( n o n - w h i t e ) . Def i n i n g
i t s e l f a s t h e center o f power (the
M A J O R ) a n d everyt h i n g e l s e
accord i n g to it ( t h e m i n o r ) .
I n t h e West m ost o f a l l , the territories
of t h e adult white m a l e have p roven
t h e m s e l ves to be org a n i zed in a major
way; they form a tripartite territory
t hat is except i o n a l l y we l l organized
a n d powerf u l . O p posed to this adult
wh ite male territory, the territories of
t h e c h i l d , t h e n o n -wh ite (the Af r i c a n ,
t h e A s i a n , the I n d i g e no u s ) , a n d the
f e m a l e are m i n o r i n t h e sense that
t h ey are cont i n uo u s l y caught in
processes of radical change; t h ey are
consta ntly being deterritor i a l i ze d ;
t h e y a r e constant ly be i n g redef i ne d ,
a l t e r e d , rei nterp reted, a n d recreated
accord i n g to the territories of the
adu lt, the wh ite, and the ma le. M ov i n g
away f r o m t h ese r i g i d territories i n
every pos s i b l e d i rect i o n , t h e c h i l d , the
non-wh ite, and the f e m a l e are a l ways
i n a stage of becom i n g , of revo l ut i o n .
P rocesses o f c h a n g e , s o c i a l change,
for exa m p le, w i l l n ot come from major
territories. Major territories are most
conservative in t h e i r c reat i o n . It i s
t h r o u g h m i no r t e r r i t o r i e s - i n t h e way
they a re constant ly l i n k i ng with oth e r
territories creat i n g new territories -
that revo l ut io n s take p l ace. These are
the territories of p u re affects of
u n contro l led d e s i re : " . . . an altogether
d ifferent plane t h at l i berates t h e par­
t i c les of an anonymous matter, a l l ow­
i n g t h e m to co m m u n i cate t h r o u g h t h e
"envelope" o f f o r m s a n d s u b -
jects . . . " ( Deleuze and G u attari 1 987: 267).
It is a l ways from the m i nor territori es,
in d e n y i n g the major territories pos i ­
.
t i ons, i n t h e i r m o v i n g away f r o m these
maj o r forms and s u bstances, that
e m a n c i pation i s to be expected. 63
 W h et h e r i n art, i n s c i e n ce, or i n p h i ­
loso phy, any g reat c h a n g e i n h i story
trave l s v i a t h e m i n o r territori es,
rel ates to t h e u nformed.
A l s o i n terms of food, t h e g reat a l i­
m e ntary revo l u t i o n s that have recent­
ly taken p l ace in the Western wo r l d
conn ect to the territories t hat ward
off the major t r i n ity of the ad u lt w h ite
male. The changes in terms of food
(cu i s i n e) in the West have been t a k i n g
p l ace t h r o u g h re l a t i n g to t h e m i n o r
t e r r i t o r i e s . Revo l ut i o n s h ave taken
p l ac e a l o n g t h ree axes: t h e c h i l d ,
en
t h e n o n - w h ite, a n d t h e f e m i n i n e .
<::
0
Let u s f i rst focus o n t h e beco m i n g ­
c h i l d . T h e way food has been affect­
0 ed by t h e territory of the c h i l d , t h e
>
"' way it h as moved a l o n g w i t h it ( a n d
�
has t h u s b e e n redef i ned by i t ) , h a s
al ready been m e n t i o n e d : the coming
<::
"' of the children 's menu (and act u a l l y,
E
the w h o l e i d ea of t h e c h i l d re n 's m e n u )
i s u n q uest i on a b l y a g reat revo l ut i o n
i n t e r m s o f food. B ut it i s a g reat d e a l
l­ m ore, t o o . I n m a n y ways, w e s e e t hat
o::
c( the m i nor territory of t h e c h i l d has
11.
dramat i ca l l y dete rritorial ized t h e con-
cept of food.
C o n s i d e r i n g all of the fast food i n no­
vat i o n s of the past 50 years (the Post­
war p e r i o d ) , we see t h at they make a
connect i o n to w hat can be descri bed
as a ' re g i m e of h aste ' . A s t h e n a m e
i m p l ies, o n e w a y i n w h i c h fast food
d iffers from oth e r foods i s that it
c l a i m s to b e of h ig h e r s peed in terms
of service and i n terms of 'eat i ng
t i m e ' . B ut anot h e r way t h e i r easy-to­
consume i d e nt ity is expressed, is i n
t h e compos i t i o n of the d i s h es t h e m ­
s e l ves. T h e y a r e d ef i ne d as d ifferent
from n o n -fast foods in t h ree ways: i n
terms of b la n d n ess ( reduct i o n of
s p i ces), i n terms of ' s i m p l e ' f l avor ( o r
a t l east a c o m p l ete a b s e n c e of s u c h
' d iff i c u lt' tastes as s o u r a n d bitter),
a n d i n terms of s m a l l e r port i o n s. A n d ,
a l t h o u g h st rong l y i n f l u enced b y
' A m e r i c a n ' c h a i n s t h a t d ef i ned t h i s
concept i n t h e e a r l y fift i e s ( Mariani
1 983) , fast food can be found in many
c i t i es t h ro u g hout the wo r l d , and
expressed in a myriad of ways. The
o r g a n i z a t i o n of these newly formed
'fast food restaurants' was n ot u n i-
64 f o r m , but t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f the m e n u
a l ways takes p l ace accord i n g t o t h e
t h ree p r i n c i p l e s o f fast food a s
d ef i ned above: fast food i s b l a n d ,
avo i d s d iff i c u lt tastes, a n d c o m e s i n
s m a l l e r port i ons.
It is not difficult to detect some paral­
lels between the principles of fast food
we just formulated and the notion of
the children 's meal as we discussed
above. T h e fast food restau ra nts, i n
e m a n c i pa t i n g t h e m s e l ves f ro m the
d o m i nant i d ea of what a restau rant
was s u p posed to be, fol low a s i m i l a r
r o u t e i n t h e i r e s c a p e f ro m t h i s major
ad u lt territory: fast food, as did the
c h i l d re n 's m e a l before it, e ntere d a
becom i n g-ch i l d. It made a connect i o n
to t h e t e r r i t o r y o f the c h i l d i n escap­
i ng the major (adu lt) pos i t i o n . Fast
food i n co r porated a becom i ng-ch i ld .
Fast f o o d rest a u rants p ract i c e a
becom i n g - c h i l d i n every m e a l
se rved .
A beco m i ng-ch i l d is n ot o n l y active
with i n the c h i l d re n 's meal o r with i n
fast food. Many p h e n o m e n a that con­
n ect to food today p ractice an escape
from the major p o s i t i o n of a d u lthood,
thus enteri n g a becom i ng-ch i l d .
E s p ec i a l l y i n terms o f ' preparat i o n ' ,
t h e re a r e m a n y ways i n w h i c h food
started m ov i ng accord i n g to the terri­
t o ry of t h e c h i l d . A beco m i n g -c h i l d i s ,
for exa m p l e, more and m o r e act i ve i n
s u p e rmarkets (with i t s p re pared
meals, with its f rozen foods) t h at
e a g e r l y take over t h e roles of m o m ­
m i es. A n d t h i s does n o t t a k e p l ace
o n l y in the West; in I nd i a, s u permar­
kets are m ore than w i l l i n g to feed
t h e i r s i b l i n g s t h e i r d a i l y c u r r i e s : "We
a l s o have ready-made, ready-to-eat
foods. B rea kfast and l u nch. T h ey
come i n a vac u u m -sealed a l u m i n u m
fo i l , a n d y o u j ust d i p it i n warm water
for a few m i n utes. You can have t h e m
with rice, or d osa, o r c h a p a t i s , what­
ever. A l l t h e b reakfast foods. They are
c o m p l ete in itself" (03-01 -02) . S o easy,
even a c h i l d can d o it!
The second axis a l o n g w h i c h t h e
c h a n g e s i n Western percept i o n s of
food h ave taken p l ace we have
d ef i ned as a becom i n g - n o n -w h ite.
Gabacc ia i s correct i n h e r c l a i m th at,
"The A me r i can p e n c h a nt to experi­
m e nt with foods, to com b i n e and m i x
t h e foods o f m a n y c u lt u r a l t rad i t i o n s
i nto b l ended g u m bos o r stews, and t o
create ' s m orgasbords' i s scarc e l y
new but i s r a t h e r a rec u r r i n g t h e m e i n
o u r h i story as eaters" ( Gabaccia 1 998:
3). But t h i s is not o n l y so in A m e ri ca.
In every case, the concept of food is a
territory that is composed of other ter­
ritories. Every concept of food is n ec­
essa r i l y constructed accord i n g to
other territori es, but that i s not w hat
becom i ng - n o n -wh ite is about.
Bec o m i n g - n o n - w h i t e covers
every m ove away from the m a j o r
t e r r i tory o f ' w h i t e n e s s ' . It i s a
g e n e r a l search for t h e u n k nown,
for t h e o u t s i d e .
Becom i n g - n on -wh ite i s a n escape, a
d e n i a l of the territory of wh iteness
t hat has (also) turned out to be of
g reat i m portance over t h e l ast f ifty
years. M a i n l y as a conseque nce of the
c o l o n i a l a n d t h e postc o l o n i a l , t h e
beco m i ng m i n oritarian i n terms of
race or c o l o r can nowadays be found
t h ro u g h o ut t h e city a n d becomes
i m manent in many ways. "You can see
it, for exa m pl e , j ust loca l l y in t h e stu­
dent d i n i n g rooms n ow. A g a i n , in the
old d ays, you wou l d j ust have some
m eat a n d potatoes. If you g o i nto a
student d i n i n g room n ow, you w i l l f i n d
taco 's, a n d East I nd i a n d i s hes,
C h i nese foods, and so o n " ( 1 1 -01 -01 ) .
But it i s n ot o n l y the i m m e n se r i s e i n
eth n ic o r so-ca l l e d i nd i g e n ou s c u i s i ne
(the i n d i ge n o u s is j ust as revo l ut i o n ­
a r y ( o r m i noritarian) as any oth e r 'for­
e i g n ' c u i s i n e) t hat i nvolves an escape
from wh iteness. Becom i ng - n o n -w h it e
i s m uch more t h a n t hat. I t is a general
affection for the 'exotic'. Regard less
of what t hat might be. A t o p chef in
Lyon c o m m e nt e d : " A n d about ·t h e
exot i c : r a w f o o d i s rea l l y exot ic, a
rea l l y exot i c p h e n o m e n o n now h e re.
Raw a n d a l ive food with seas h e l l s and
oysters i s very exot i c " (07-30-02a). B ut
t h e veget a b l e s that were p repared i n
g ra n d mother's day can a l s o become
exot ic. " Pe o p l e want to find l ig hter
t h i ng s n owadays, so b utte r has
become an exotic p ro d u ct" (07-30-02a) .
A ny p roduct c a n be i n c l uded i n t h e
exot i c ; a n y prod uct c a n f u nction w i t h
a becom i ng - n on-wh ite.
The conc l u s i o n of the Lyo nese chef
says it a l l : " I d o n 't k n ow w hat exot i c
even m e a n s ; w h at i s n o r m a l h e re, i s
c o n s i d e re d exot i c i n Paris, for
i nstance" (07-30-02a) . Beco m i ng -exot­
ic, beco m i n g - non-wh ite is n ot a s epa­
rate category, but always a relat i ve
c h a n g e ; t h at is to say, it is com posed
with i n the re l at i o n , composed w i t h i n
t h e way affect i o n i s e n u n c i ated. I t i s
an escape i n any d i rect i o n , a m ove
away from t h e major territory of
wh iteness. Becom i ng - n o n -white is a
l i ne of beco m i ng that " . . . is n ot
d ef i ned by the poi nts that it con n ects,
o r by the p o i nts t hat com pose it; on
the contrary, it passes between
p o i nts, it comes u p t h ro u g h the m i d ­
d l e, i t r u n s perpen d i c u la r t o t h e
poi nts f i rst perce ived, transversa l l y t o
t h e l oc a l i z a b l e re l a t i o n to d i stant o r
cont i g uo u s po i nts" ( De l eu z e and
G uattari 1 987: 293). Beco m i n g - n o n ­
white does n ot i n c l u d e E a s t I nd i a n
d i s hes, raw foo d, o r b utter. I n m o v i n g
away f r o m t h e m a j o r territory, it pass­
es these p o i nts, swerves around
t h e m . And it i s this movement (t h i s
act of esca p i n g ) t h at d ef i nes it.
The t h i rd way of esca p i n g , of ward i n g
off the t r i partite territory o f t h e a d u l t
w h ite male, conce nt rates o n esca p i n g
t h e territory o f mas.c u l i n ity, o f phal/o­
gocentrism: the beco m i n g -woman
i n t e r m s o f cons u m pt i o n . I t i s t h e first
p h e n o m e n o n of change, the most
abstract p h e n o m e n o n of change, a n d
m o reover, t h e most influential one
that " . . . i n relation to t h e m asc u l i n e
standard of E u ropean c u l t u ral and
pol i t i c a l n o r m a l ity" ( Patton 2003: 22) ;
t h e beco m i n g -woman i s t h e key
p r i n c i p l e a l o n g w h i c h a ny d eter­
r itor i a l i z at i o n ta kes p l ace.
Becomi n g-wo man i s the m o t h e r of any
e m a n c i pation process ( B ra i dotti 2002;
9 e leuze and G u attari 1 987) i n that it
c reates a becom i ng - n o n-wh ite a n d a
beco m i n g -c h i l d a l o n g the
way. We shall ret u r n to t h i s
later.
Because of its h ig h l y a bstract char­
acter, a beco m i n g -woman m i g ht not
be as eas i l y reco g n i z a b l e as a becom­
i n g -c h i l d o r a beco m i n g - n on-wh ite.
Neve r t h e less, a m ore o b v i o u s p o i nt
around w h i c h becom i n g -woman
revo l ves h as become k nown as
N o u ve l l e C u i s i n e. Of cou rse,
becomi n g-woman i s act ive in many
m ore p rocesses i nv o l v i n g food, a n d it
i s act ive in many p rocesses t hat have
stretched t h e m s e l ves beyon d t h e ter­
ritory of E u rope. (The territory of
E u rope is certa i n l y n ot l i m ited to its
geograph ical pos i t i o n , not even i n
these post-co l o n i a l t i m es.) B u t t h e
c o m i n g o f the nouve l l e c u i s i ne, i t s
pre a m b l e, and its afte rmath are s o
st r o n g l y con nected to the territory of
the woman, so act i v e l y esca p i n g
( e m a n c i pa t i ng t h e ms e l ves) f r o m t h e
d o m i nant mascu l i ne p o s i t i o n t h a t it
warrants extra atten t i o n .
N o u ve l l e c u i s i n e became w i l d l y p o p u ­
l a r i n t h e l at e s ixties and early seven­
t i es w h e n s u c h chefs as Pau l Bocuse
(from Lyon ) decl ared t hat this ' n ew
sty l e ' of coo k i n g s u perseded every­
t h i n g t h at came before it. B ut the
process t hat p receded it i s much
m o re i nterest i n g . A l ready present i n g
itself i n t h e 1 9t h cent u ry w h e n t h e
c u l i nary o r t h e g astrono m i ca l ( t h e art
of coo k i n g ) f i rst became a part of a
p u b l i c d i scourse ( Parkh urst Ferguson
200 1 ) , we could a l ready see a c h a n g e
i n c u l i nary t h o u g ht t a k i n g p l ace . . .
t u r n i ng towards w h a t w a s l a t e r cal led
' no u ve l l e c u i s i n e ' . B ut it was i n t h e
postwar p e r i o d t hat t h e m o s t revo l u ­
t i onary accel e rat i o n ( w h i c h w a s l ater
referred to as n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e) took
p l ace t h a n ks to such c hefs as
Fer n a n d Po i nt ( 1 897- 1 955). 50

50 A lthough he has functioned as the face of t h i s movement, we should not p l ace too much
em phasis on people l i ke Paul Bocuse. A Lyonese journal ist argued: " Bocuse had a lot of i nf l u ence
i n the s i xties. But not at a l l in the creation of new d i shes. He never invented anyth i n g. He o n l y
c o p i e d the p e o p l e t h a t w e r e t h e r e before h i m . H i s m a i n precursor w a s Fernand Point.. . . H i s talent
was m a i n l y to take the cook out of the kitchen. Before that, the o n l y people who were famous were
the restaurant owners. He d i d n 't rea l l y create any new dishes; he just stepped forward" (07-27-
02). It was with Po i nt that the g reatest revolutions took p l ace. C h anges that were later named
' nouve l l e c u i s i n e' (or 'cuisine nouve l l e ' ) . but that were revo l ut i onary i n h i s deterrit o r i a l i zations
of the territory of food and the territory of coo king. Like any movement that i s shaped l i ke a 65
 Although chefs such as Po i n t have
been the instig ators of many c h a nges
wtthi n a n d o uts i d e of the c u i s i ne,
their main contr i b ut i on s can be
desc r i bed as h av i n g abandoned t h e
d o m i nant masc u l i n e p o s i t i o n b r i d g i n g
an opposition between mascu l i n e a n d
fem i n i n e re l a t i o n s to food that h a d
proven t h e m s e l ves extre m e l y d o m i ­
n a nt s i nce the Victor i a n e r a ( B r u m berg
1 997). It was s i nce that t i m e that t h e
territory o f food h a s become strong l y
overcoded with t h e def i n it i o n o f t h e
mascu l i ne. I t was s i nce that t i me that
t h e c o n s u m p t i o n patter n of women
rJ)
c
0
became i nc rea s i n g l y restricted by
r u l es. In part i c u l ar, t h e c o n s u m p t i o n
0 ( o r i ntake) of m eat w a s d ef i n e d a s
>
Q) masc u l i ne, w h i ch i s st i l l the case
today as Caro l e Adams p o i nts o ut:
" Meat eat i n g i s the re- i ns c r i p t i o n of
c
Q) m a l e power in every m e a l " ( A d a m s
E
1 990: 1 87). B ut a l s o t h e consumption of
a l c o h o l , t a k i n g l a r ge port ions, and
even e n j oy i n g rich d ishes was more
and m ore regarded as m asc u l i n e, and
t h u s i nappropriat e for femal es. A n d
they were t h e products a n d t h e d i shes
that e m e rged from these defi n it ions,
t hat c a m e t o s i g n ify fem i n i n i ty.5 1 A l l
i n a l l, food i ncreas i n g l y constructed a
s e m i o logy of the sexes. A s e m i o logy
that i ncrea s i n g l y def i n ed territories
forb i d d e n to t h e f e m a l e, territories
that she had to avo i d , f ro m w h i c h she
was expel l e d . (The com i n g of t h e d i s ­
eases, o r syndromes, o f anorexia a nd
b u l i m ia are often assoc i ated to t h e
com i n g of t h i s o p p o s i t i o n as w a s i n d i ­
cated before.)
Po i nt was the f i rst to rad i c a l l y
overcome t h i s s t r i ct o p pos i t i o n
by esca p i n g t h e m a l e-d o m i nated
d ef i n i t i o n of food that had been
t h e center of c u i s i n e for so
l o n g .52 Moving away from t h e major
' Laws of Cooking' that were set down
by his p redecessors such as Aug ust
Escoff i e r, Po i nt began his crusade by
i ntrod u c i n g a sty l e of cook i n g i n
w h i ch h e reduced the a m o u nt of fat,
the a m o u nt of m eat, and the s i z e of
the portions ( H e i nt ro d uced m uc h
l i ghter m e a l s . ) ; h e red uced the use
of a l co h o l s, which was ext e n s i ve,
( n o more t h ree h ou rs of coo k i n g i n
66 cognac); he was i nterested in m a k i n g
c u i s i ne , o r w h a t h a d act u a l l y a l ready
take n p l ace as a resu lt of Poi nt's rev­
o l ut i o n , was much m o re than t h i s.
I n 1 973, H e n r i G a u lt wrote a 've r i t a b l e
m a n ifesto' for t h e n o u ve l l e c u i s i ne
move m e nt i n w h i ch h e s u m m a r i zed
ten a r g u m e nts that ca ptu re t h e
i n novat i o n s o f n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e
( G a u l t 1 996) . Ten ways i n w h i c h t h i s
' n ew' s t y l e o f coo k i n g o p posed itself
to the c lassical ' m ascu l i n e ' c u i s i n e i n
+
w w h i c h it p ro pagates i t s becom i ng ­
s wom a n . I t def i n e d itself t h orou g h l y as
a counter-movement i n that it cont i n u ­
o u s l y st r i kes down t h e major posi­
tions: n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e should be cau­
t i o us about t h e use of t h e ref r i gera­
tor; n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e shou l d avo i d the
'terri b l e b rown and w h ite sauces'
" ... that have assas s i n ated so many
l i ve rs and covered u p s o many i n s i p i d
p i eces of m eat" ( Davidson 1 999: 649);
n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e s h o u l d b e i nterested
in d i etetics, l ight d i shes, sa lads, etc.
G a u l t s howed t hat n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e
was p r i m ar i l y cha ract e r i zed by wh at i t
was n ot; it was n ot p a r t o f t h e classi­
c a l c u i s i ne in any way.
t h e food look m ore d e s i r a b l e ( n o l a rg e G a u l t a l s o s howed that t h e m a n ifesto
c h u n k o f m eat d rown i n g i n i t s sauce; of the n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e i n c l udes a
i nstead , 'the pl ate as a pa i n t i n g ' ) becoming-non- white, a becom i n g ­
( Po i nt 1 974) . Fo l l owi n g t h e path the eth ni c , a beco m i n g -exoti c. We c o u l d
Victorian woman took i n h e r move a l ready s e e w i t h P o i nt t h a t trad i t i o n a l
away from t h e d o m i nant masc u l i n e m e a l s a n d t rad i t i o n a l p reparat i o n
pos i t i o n , Fernand P o i nt emancipated s k i l ls were abandoned and expe r i m e n ­
c u i s i ne in evad i ng the masc u l i n e tat i o n w i t h a l l k i nds o f i ng re d i e nts
p o s i t i o n that had dom i n ated t h e and many preparat i o n m ethods took
c u i s i n e f o r such a l o n g t i me. p l ace. Yet with t h e c o m i n g of nouve l l e
The d i m i n i sh i n g portions i n part i c u l a r c u i s i ne came an obsessive search for
t u rn e d out to b e t h e g reatest ( a n d t h e n ewness, and i nvention.
m ost exaggerated f o r some c h efs) This was d o n e p r i m a r i l y by ex peri­
novelty of n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e with m entat i o n . A s a j o u r n a l ist from Lyon s
respect to c l as s i c a l c u i s i ne ( Davidson exp l a i n s : " T h e n o u ve l l e c u i s i ne was
1 999). B ut what h a ppened to n o u v e l l e very excess i ve in the way that it t r i e d
hyperbola, where the t o p ( i n t h i s case) i s t h e declaration o f nouve l l e cuisine, it i s i n i t s prea m b l e
and i t s aftermath t h a t the greatest acceleration takes place. Poi nt and h i s great revol utions m ust
_
be s ituated i n the pream b l e. We see i n the aftermath how nouve l l e c u i s i ne, in its deterritor i a l iza­
tion of many aspects of food and cooking, was capa b l e of deterritori a l i z i n g many other 'ways of
coo k i n g ' , many other territories.
51 B ru m berg cites several examples i n which it i s shown how the eating of meat for women was
l i nked to "adolescent i nsan ity and to nymphomania" ( Brumberg 1 997: 424).
52 The c u i s i n e of his day was extre mely rich, not o n l y in France, but throughout the Western
world. It was heavi l y focused on meat, on large portions, and on an abundant use of fats. A n d
s t i l l , whenever one vi sits restaurants t h a t c l a i m to prepare the local c u i s i n e (the so-ca l l ed 'tradi­
tiona l ' restaurants), they d istinguish themselves from the other restaurants t h i s way (by t h e i r
f o c u s on meat, on large portions, and on an abundant use of fats ) .
to m e rg e anyt h i ng with anyt h i n g " (07-
27-02). It gave new names to t h e d i sh­
es, had t h e m pre pared t h e m d ifferent­
l y, and had t h e m c o m b i n ed t h e m d if­
ferently. For t h e most part, it was
i nterested in new veget a b l e s as re l at­
ed to territories t hat were p rev i o u s l y
o u t s i d e Western c u i s i ne s u c h as the
c u i s i n es of C h i n a, J a p a n , I nd i a, a n d
N o rt h Afri ca. (The conce pt o f f u s i o n
coo k i n g i s d e rived from t h is.) B ut at
t h e same t i me, n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e a l s o
d eve l oped a s t r o n g i nterest i n t h e ter­
roir: t h e p rod ucts a n d trad i t i o n s t hat
c o u l d be found j ust around t h e corner
(and t h us, a l s o ensuring their 'fresh­
n e s s ' ) . It i s a becom i ng -exot ic, a
becom i ng - n o n -w h it e i n that it is con­
sta n t l y searc h i ng for ways to escape
the major territory of wh iteness.
Nevert h e less, n o u ve l le c u i s i ne a l s o
preferred the nai've stance; it t r i e d t o
c o m b i ne t h i n g s t h a t t h e c lassical
k itchen wou l d never c o m b i ne. B ut as
G a u l t a l s o i n d i cated, nouve l l e c u i s i n e
was a l s o focused o n s i m p l if i ca t i o n .
W h e reas c l as s i c a l chefs were k nown
for t h e i r u s e of a m u lt i t u d e of i ng re d i ­
ents, nouve l l e c u i s i n e advocated s i m ­
p l e d i shes with f e w i ng re d i e nts a n d
s i m p l e, ' p u re ' tastes t hat a re n ot
overw h e l m e d by ot h e r i ng re d i ents a n d
t hat express s i m p l i c ity. N o u ve l l e c u i ­
s i ne, i n its beco m i ng -woman, a l s o
e m braces a certa i n beco m i ng-ch i ld .
A l t h o u g h n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e h a s
had its h eyd ay, i t s i nf l u e n ce i n
cook i n g i s st i l l e v i d ent even
today. Too often this movement i s
remem bered o n l y for its s m a l l por­
t i o ns, w h i c h i s n ot h i n g more than a
one-sided car icat u re of its rad i ca l l y
n e w ideas o n food. W h e n n ot i c i n g t h e
trends i n t h e c u i s i n e today, o n e can
st i l l recog n ize the revo l ut io n s t h at
took p l ace with t h e a r r i v a l of n o u ve l l e
c u i s i ne, o r better accord i n g t o
Fer n a n d Poi nt, t hat set t h e course for
what fo l l owed. As a Lyonese j o u r n a l ­
ist n o t i c e s t h e r i s e o f conceptual
restaurants: " . . . where you find a very
big concern for aest h e t i c i s m . . . that
put all k i n d s of s p ices around you r
p l ate. That i s somet h i n g y o u d i d n 't
f i n d before" (07-27-02) . A nd
t h e re are a l s o those i n d i v i d ua l ,
g reat ch efs t hat s i n g le�hand e d l y
c reate t h e i r escape route: " P h i l i ppe
C havant. He used to create l ot s of
d i shes. He tried to i nteg rate o u r cook­
ing with c u i s i n es from other c o u nt r i es
by u s i n g a l ot of coconut m i l k, for
i nstance. H e uses a l ot of beverages,
soft textu res" (07-27-02) . Every t i me,
these c u l i nary changes escape a
major position fol l o w i n g t h e paths s et
out by n o u ve l l e c u i s i ne. Every t i m e ,
i n t h e i r becom i n g m i n o r i t a r i a n ,
t h ey p ract i c e a beco m i n g -wo m a n
A N D a beco m i n g - c h i l d A N D a
beco m i n g - n o n -w h ite. Whether it
concerns a focu s o n aesthet i c i s m , o n
garn i s h i n g o r o n soft textures, they
practice a n e m a n c i pat i o n i n st i g ated
by nouve l l e c u i s i ne/ Fe rnand Poi nt.
Each t i me, these revol ut i o n s m ove
away from the a d u lt, w h ite, male terri­
tory. In their fem i n i ne, exper i mental,
a n d n a'ive app roach to cook i n g , to the
territory of food, they become
m i noritarian.

E 13 E C O lvl I N c; - I N ll E F I N A 13 L E , o I� Ii O W T O lvl O \f E A \l\f A Y

F I� 0 lvl T Ii E lvl A J 0 I�
I n o n e way or other, a l l b o d i e s are al ways a l ready mov i n g
away from t h e center of power. E v e n t h e m ost m a s c u -
1 i n e o f a l l m a l es has a beco m i n g -woman i n h i m ;
even t h e most ad u lt of a l l a d u l t s c a r r i es a c h i l d i n
h i m ; even t h e m ost w h it e of a l l w h i tes i s s l ow l y
b ut s u r e l y becom i n g - n o n -wh ite. H owever s l ow l y it
m oves, every territory's aim i s " ... hav i ng a s m a l l p lot of
new l a n d at a l l t i me s " ( D e leuze and G uattari 1 987: 1 6 1 ) .
C o n se q u e n t l y, a major t e r ritory i s n ever rea l ly 'occ u p i e d ' ;
it i s t h e p l ace f r o m w h i c h all movement takes p l ace. It i s
a l ways a p o s i t i o n that i s b e i n g abandoned. Beco m i ng i s a n
i m m anent process o f escape t hat i s a l ways a l ready a t work.
D e r r i d a a l s o s u g g ests t h i s by say i n g that d econst ruct i o n
i s n ot a p h e n o m e n o n that can be c a l l e d u po n , but that
s h o u l d be seen as a p rocess t hat is a l ways a l ready at work.
Every 'construct i o n ' is a lways i n t h e p rocess of escap i ng
itse lf, i n a p rocess of ' d estruct i o n ' ; These processes
a l ways work in p a i r s ; they g o hand in hand as they are
cont i n u a l ly c a u g ht in a c reative p rocess of redef i n i ng both
the self and its outer world. 53
Becoming is deconstruction. Becoming is the affect as
Spinoza might say. Becoming is desire i n t h e sense that
" . . . it i s t hat which o n e d e s i res a n d by which o n e d es i res"
( D e l euze and G uattari 1 987: 1 65) as it steers u s i n o u r every­
d ay pers i stence. I t is the p u re act of f l e e i n g , of t a k i n g on
speed, of a l ways m o v i n g away from the organ i zat i o n or
the structure t hat contro ls.
Becom i n g does n ot have a beg i n n i n g or a n end a l t h o u g h
its d i rect i o n i s a l ways d ef i ned by i t s m ovement away from
a major territory. We could say, then, t hat beco m i ng­
woman i s a p rocess that n ecessar i l y affects men to the
same d e g ree as women. h owever, we s h o u l d add t h at: " I n
a way, t h e s u bj ect i n a beco m i n g i s a l ways ' m a n ' , but o n l y
w h e n h e enters a becom i ng - m i noritarian t hat re n d s h i m
from h i s major i de n t ity" ( D e l euze and G u attari 1 987: 291 ).
Beco m i n g i s t h e act of ' d i s m a nt l i n g t h e organ i s m ' :
" D i sm a nt l i n g t h e organ i s m has never meant k i l l i n g your­
se lf, but rath e r o pe n i n g t h e body to connect i o n s t hat p re­
s u ppose an e n t i re ass e m b l age, c i rc u its, c o n j u nctions, l ev­
e l s a n d t h re s h o l d s, passages a n d d i str i bu t i o n s of i nt e n s i ­
t y , a n d territo r i es a n d deterrito r i a l i zat i o n s measured with
t h e craft of a s u rveyor" ( De l euze and G u attari 1 987: 1 60) .
To enter a phase of beco m i ng i s to enter a phase of inde­
finability, a process of radical c h a n g e, a process of ward­
ing off the major in any way poss i b l e . " W h at i s proper to
t h e m i n o r ity i s to assert a power of t h e n o n d e n u m e r a b l e,
even if t hat m i n o r ity is composed of a s i n g l e m e m be r. That
is the form u l a for m u lt i p l i c i t i es . M i n o r i t i e s as a u n i versal
53 Somet i m es D e r r i d a captures t h i s process i n the concept of iterat ion
(as Patton argues (Patton and Protevi 2003) , which t h u s a l so could be
seen close to what De leuze c a l l s a becom i n g. 67
 f i g u re, or becom i n g -everybody/every­
t h i ng (deve n i r tout le m o n d e ) . Wom a n :
w e a l l have to become that, whether
we are m a l e o r f e m a l e. N o n-wh ite: we
all have to become that, whether we
are w h ite, ye l l ow, o r b l ack" ( De l euze
and G uattari 1 987: 470, translation modi­
f i e d ) . Beco m i ng -woman, becom i n g ­
c h i l d , a n d beco m i n g - no n -white a r e a l l
m i n o r revo l ut i o n s that escape the
major pos i t i on in w h i c h every territory
i s n ecessar i ly i nvolved. Beco m i n g ­
n o u ve l l e-c u i s i ne, beco m i n g-fast
food, becom i n g -exot i c a l l c a r r i e d
(/)
a t h o u s a n d l i ttle revo l ut i o n s
c
0
a l o n g w i t h t h e m as t h ey escaped
the major territories t h at con­
0 tro l l e d food. In each of these
>
Q)
�
cases, a m i n or terri tory arose as
a res u l t of its m o v i n g away.
Becoming-indefinable .
Yet they can ass u m e a major pos i t i o n .
When eve r t h e y t u r n d ef i nable.
Whe n ever t h ese t e rritories create
a center of power. Whe n ever t h ey
c reate a position that s u bj ects.
We c o u l d see t h i s happe n i n g in the
n o u ve l l e c u i s i n e movement from t h e
moment its man ifesto w a s created.
With Fe rnard Poi nt's d epart u res from
the major territory of coo k i n g , it
e ntered a p rocess of p u re beco m i n g .
W h e n these beco m i ng s were d ef i ned
by this m a n ifesto, t h e n o n d e n u m e r­
a b l e became d e n u m e ra b l e ; t h e
u nformed acq u i red its f o r m . A t that
t i me, the terr itory of what is now
k n own as n o u ve l l e c u i s i ne reduced its
speed, became m o re r i g i d , a n d t h u s
68 s l ow l y became a m a j o r posi t i o n itself
from which an escape could be made.
In terms of the ' n on -wh ite' (the b l ack,
the ye l l ow, the red ) , the so-ca l led
' et h n i c c u i s i ne has a l s o assumed a
major posit i o n with t h e h e l p of t h e
tra d i t i o n a l eth n i c restau rants t hat
eagerly re-created t h e ' t rad i t i o n a l
d i s h e s ' o f the " n o n -w h i t e " . A Fre n c h
c hef p o i nted out, "Once you are
a broad, you are not creative anym ore.
I t is the same for Fre n c h c u i s i n e. T h e
creat i ve cooks, i n terms o f Fre nch
coo k i n g i n A m e r i ca, are n ot the
Fre n c h cooks that went t h e re, but t h e
A m e r i c a n s " (07-30-02a) .
T h e best exa m p le, however, o f a terri­
tory that has turned its position i nto
that of a r i g i d majoritarian position is
the territory of fast food. Fo r a lt h o u g h
with t h e i r com i n g, fast food c h a i n s
escaped f r o m t h e major, t rad i t i o n a l
restaurant, t h e i r i n i t i a l m i noritarian
p o s i t i o n soon became major; it
became m ore a n d more we l l d ef i n ed
a n d more a n d more focused on repro­
d u ct i o n i n stead of o n beco m i ng , on
p rocesses of escape. Today, t h e terri­
tory of fast food i s n ot g e n e ra l ly
t h o u g h t of as o n e that escapes t h e
m a j o r territory o f the restau rant
(although it ofte n st i l l does). On
the contrary, it i s from this major ter­
r itory of fast food that many oth e r
territor ies, i n ward i n g off t h i s major
pos i t i o n , i n mov i n g away from t h i s
territo ry, enter a p h ase o f beco m i ng .
As fast food became a triad o f t h e
h a m b u rg e r, Fre n c h f r i es, a n d t h e c o l a
(estab l i shed by s u c h p l aces as
M c D o n a l d 's ) , or t h e t r i ad of f r i ed
c h i cke n , Fre n c h f r i es, a n d cola
(esta b l i s h e d by K F C ) , o r the c o m b i na­
t i o n of a p i zza base a n d a choice of
t o p p i n g s (estab l i shed by such p l aces
as Pizza H ut), its aim has been to
reproduce these d ef i n it i o n s in g reat
d etai l ever s i nce. A process t hat
takes p l ace worldwide.
I n Bangal ore, t h e re are many types of
s m a l I eat e r i es where the major terri­
tory of fast food i s being d i smant l ed
by s e l l i ng n on -tra d i t i o n a l burgers
( e . g . , vegeta r i a n h a m b u rg e rs), p i zzas
with local t o p p i ngs ( c u rry, sambar,
etc.), and by t u r n i n g t h e t rad i t i o n a l
'dosa ' i nto a m o d e r n wrap: "Those
p laces o n l y open in areas where a l ot
of schools a re. We got th ree or f o u r
c o l leges i n o u r prec i n ct, s o a r o u n d
1 0 ,000 st u d e nts g o t h e re. Th ere are
some 1 0 or 20 p l aces. Fast food cen­
ters, coffee h ouses ... m a i n l y local
entrepre n e u rs " (02-21-02). In t u r n ,
m a j o r c h a i n s i n B a n g a l ore are a l s o
m o v i n g away from the ' m ajor' p o s i ­
t ions. O n e j o u r n a l ist c o m m e nts on the
l a rg e p i zza chains: "They are m a k i n g
it very l o c a l i z e d act u a l l y. We have a
fest i v a l c a l l e d Darsoria - a n i n e-day
festival - where they have n i ne d iffer­
ent varieties of p i z za, one for each
day. Every day you h ave a d ifferent
one. I n d i a n p e o p l e are a l l i nto s p i cy
foo d ; they l i ke it w h e n they put a l ot of
c h i Ii i n it. They have n i n e d iff erent
p i zzas. And for Va l e n t i ne's Day they
h ave a h eart-shaped p i zza, a n d some­
t i mes they have a 'Ganesha' p i z za"
(02-1 4-02). These c h a i n s have entered
a becom i ng - l ocal, a beco m i ng-re l i-
g i ous, etc. , as P robyn has a l s o s hown
u s ( P robyn 2000) .
I n Lyo n , t h e re are large c h a i n s t hat
escape the major territory by creat i ng
c o n nections to other territories or by
bypas s i n g them. Quick (a Fre n c h fast­
food c h a i n ) , but even m ore so,
Pomme-des Pains ( i n s e r v i n g 'typical
French d ishes' acco r d i n g to the format
of the fast food c h a i n ) i s beco m ing­
m i no r. Even the s m a l l kebab p l aces
found t h ro u g hout the city today -they
became very popu l a r in a s h o rt p e r i o d
o f t i me- escape the t e r r i t o r y o f fast
food by i ntrod u c i n g the t r i a d of
Fre n c h f r i es, cola, and a kebab sand­
wich . Even t h e bake r i e s enter a
beco m i ng - l ocal i n the way they s k i m
over t h e major territory o f fast food :
" L i k e a l l t h e bake r i es a n d a l s o s ma l l
I itt l e restau rants, they t r y to l ower
t h e i r price s o t h ey can compete with
p l aces l i ke M c D o n a l d 's and Q u i ck.
So, very ofte n in t h e center, you can
f i n d p l aces w h e re you can g et a sand­
wich, a beverage, and a d esert for
about 30 francs, o r 6 e u ros, o r some­
t h i ng l i ke t h at" (07-26-02).
I n Lyon , compan ies such as McDonald's,
cat e r i n g to t he s uccess of p laces l i ke
Po m m e-des P a i n s , are a l s o o p e n i n g
u p t h e i r territories i n o r d e r to I i n k
t h e m se l ves to o t h e r o n e s . T hey, too,
enter a beco m i n g ; in serv i n g ' l ocal-
ized' d i shes, they escape t h e major
position (consider t h e CroqueMcDo -
t h e i r vers i o n of the croque-monsieur
a toasted h a m a n d cheese sandw i c h ) .
T h e y become m i no r i n t h e i r ope n i n g
u p o f t h e majoritarian body i n w h i c h
t h ey h a d b e e n c a u g ht, b y c reat i ng
c o n n ect i on s to oth e r territ o r i es, by
ward i n g off t h e major pos i t i o n , by
e n t e r i n g an escape, by becom i n g .
F i n a l l y, i n H a n g z h o u , t h e m u lt i t u d e s
o f m i n i -vans i n the streets e s c a p e t h e
m a j o r territory esta b l i s h e d by K F C by
s e l l i n g many variet i es of f r i ed c h i cken
( somet i mes def i n e d as 'new s tyle
chicken '). S m a l I rest a u rants that h a d
a l ready been serv i n g f o o d t hat made a
s i m i l ar con nect i o n to fast food ( i .e . ,
q u ic k preparat i o n , f e w i n g r e d i e nts)
a l s o escaped this new majority. On
t h e one hand, they escape by model­
ing t h e m s e l ves afte r t hat which they
c o n s i d e r major ( n ot only in terms of
food, but a l s o in terms of service,
s pace, a n d ' c l ean l i n ess ' , etc. ) , a n d on
the oth e r h a n d , m o v i n g away from t h i s
majority a t t h e same t i me.
The bac k s i d e of t h i s book d i s p l ays
such a restau rant in H a n g z h o u : a 200-
year- o l d royal resta urant wh ere many
stories are t o l d about t h e Emperor
a n d other h i g h off i c i a l s enjoy i ng t h e i r
m e a l s a t t h i s esta b l i s h m ent ( a s t h e
se parate ' Royal M e n u ' i n part i c u l a r
h i g h l i g ht s ) ; a restaurant
t h at, s i nce it began, has
- focused o n what later became
fast food. It conformed to the territo-
ries of fast food, s u bscr i b i ng to its
ways of food p reparat i o n , port i o n
s i zes, a n d d i n i n g t i me. Reso n a t i n g
with how the f o o d w a s prepared, i n
t h e s i ze o f the port i ons, a n d i n the
way t h e consu mers are not s u p posed
to d i n e ext e n s i v e l y. T h i s restaurant
has e ntere d a beco m i n g - m i n o r in its
relat i o n to the major p o s i t i o n of fast
food as it i s s u ccessf u l ly p ract iced
now i n Hangzhou. I t even remod e l ed
its i nt e r i o r afte r the i nt e r i o r of a fast
food restaurant (as s hown i n the
photo). A nd at the same time, it
escapes it; it m oves away from the
major p o s i t i o n by opening u p the ter­
r itory t hat has been d ef i n ed as majori­
tarian with t h e arrival of M c D o n a l d 's,
K F C , and P i z za H ut. These restau­
rants brushed u p agai nst t h e territory
of fast food in order to d i s m a n t l e it.
A n d actu a l l y, h e re too, as in Lyo n , t h e
so-cal led 'major' chains l ike McDonald's
are becom i n g - m i n o ritarian i n a s i m i­
l a r way. T h i s t i me, M c D on a l d 's se rves
pract i c a l l y o n l y f r i ed c h i cken (togeth­
e r with cola a n d r i ce) i nstead of ham­
b u rg e rs, w h i c h are ofte n regarded as
c o i nc i d i ng with the West 54•

F T Ii E C A P I T A L I S T ll E C 0 ll I N c; 0 F A L I lvl E N T A H Y I� lJ L E S ·

A P O L I T I C S O F F O O D I N B A N G A L O l� E
The way i n w h i c h capit a l i s m has c h a n g e d the a l i m e ntary
reg i m es has n ot been of g reat i m portance in the a r g u ­
m e nts p r o d u c e d i n t h i s p a r t t h u s far. T h e m a i n reason i s
t h at capita l i s m , t h o u g h i t s i n f l u ence i s m o re t h a n s u bstan­
tial, d oes n ot effectuate a becom i n g-wo m a n , a becom i ng­
n o n -wh ite, a becom i ng-ch i l d , o r any becom i n g at a l l ; it
does n ot p ro d u ce revo l ut i onary deterritor i a l i zat i on s i n t hat
it provokes new ways of t h i n k i n g t h e e d i b_l e. C a p i ta l i s m
c h a n g e s t h e a l i m e ntary reg i m e s i n a f u n d a m e nt a l
way. By decoding e v e r y code, e v e r y structu re,
every org a n i z at i o n that crosses its way.
Perhaps the best way to show the a l i me ntary power of
capit a l i s m i s by t a k i n g a look at the f i e l d of post-colonial
stu dies. As t h i s f i e l d offers many exa m p l e s of h ow food
i nt e r m i n g l e s wit h i n a l l k i nd s of p rocesses that rad i c a l l y
a l t e r t h e s o c i a l s paces t hat orga n i zed t h e m before. M ore
so t h a n w it h i n t h e Western world w h e re capita l i s m was
i ntroduced ( m u c h m o re gently) q u ite some t i m e ago, t h e
n o n-Western w o r l d ( t o u s e t hat m ost p o l it ical t e r m 55)
offers us many cases in w h i c h we can experience t h e
effect t hat cap i t a l i s m has o n the everyday l ife as it p ro­
vokes the most extreme processes of liberalization and far­
reaching processes of change. I n the n o n -Western world,
even t h e d o m i nant structures t hat seemed to be i n total

54 Many people of Hangzhou bel ieved (if they had any thoug hts on it at all) that the Western menu (Am erica and E u rope) consisted mainly of ham­
bu rgers.
55 The idea that territories of the non-Western world are a g reat deal more s u p p l e than those of the Western world i s clearly evidenced i n thei r
mutual relation in which the Western wor l d territories are st i l l the major position and the non-Western world territories are defi ned acco rding to
those of the Western world. As such, the non-Western world is largely constructed from m i norities that are always a l ready in the process of escap­
ing Western d o m i nance. Thus, it necessar i l y f o l l ows that the non-Western world i s caught u p i n much more radical processes of change. 69
 t h e I nd i a n society i n many ways. It everyday l ife, it did organ i z e I n d i a n
rJJ
(J) began with econ o m i cs, but i nstantly society accord i n g to f l u ctuat i n g re l a­

s
• 1"""1
>-.. �
� 0
c reated strong relations with oth e r
territories t h at were i nc l u d e d i n
t i o n s that were s l ow l y but consta ntly
being redef i ned, be i n g rete rritorial­
bO (J) 1"""1 • society s u c h as l a n g u age, re l i g i o n , ized.
(J) :> ...+--> e d u cat i on , l ove ( marriage), a n d The Brahmin (and t h e Baniya) castes
� (J) cd notably, food. have a l ways been in charge. For a few
N
>-.. b.o • 1"""1 Nevert h e less, it was o n l y with t h e thousand years they h ave contro l led
� � � c o m i n g o f the B r i t i s h r u l e a n d es pe­ t h e I nd i a n s u b cont i n ent. T h ey d ef i ned
cd " '"'"'I cd
...+--> 11:1 c i a l l y the B r i t i s h a d m i n i st rative sys­ 'the H i n d u ' as l l aiah argues. They s u r­
bO
� a � tem that caste d i s t i n ct i o n s became passed the organizations of the ot her
(J) u 0 r i g i d , t h at these ' pr i m it i ve' , f l u ct u at­ casts by their own and at l east tried

s
• 1"""1
CU
>-..
11:1 �
i n g l aws that came from d a i l y p ractic e
t u r n e d i nto State Laws t h at h a rd l y
to s u bj ect t h e m to their r u l e. l l a i a h
t r i e s to c l a rify t h i s with h i s g reat vo l ­
,......
"' cd >-.. (J) m a d e reference to anyt h i ng o uts i d e u m e o n contempo rary caste p o l i t i cs
:>
(J) i:o (J)
c
0
i t s e l f as w i t h t h e g rowi n g b u reaucracy of I nd i a bea r i n g t h e revea l i n g t i t l e
..... of the B r i t i s h E m p i re came its efforts ' Why I Am Not a Hindu ', l l a i a h ( l laiah
::::J
,..c:: .
..,
0
...+--> >-..
(J)
to " . . . rank and g rade I nd i a n social 1 996) , in w h i c h he s hows that the
>
Q) cd � .
orders" (Majeed 1 992: 28). With the l ower castes ( o r Sundra) as the
rJJ >-..
(J) �
�

>. 0 cd c o m i n g of t h e B r i t i s h , t h e s u p p l e Dalitbahujans - with whom h e i d e n t i ­

...+-->
�

�
"' struct u res o f everyday l if e f i es - s h o u l d n ot be c o n s i dered H i n d u ;
bO ,..... u
� cd
c
tu r n e d r i g i d , tu r n e d i nto r u l es . they are comp letely d ifferent social
0
Q)
E
cd ...+--> rJJ Apart from t h e fact t hat t h e re was a n struct u res that h ave been explo ited
� � ...+-->
"'
,..c:: (J) ...+--> • 1"""1 E n g l i sh Governor p l aced a t t o p o f t h e a n d s u p p ressed by the H i nd u
u rJJ rJJ soci ety, t h e com i ng o f t h e B r i t i s h d i d (Brahmin/Baniya) majority. The
I-
0:
"'
a.
s §
rJJ � (J) rJJ
>-.. (J)
� rJJ
n ot so m uch change t h e re l a t i o n s of
power t h e m s e l ves. The Brahmin
Brahmins have a l ways been the
majority with the oth e r castes as t h e
castes h ad a l ways been at t h e center m i norities.
� :> 0
• 1"""1
,......
of power: they r u l ed the ot h e r castes B ut a l t h o u g h t h e power re l a t i o n s
cd 0 (J) �
.., u and defined the ot h e r castes accord­ t h e m se l ve s d i d n o t rad i ca l l y
...+--> �
• 1"""1
� cd cd�
...+--> ing to t h e i r caste before the com i n g
o f t h e B r i t i s h a n d afte r t h e i r arr ival.
c h a n g e w i t h t h e c o m i n g of t h e
B r i t i s h , t h e n e w r i g i d i ty d i d
cd
� 0 ,..c:: T h e caste system had a l ways prov i d ­ reart i c u l ate t h e m p ro g res s i v e l y
u • 1"""1 u ...+-->
ed o p p o rt u n ity f o r t h e o n e g r o u p to b e redef i n i n g a n d abso r b i n g every
m o re ' i m portant' than t h e oth e r. t e r r i tory t h at aff ected s o c i a l l ife.
control h ave been rad i ca l l y deterrito- Hierarchy was always there; though Together with its stron g l y esta b l i s h ed
r i a l i ze d by t h e cap i t a l i st f l uxes of before the coming of the British, it was h e red itary c ustoms, the caste system
today. Perhaps acc o m p a n i e d by a only loosely defined. It was m u c h m o re soon became a ' M o l oc h of Soc i a l
beco m i ng -woman, a becom i ng - n o n - a h i e rarchy i m ma n e n t l y organized O r g a n i z at i o n ' i n w h i c h a l m ost every
wh ite, o r a beco m i n g-ch i l d , but p re- with respect to supple territori es. d a i l y act i o n was i n some way r i g i d l y
dom i n a n t l y by capita l i st powers a l l C l early connected to the practice of i nc l uded with i n the respective territo-
t h e same. T h e f i n d i ng s o f a 'case
study' from this f i e l d m i g ht thus b e an
i nterest i ng way of i nt ro d u c i n g some
radical s o c i a l a n d c u lt u ra l changes
that h ave had l itt l e attent i o n so far.
We t ravel to the city of B a n g a lo re,
I nd i a, w h e re the struct u res that had
orga n i zed the city u n t i l rece ntly are
presently u n dergo i n g a radical a n n i h i-
l a t i o n . Today, t h e central system of
o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h i s I n d i a n m etropo l i s
- t h e caste system - i s ra p i d l y l os i n g
territory. A r i s i n g from a n eed for
p ract i c a l organ izat i o n of the v i l l a g e
e c o n o m y by the d i v i s i o n o f l a bo r, t h e
70 concept o f t h e caste has struct u re d
ry of each caste . . . regard i n g every
aspect of daily life. Even t h e s pace of
the v i l lage was i n co rporated i nto t h e
caste system a n d t h u s productive o f
its d y n a m i cs. The streets o f t h e v i l ­
l a g e were ofte n so stro n g l y defi ned
as b e i n g a part of a part i c u l a r caste
that other castes were f o r b i d d e n to
make use of them.
A m ost r i g i d o p pos i t i o n betwe en
t h e Brahmins a n d t h e m i n o r ity
castes was fou n d , however, i n
t h e territory o f consumptio n ,
express i n g t h e i r p o w e r by c reat­
i n g a r i g i d c e n t e r that conta i n ed
t h e i r i d e as a bout c o n s u m pt i o n
w i t h everyt h i n g t h ey d i d n ot s u b ­
s c r i b e to outs i d e of t h a t center.
O n ce a g a i n , t h e i r part i c u l a r position
i n t h e l ocal prod uct i o n p rocess (they
were exc l u d e d from h eavy phys ical
labor) was r i g i d if i ed with t h e B ri t i s h
r u l e , w h i c h a l l owed t h e Brahmins to
d e f i n e t h e m s e l ves accord i n g to
( m ost) oth e r casts by t h e i r pure vege­
tarianism.56 A n d by i n c l u d i n g vegetar­
i a n i s m in t h e i r territory ( i n t h e i r i d e n ­
tity, i n t h e i r d ef i n it i o n o f t h e self),
they p l aced it at t h e center of power
i m m a n e n t l y organ i z i n g soc i ety
accord i n g to t h e i r notion of a g ood
m e a l ( i.e., a vegeta r i a n m e a l ) a n d
what s h o u l d be projected o u t s i d e t h i s
n o t i o n o f a good meal ( i . e . , a n o n -veg­
eta r i a n m e a l ) .
I t was a n o p p o s i t i o n t h at shaped
t h e s p aces of city. At t h e end of
t h e 20th centu ry, o n e wou l d have a
d iff i c u l t t i m e f i n d i n g a restaurant that
served m eat i n t h e city centers of
Bangal ore. O n l y i n the o uts k i rts of the
city w h e re t h e M u s l i m m i no r i t i e s so l d
c h i cken b i rya n i a n d kebab, was meat
read i l y ava i l a b l e. In those days, m ost
apartment c o m p l exes in B a n g a lo re
d i d n ot a l low t h e i r res i d e nts to p re­
pare or even c o n s u m e meat because
this could u pset the Brahmins. ( Even
the s m e l l of meat com i n g t h r o u g h the
vent i l a t i o n systems a p p a l l e d t h e m . )
I n t h o s e d ays, the Brahmins were st i l l
a b l e t o prevent t h e ' c e l ebrat i o n ' of
Va lenti nes Day in Bangal o re. Tod ay,
they are st i l l repres s i n g t h i s ' Western
i n f l u ence' in c i t i e s l i ke B o m b ay. I n
B o m bay, t o b e seen o n t h e streets
carry i n g a b u n c h of f l owers or a
h eart-shaped box of c h oco l ates o n
the 1 4t h o f February i s st rong l y d i s­
couraged.
I n B a n g a l ore in those d ays, th e re
was o n l y o n e g ro u p t h at o p e n l y
q u est i o n ed t h e r i g i d o p po s i t i o n
c reated between vegeta r i a n s
a n d n o n -veget a r i a n s ( o r between
'veg' and 'non-veg' as it i s p o p u l a r l y
c a l l e d ) t h u s q u est i o n i n g t h e author ity
of the Brahmin majority: the A n g lo­
I n d i a n s . I n t h e i r beco m i n g - E n g l i s h , it
was p r i m a r i l y through t h e i r cons u m p ­
t i o n patter n t h at t h e y protest e d , t h at
they constructed t h e i r i d e nt ity m u c h
to the d i s p l easure o f t h e Brahmin
majority (who have occa s i o n a l l y d i s ­
c r i m i nated a g a i n st t h e m ) . O n e e l de r l y
A n g l o- I nd i an exp l a i n e d : " I f y o u have
d h a l with r i ce, s i d e d i shes were
a l ways t h e re : cutlets, roast, sausages,
beef. A n d t h e n we came d own to eat­
i n g cu rry and r i ce. B ut o u r d i n n e r was
n ever so. I t was bread and butter a n d
s a u s a g e s. . . . So, a t n i ght we e a t l i ver
f r i ed , l i ver steaks, cutlets. A l l these
t h i ngs, we eat it. B u t t h e r i ce was a l s o
t h e re at n i ght. . . We are st i l l A n g l o -
l nd i ans. We st i l l m a i n t a i n e d t hat. A n d ,
J s h o u l d n 't say that, we sti l l t h i n k
B r i t i s h . N ot t hat we are a g a i n st the
I n d i a n s or somet h i n g , but we t h i n k
l i ke the p e o p l e abroad. We l i ke that
type of l i v i n g " (02-27-02) .
At the dawn of t h e new m i I l e n n i u m
( o n ly ten years later) , the A n g l o -
I nd ians are n ot a l o n e in t h e i r res i st-
ance to Brahmin d o m i nat i o n . N ow,
t h e re are many who try to u n d e r m i n e
t h e Brahmin pos i t i o n .57 T h e re a r e st i l l
many apartment c o m p l exes t hat d o
n ot permit t h e c o n s u m p -
t i o n a n d p re parat i o n of m eat;
t h e re are st i l l many restau rants
where m eat is not se rved ; and t h e
c e l eb rat i o n o f Va l en t i ne's D a y i s st i l l
a cont rove r s i a l t o p i c d ebated i n
n ewspapers where progressive a n d
conservat ive powers c r o s s swords.
N evert h e l ess, the s ituation has
changed d ra m a t i ca l l y as com pared to
ten years ago. As rece ntly as J a n u ary
31 , 1 996, a major r i ot t hat shook t h e
c i t y o f Bangal o re w a s sparked by a
r u m o r t h at Kentucky Fried C h i ck e n 's
vegeta r i a n s a l a d s were pre pared
u s i ng pork fat. Oth e r c l a i m s charge it
was a n attack agai nst what they con­
s i dered a brutal i nvas i o n of A m e r ican
c u l t u re. At any rate, K F C had to c l ose
d own its f i rst o u t l et in Bangal ore and
have ret urned only recen t l y ... accom­
pan ied by ot her ' A m e r ican ' fast food
c h a i n s such as P i z za H ut, Stars a n d
Str i pes, W i m py's, a n d U S P i z za. Why
is it that a riot such as this, which
shocked the Bangalore community only
six years ago, is unlikely to happen
today?
Te n years a g o , global cap italism
e ntered t h e c i t y of B a n g a l ore
a n d c h a n g ed it com p l et e l y.
Attracted by its h i g h level of e d u ca­
t i o n and l ow wages, g l obal cap i t a l i s m
cons i d e red t h i s city a n i nterest i n g
l ocat i o n for w h a t Cast e l l s ca l l s
56 T h i s meant that many B r a h m i n s would not
consume any a n i m a l product i n c l u d i n g any
product that wou l d i nc l ude egg (such as cake)
o r a n i m a l fat (such as cookies). Most
Brahm i n s, however, d o see the i m poss i b i l ity of
t h i s fundam ent a l i st position. One g i r l m a d e a n
i nterest i n g remark regard i n g ' p u re vegetarian-
i s m ' : "It i s very d iff icult t o b e rea l l y vegetari-
a n . I j ust try t o be. S o. . . I a l ways say. . . i n
Kannada [the local lang u age, r. d.], naanu
m e a n s ' I ' . If somebody asks me 'Are y o u a veg-
etar i a n ? ' I say ' n aan-veg etari a n ' . . . which can
be understood as ' I am a vegeta r i a n ' i n
Kanada, and ' n on-vegetarian' in E n g l i s h . It's a
joke . . . ' (02-1 8-02) .57 T h e position o f t h e A n g lo-
I n d i a n s h a s nevertheless weakened over the
l ast ten years. They are increa s i n g l y isolated
from the rest of society, forced to l i ve together
i n t h e worst areas o f t h e town, not a l lowed t o
make use of the better hospitals, thwarted i n
t h e i r attempts to g e t better jobs . . . 71
 'global tabor', or t h e " . . . process of
g l obal i z a t i o n of specialty l a bor"
(Castel l s 1 996: 1 30-2); those act i v i t i e s
that are less a n d less o bstru cted by
not i o n s of s pace and t h u s pract ice a
more ' p u re' cap i t a l i s m t h an we knew
befo re. A capita l i s m that can focus
even m ore o n m a k i n g profit, o n the
cre at i o n of the l argest s u r p l us.
M ost o b v i o u s ly, t h i s res u lted in t h e
city o f Bangal ore, c h a n g i n g f r o m t h e
m i d - s i zed town i n the p rov i nce o r i ent­
ed towards the o l d i m p e r i a l city of
M ysore ca l l ed B a n g a lo re - of approxi-
mat e l y 600,000 i n h a b i tants - to the
,,,
c:
0
'global city', as Sassen wou l d say
(Sassen 1 991 ) , captured in a network of
0 capita l i st structures cal l ed B a n g a lo re
>
"' - of approx i m at e l y 6 m i l l i on i n h a b i -
tants - i n about 1 0 years t i me.
( B a n g a l ore i s s a i d to be the fastest
c:
"' grow i n g city i n A s i a . ) They appear
E
to be two c it i es that, except for the
name, h ave l ittle i n c o m m o n with one
another. Two cit ies that can be con­
l­ nected only by a dramatic metam or­
a::
c( phosis with far-reac h i n g conseq uences
a..
to everyday l ife. I n a l l its art i c u l at i ons.
This acce l e rat i o n res u lted in a d e n s i ­
ficat i o n o f c i t y l ife i n m a n y ways. Of
course, t h i s metamor p h o s i s res u lted
in an e x p l o s i ve g rowth of the n u m be r
o f castes t h at c o m p o s e t h e c ity. A n d
as p e o p l e were d rawn to t h e city f r o m
al I o v e r the c o u n t r y and from m a n y
d ifferent c u l t u ra l backg rounds, even
the d ifferences with i n the castes
i n creased dramatical ly. But t h i s
acce l e rat i o n act u a l l y com p ressed the
general s pace i n w h i c h these p e o p l e
found t h e m s e l ves. N ot o n l y d i d t h e
p o p u l a t i o n , t h e n u m be r o f b u i l d i n gs,
a n d t h e s i z e of t h e b u i l d i ng s r a p i d l y
i n c rease ( t h e f i rst s kyscrapers now
adorned the skyl i n e ) , t h ey also con­
nected t h e city to every part of t h e
country, a n d today, e v e n to every part
of t h e world creat i n g a soc i a l s pace
that s m oothed the struct u res t h at
defined t h e city o n l y ten years ear l i e r.
B a n g a l ore was q u i c k l y t r a n s ­
f o r m e d f ro m a m i d - s i zed l o c a l
center to a c a p i ta l i st, c o s m o p o l ­
itan c i t y w i t h a l l t h e p l e a s u res
t h at c o m e w i t h it: "The local b o y s -
Tam i l , Karnataka - t h ey a l l have TV
72 a n d t h e y a l l g o t h e h i p pest p l aces at
B r i gade Road. A n d every person goes
to the C h i nese restau rant ... even if it
i s n o n -veg. They j ust s it t h e re and
ta ke a sweet and s o u r veget a b l e
d i s h . . . somet h i ng l i ke t hat. Even
t h o u g h t h e i r f r i e nd s w i l l sometimes
take meat, t h ey h ave to be t h e re" (02-
27-02).
T h i s acce l e rat i o n c a m e w i t h a
g e n e r a l d i s i ntegrat i o n of t h e
Brahmin power t h at o n c e f i r m l y
contro l l e d t h i s c i ty. For w h e re_a s i r:i
B o m bay l if e i s st i l l pretty m uch con­
tro l led by t h e Brahmin majority, in
B a n g a l o re t h e re i s strong decrease in
caste-based o r g a n i zat i o n . This i s n ot
so m u c h because t h e p redom i nantly
non -Brahmin i m m i g rat i o n has l owered
the Brahmin share in soci ety, but
more s o because t h e d y n a m i cs of the
capita l i st m etropo l i s t u r n e d
B a n g a lo re i nto a l i beral city w h e re t h e
r u l e s a n d c o d e s of the recent past are
o p e n l y i ncreas i n g l y q u est i o n e d :
" Because if y o u look at c i t y l ife i n t h e
past f e w years, t h i ngs h ave c o n s i d e r­
a b l y changed . . . . A few years ago, we
o n l y had South I nd i a n foods. B ut now
we h ave all k i n d s of food com i n g at u s
i n c l u d i ng T h a i , C h i nese, Vietnamese . . .
n ot o n l y i ntern at i o n a l food, a l s o food
t hat was p rev i o u s l y o n l y ava i l a b l e
o n l y i n oth e r parts o f I nd i a, for exa m ­
p l e , N o rt h I n d ia, West I nd i a, Eastern
I nd i a . . . . We d i d n ot have access to
t h at. So i n the l ast years, a large n u m ­
b e r o f caterers have c o m e u p t hat s e l l
a l l t h e s e foods" (02-20-02).
O n l y ten years ago, it was
i m poss i b l e to get any food ot h e r
than South I nd ian i n the city
c e nter o f B a n g a l ore; b ut tod ay,
a l l s o rts of food f ro m every part
of t h e wo r l d c a n be f o u n d i n
t h es e st reets. The fact t hat these
d ifferent c u i s i nes can all be found i n
B a n g a l ore today i s not too off e n s i ve
to t h e Brahmins ( a l t h o u g h st r i ct
Brahmins st i l l f l atly refuse to con­
sume food from outside t h e i r own
home). W hat is, h owever, a real thorn
i n t h e f l esh of t h e Brahmin majority is
t hat m o re a n d more restau rants are
avo i d i n g the b i n a ry o p p o s i t i o n of veg-
58 Bangalore is known nowadays as t h e IT capital o f India, a n d since it h a s surpassed S i l icon
Va l l ey at least i n size, many Bang a l oreans prou d l y refer to their city as the I T capital of the world.
etarian versus n o n -vegeta r i a n food
that had organ ized the city u nt i l
recen t l y. A l t h o u g h they ofte n d o i t
secretly, t h e Brahmin youngsters
n owadays i n d u l g e in n o n -vegeta r i a n
d i shes m uch to t h e d i s p l e as u re of
t h e i r parents. O n e youngster con­
fesse d : " N owadays, I a m n ot very
str ict, I a l s o eat n o n -veg and my
parents k now. T h ey do n ot eat it, but
I have g rown accustomed to my
f r i ends' I ife-style a n d a l I t h at. I d o n 't
eat it i n my house. M y parents know;
my g r a n dfat h e r doesn 't. They were
very strict. .. they d o n 't even eat egg
a n d a l I th at. [My morn] ref used to
speak to me. A n d I used to tease
her and t e l l her I wou l d make some
c h i cken at h o m e. S h e d o e s n 't l i ke m e
eat i n g it" (02-28-02).
Brahmin r u l e has certa i n l y not d i sap­
peared in prese nt-day B a n g a l o re.
A lso t he caste structu res sti l l striate
d a i l y l if e to a g reat d e g ree. But tod ay,
o ne's c u l t u ra l backg round a lso f u nc­
t i ons more a n d more as an ax i s
accord i n g to w h i c h l ife i s structured
( m ore s o n ow than before). A n d t h e re
is m o re g o i n g o n . T h e fact th at the
basic Law of C o n s u m pt i o n set u p by
t h e Brahmin majority ( i . e . , the str ict
d iffere n t i a t i o n betwee n veget a r i a n
a n d n o n -ve g eta r i a n f o o d s ) i s so b l a­
tantly v i o l ated not o n l y by those w h o
were a l l owed to e a t meat a t h o m e, but
a l s o by t h e i r own p e o p l e i s not s i m p l y
t h e outcome o f t h e i r weake n i ng power
or of the other m i n o r c u i s i nes that
have ente red the city - it is much more
an effect of global capitalism at work.
M ost i nterest i n g was t h e ro l e o n e
part i c u l a r g ro u p p l ayed i n t h i s g e ner­
a l acce l e rat i o n as it came with the
arrival of g l obal capita l i s m : t h e
I T- p rofes s i o n a l s 58 •
The i r r o l e i n i m p l e m e n t i n g the capi­
t a l ist t h o ughts that are deco d i n g t h e
caste struct u res, those of c u l t u r a l
backg r o u n d a n d m ost of a l I , t h o s e of
Brahmin r u l e, can not be u n d erest i ­
mated.
Hand in hand with the forces of
capital i s m that act i rrespect ive of
the e x i s t i n g social st r u ct u res, t h e
 I T- profess i o n a l s escaped t h e Brahmin
codes m uch m ore rad ica l l y t h a n the
�
�
�Al
��
.
Cl)
�
A n g l o - I n d i a n s before t h e m ever had. L i ke
�
0 0 the A n g l o - I n d ians, they fend off the o r g a n i za-
� . ,....( t i o n of the Brahmins i n the sense that they never
"'
ro ;....>

s bO ro
N
attack the major p o s i t i o n of t h e Brahmins; they
never hoped to take over t h e i r position at t h e
en �
. ,....( . ,....(
center of power. O n t h e contra ry, the IT p rofes-
ro 4-<
0 "'O
�
s i o n a l s e m a n c i pate t h e m s e l ves from t h i s major
ro � . ,....(
;....> � position compos i n g a f l u i d territory t hat has no
. ,....( 4-< ��
;....> eye for t h e r i g i d Brahm in maj ority. They escape
0.. 0 ,....( 4-<
·

u
t h e Brahmin control by compos i n g a m u lt i t u d e
ro ro
u � of f l ows that i s i m m u n e to its d o m i nance. A n d
;....> Cl)
�
� . ,....( i n t h e i r d e n i a l of Brahmin power, in t h e i r rad ical
u
en
ro . ,....( . ,....( e m a n c i pat i o n from the major, they redef i ne d
,..0 Cl) ;....> en soc i ety i n a m ic r o p o l i t i c a l way p rov i d i ng an
0 � � 0 escape from t h i s a l l too r i g i d ' M o l o c h of Social
�
;....>
Cl) �
bO O r g a n i z at i o n ' , as we named it before, for many
Cl) 0..
4-< � � ot h e rs. D e l e u z e notes t h at ' . . . it is a lways o n
. ,....( �
0 ;....> 0 the most dete r r it o ri a l i zed e l e m ent t hat rete rri-

s
;....>
;....>
t o r i a l ization takes p l ace' ( De l euze and G uattari
� � 1 987: 221 ) . T h e IT p rofes s i o n a l s , i n t h e i r i m p l e-
0 ro ro
Cl)
· ,....( � ;....> m e ntat i o n of g l obal capital i s m , f u n c t i o n as t h e
;....>
ro
s ;....> Cl) m ost dete rritor i a l i zed e l em e nt i n the city of
Cl) Cl)
;....> � s B a n g a l o re, a n d it has been accord i n g to t h e i r

� Cl) 0.. ;....> escape t hat the e n t i re city of Bangal ore had
Cl) ro e ntere d i nto a cap i t a l i st metamorphosis, a
"'O u . en,....(
s Cl) en �
N Cl) ro
f l u i d izat i o n .
The lead i n g r o l e t h e IT profes s i o n a l s p l ayed i n
Cl)
� . ,....( ;....> t h i s capita l i st revo l ut i o n is n ic e l y i l l ustrated by
� . ,....(
°'" � . ,....(
0.. o n e person e m p h a s i z i n g how eage r l y p e o p l e
s · ,....( Cl) ro i nt e n d to fol low t h e exa m p l es t h e I T profe s s i o n -
· ,....(

� ;....>
8 �
;....>
u a l s set: " . . . they add m o re v a l u e to someone w h o
is from t h e software i n d ustry, h a rdware i nd us-
. ,....( ro
. ,....( 0
Cl) � ;....> 0
try . . . anyt h i n g i n I T. That is t h e k i n d of trend t hat

� Cl) � is now happe n i n g i n Bangal o re or a l l over I n d i a.

;....> bO ;....> So t h e statu s of a person of a person w h o
;....> �
Cl) . � ,....(
·
works i n t h e IT i n d ustry is bas i c a l l y very h ig h .
�
,....(
,....(
o
"'O "'O "'O Even if he has a very low job, very low prof i l e i n
� Cl)
en ;....> 0 �
that org a n i za t i o n , but j u st be i n g in the I T i n d u s-
en try boosts h i m u p h i g h i n t h e order. . . Maybe h e
ro 0 u ;...
�
Cl)
u .> w i l l g et a better s a l a ry than a person i n the
� s ro � mechan ical i n d u stry, but [ if] he j u st says, ' I am
0 Cl) a secu rity g u ard i n t h e IT i n d ustry' , p e o p l e w i l l
. ,....( Cl) � look at h i m with g reat respect" (03-06-02) .
en
_ en �
Cl) "'O
;....> Cl) ro T h e IT i n d ustry d i d not d ef i n e a new h i e rarchy
Cl) t hat overcodes the caste system. It does n ot
4-< en ,..0 �
offe r a recod i n g . It o n l y d ecodes, takes t h e
0 ro en Cl)
� ro �
e l e m e nts i nto f l i g ht. The e m a n c i pation created
0.. � � 0 by t h e IT i n d ustry o n l y p rov i des routes from
0 �
� .;... ,....(
;....> ro
.> . ,....(
w h i c h to escape t h e codes that had o rdered
s oc i ety ( be it Brahmin codes, codes that come
� bO
u from ot her caste forms, or even codes i nt ro-
Cl) � "'O �
d u ced by c u l t u ra l backg r o u n d ) . It i n c rea s i n g l y
� � � ro
� 4-< ro � becomes t h e point of orientation espec i a l l y for
youn gsters. The c a p i t a l i st d ecod i n g routes
set o u t by the I T p rof e s s i o n a l s paved t h e 73
 way for a g e n e r a l escape of
Brahmin r u l e , t h e caste syst e m ,
a n d a n y other soc i a l code t h at
had d o m i n ated t h e i r l i ve s
befo re.
By t a k i n g a c l oser look at cons u m p­
t i o n , we can c l e a r l y see t h e way the
I T p rofess i o n a l s , i n their re l a t i o n to
the capita l ist forces, have c h a n g e d
the concept o f c o n s u m p t i o n i n a
m i crop o l it ic a l way. M ost of a l l , they
have acce l e rated of t h e local fast
food restau rants ( o r darshini) w h e re
q u i ck (tra d i t i o n a l ) l u nches a re served
rn
as they are stro n g l y attached to these
c:
0
t i g ht-sc h e d u l ed profes s i o n a l s : " It
[the darshini, r. d . ] was h e re l o n g back,
0 but it has been grow i n g rap i d l y d u ri n g
>
Q) t h e l ast 1 0 years. Because, y o u k now,
B a n g a l ore is famous for its IT i nd us­
"'
....
t ry. Those p e o p l e have l ittle t i m e ; they
c:
Q) have to f i n i s h a n d t h ey have to go to
E B a n g a l ore . . . H a n d i n h a n d , they
t h e job. I m portant i s t hat the cost i s
less b e c a u s e t h e re i s l itt l e to m a i n ­
tai n : they s t a n d a t a t a b l e , they eat,
..... they wash t h e i r hands, and they go.
II:
c( W h e reas in hote ls, they have to wait
II.
in a big h a l l a n d they have to reserve
a t a b l e ... " (03-04-02).
But t h e com i n g of t h e I T- i n d ustry i s
a l s o respo n s i b l e f o r t h e ove r a l l i nt ro­
d u c t i o n of so-ca l led 'American ' (fast)
foods that h ave rece ntly reappeared
in the city in g reat q u a nt ity. M ost of
all because I T profe s s i o n a l s create
stro n g e r connect i o n s with A m e rican
te rritories ( A m e r i ca n cit i es,
A m er i can foods) a n d t h e refore l iter­
a l l y i n corpo rate t h e m i n the territo­
ries of B a n g a l o re t u r n i n g it i nto a
g lobal city. " A n d what h a p p e n s i s t hat
the IT i n d u stry, they have got fore i g n ­
e r s com i n g ove r, m ost o f the t i m e t h e
b u s i ness has contacts w i t h com pa­
n i e s in other countri es. A ls o they go
to fore i g n c u ltures and come back
because the transit is t h e re. S o a
person com i ng from I nd ia goes t h e re
a n d eats h a m b u rgers a n d p i zzas, a n d
w h e n h e c o m e s b a c k , h e does n 't w i s h
to have somet h i ng v e r y l ocal. H e
wants to h ave t h e same U . S . stuff.
W h e n h e comes back, he goes to a
p lace where they s e l l t h i s A me r i c a n
or ltal i a n f o o d that h e has had. T h at i s
h ow t h e I T co m m u n ity h a s a n effect
74 o n h o w I nd i a i s cha n g i n g " (03-06-02}.
G l o b a l c a p i ta l i s m , pres i d ed over
by the I T p rof e s s i o n a l s, i n c l u d e s
parts o f t e r r i t o r i e s o f o t h e r
c i t i es , o f A m e r i c a n foods, of
A m e r i ca n c i t i es, of I t a l i a n
food s w i t h i n t h e territory of
b r i n g t h e s e other territories to
t h e c i t y of B a n g a l ore travers i n g
i t s g r i d , q u est i o n i n g i t s o r g a n i ­
z at i o n , s m o ot h i n g it.
As these I T profe s s i o n a l s so stro n g l y
e m a n c i pate t h e m s e l ves f r o m t h e
struct u res t hat captured t h e c ity, they
i nst i g at e a l l sorts of m i noritarian
beco m i ngs, all sorts of ways to evade
the major organ i z at i o n . Becom i n g ­
A m erican, beco m i ng-Ita l i a n , becom­
i ng - b u s y . . . they are creat i ve in sett i n g
u p z o n e s t h ro u g h wh i c h escape i s
poss i b l e. Zones that are hard to i d e n ­
tify s i n c e t h e i r m a i n goal i s to o p e n
u p t h e c o d e d s paces created by the
caste system, cu ltural backgro u n d ,
a n d m ost o f a l l , by Brahmin r u l e .
T h e m i n o r i t a r i a n becom i n g s do not
s i m p l y break d own a n u m be r of
A bst ract R u l es that d ef i n e the order
of the real. O n t h e cont ra ry. They are
m ost capable of deterritor i a l i z i n g an
entire soci ety. I n the case of the IT
p rofess i o n a l s, for exam p l e , we see
that the cons u m pt i o n patterns they
i ntroduced have p l ayed a c r u c i a l role
i n the way t h e city of B a n g a l ore has
metamorphosed over t h e last ten
years. By i n c l u d i ng A m e rican foods,
I t a l i a n foods, a n d the local darshini i n
t h e i r part i c u l a r territori es, they
i ns c r i bed these foods with t h e i r s i g ­
n at u re. They d e f i n e d t h e m n ot a s
o p posed to the way t h e Brahmins h a d
o r g a n i z e d food, but a s a way to f e n d
off t h i s Brahmin o r g a n i z a t i o n . I n
B a n g a l ore, eat i ng a p i zz a i s a p o l it i cal
act, n ot so m u c h i n its refe rence to
t h e U.S.A. ( o r Italy), but rather i n its
n ot- be i n g-a-part-of t h e r i g i d caste
m e n u s, ideas of c u l t u ral backg ro u n d ,
a n d Brahmin ru les.
Revo l u t i onary o r m i n oritarian becom­
i n gs, s u c h as the I T profes s i o n a l s i n
Bangal ore, open u p a n o r g a n i zat i o n .
They c reate a n abstract l i n e t hat
al l owed others to e m a n c i pate t h e m ­
s e l ves p a r a I l e l to t h e m .
M ost str i k i n g ly, the I T i n d u stry, i n i t s
beco m i n g - bu sy, becom i ng - I tal i a n , o r
beco m i n g - A m e r ican, i s m i n oritarian
i n its denial of t h e d ef i n it i o n of con­
s u m pt i o n that was central to the
terr itory of t h e Brahmin majority: the
central pos i t i o n of vegeta r i a n i s m .
T h e e m a n c i p at i o n s t h at h ave
been set i n to m ot i o n by t h e
I T i n d u stry a n d t h at h a v e q u es­
t i o n e d t h e very core of the
Brahmin i d ent ity h ave taken
p l ac e in a m u c h s h orter p e r i o d
o f t i m e t h a n t h o s e t h at are c u r­
rent l y l i be r at i n g t h e West (where
the m ost rad ical beco m i ngs i n terms
of con s u m pt i o n h ave been i n p rocess
s i n ce the V i cto r i a n Era). They have
become revolutionary in the way they
have i m p l i c i t l y overth rown the m ost
e l e me ntary d ef i n it i o n of food as it
was set by the Brahmin majority
wh ere vegeta r i a n i s m was l ocated at
the center of power a n d n o n vegetari­
an food was defined acco r d i n g to i t.
T h e reason for t h i s 'Umwertung al/er

Werle ', as N ietzsche cou l d have
c a l l e d it ( N ietzsche 1 967) , was s i m p l y
t hat i n contrast to t h e Brahmins, t h e
I T departments acted largely i rrespec­
t i ve of the h i e rarchy they ass u m e d ;
t h e I T departments do n ot care about
the caste system - they h i re p e o p l e
from a l l c u lt u r a l backgrounds. A n d
t h us, they absorb veget a r i a n s a n d
p e o p l e w h o a r e n ot (strictly} vegetari­
a n . They s e l ect based o n an 'achieved
status ' (educat i o n ) i nstead of a n
'ascribed status ' (caste ) . W i t h regard
to the n u m be r of non-vegetarian people
in h i s office, one I T profes s i o n a l
remem bered t h e s it u at i o n i n h i s
off ice: " T h e re a r e a b o u t twe nty-fo u r
o f u s : o n l y t w o o r t h ree o f u s a r e veg;
t h e rest are n o n -veg " (03-06-02) .
I T prof e s s i o n a l s d o not d ef i n e
veget a r i a n foods a s m a j o r a s d o
t h e Brahmins. B ut n e i t h e r d o they
define n o n -vegeta r i a n foods as major
(in b i nary opposition to t h e Brahmin
d ef i n it i o n s ) . As with t h e A n g l o ­
I n d ians, t h e i r c o n s u m p t i o n pattern i s
i m p l ic i t l y an act o f defiance agai nst
t h e Brahmin majority. B ut it was never
a i med at a recod i n g , at t h e c reat i o n of
a new major p os i t i o n , a new cod ifi ca­
t i o n of t h e real with t h e m s e l ves o n
t o p . O n t h e contrary, e v e n m o re s o
than t h e A n g l o - I nd i a n s, t h e I T- p ro­
f e s s i o n a l s d o n ot accept t h e
Brahmin o p p o s i t i o n betwe e n v e g
a n d n o n -veg a s a w h o l e. The I T
profes s i o n a l s faithf u l l y f o l low t h e
capita l ist l aws t hat d o n ot pres c r i b e
any cod i ng, any reco d i ng , or overcod­
i n g . Once a g a i n , we s h o u l d stress
t h at cap ita l i s m i s essent i a l l y a decod­
ing force. A force t h at takes every­
thing to f l i g ht, t h at t u r n s everything
i nto f l ows. A n d t h u s , it i s n ot o n l y t h e
I T profess i on a l s , but a l s o t h e p e o p l e
o f B a n g a l o re t hat fol low t h e i r tracks
(especia l l y the you ngsters ) , that are
n ot so m uch arg u i n g a g a i n st Brahmin
l aws, b u t are rather becoming imper­
ceptible to t h e m .
T h e I T-profess i o n a l s e v e n b r o u g ht
about d i sobed i e n ce w it h i n t h e
Brahmin com m u n ity itself, f o r here
too, the opposition between veg a n d
n o n -veg i s becom i n g less a n d less
recog n i zed. Even t h e Brahmins them­
s e l ves are becom i ng - m i noritarian as
the defiant Brahmin boy we tal ked
with i l l u st rated. The cap i t a l i st forces
a n d the I T p rofe s s i o n a l s s u r e l y d i d
not tu rn every i nd i v i d ua l wit h i n t h e
c i t y o f B a n g a lo re i nto a convi nced
c a r n i vo re, but they did attack the
e n t i re society in rad i c a l l y overth row­
i ng the major l aws t h at organized it.
T h e c a p i t a l i st forces as i m p l e­
m e nted by t h e I T p rof e s s i o n a l s
d ecode t h e e nt i re c i t y of
B a n g a l ore i n t h e i r d e n i a l of t h e
standard s that structu red i t . A n
I T profess i on a l exp l a i n e d : " A n d what
i s happe n i ng n ow, the new class a l s o
wants to try n on -veg. T hey
want to try d ifferent t h i ngs.
T h e re i s somet h i ng that p re-
vents me from h a v i n g it, but most
people h ave been a d j u s t i n g to n o n ­
v e g a l so. Some of my f r i e n d s . . . they
want to see h ow it i s out of c u r i o s ity.
S o m ost of t h e m t h ey h ave become
n on -veg a l so. Even though they w o n 't
have it at home, whe n ever t h ey eat
out with f r i e n d s , they w i l l take it"
(03-06-02) .
The co m i n g o f g l obal capita l i s m h a s
rad i c a l l y redef i ned t h e c i t y of
B a n g a l o re over t h e l ast d ecade, m o r­
p h i ng t h e m id - s i z e d , i nd ustrial l ocal
city of B a n g a l o re i nto the h i g h -tech
m etropo l is it i s today. It instigated a
multitude of changes. The com i n g of
about o n e h u ndred TV stat i o n s i n f l i ct­
i n g t h e p e o p l e of Bang a l o re with
i m ages from all over t h e wor l d ; t h e
new h i g hways t h at h a v e g i ven a major
boost to auto m o b i l e s a l es a n d t h u s ,
to transportat i o n wit h i n t h e city; t h e
com i ng of the major h otel c h a i n s a n d
t h e i r f i ve s t a r resta u ra nts, etc. Yet
m ost of al I, it was t h e territory of food
that, in its metamorphosis, arti c u l ated
these c h a nges. N ot so much by m ov­
i ng i nto rad i ca l l y new d i re ct i o n s
itse lf, b u t rat h e r b y b reak i n g u p t h e
major c o d e s to w h i c h t h e d i et h a d
b e e n s u bj ected . T h e capita l ist forces,
as art i c u l ated by the IT p rofess i o n a l s ,
l i berated f o o d from its c h a i n s para l l e l
to t h e way it I i be rated t h e c ity.
75
ON MAJ OR AN D M I NOR D I E TA R Y NORMS
A N 0 I� lvl S A N ll T H E ll I E T
A r r i v i n g i n t h e city of Lyo n , we l l -ed ucated but pen n i less,
a yo u n g M oroccan man f o u n d h i mself forced to b u y h i s
m e a l s a t major fast food chai ns. N o w, several years later,
h e i s sorry: " I knew that was n ot rea l l y good food. B ut at
t h at moment t h e p r o b l e m was m on ey. To go to a restaurant
a n d to pay 20 e u ros for a m e a l was out of t h e q u est i o n
t h e n . B ut n o w . . . I wi l l n o t go to M c D o n a l d 's. That i s out o f
the q uest i o n . That i s n ot g o o d food " (07-23-02) . I n t h i s s h o rt
passage, t h e young m a n t e l l s some i nterest i n g t h i n g s t h at
a g ree with what a you n g m a n i n Boston s a i d a l s o with
respect to choos i n g betwee n fast food resta u rants a n d
ot h e r restaurants: " It's k i n d of ha rd to e a t healthy. I t ' s very
cheap to eat h o r r i b l e " ( 1 1 -08-0 1 ) .
T h e statements n o t o n l y a g ree because both o f t h e m seem
to d i s l i ke fast food, but all t h e m ore so because in creat­
i n g s u c h a strong d ifference betwee n a fast food p l ace a n d
a n o t h e r restau rant, they h ave i ncorporated s i m i l a r
' n o r m s ' on t h e basis o f w h i c h they d e v i s e t h e i r d i ets.
N o r m s that set the standards for w h at one co n s i d ­
e r s good t o eat. That p o i nt t o a concept o f good.
N o r m s through w h i c h they form u l ate t h e i r d i et
w h i l e t h e i r d i et expresses it. The young man from Lyo n
a p p l i e s a n o r m t h at says t h e h a m b u rg e r h e eats a t Q u i c k
(a Fre n c h f a s t f o o d c h a i n ) or M c Do n a l d 's i s n o t as g o o d
for the b o d y as a 20-e u ro meal s e rved to h i m a t a reg u l a r
restaurant. T h e young m a n from B oston i m p l ied i n h i s
state ment t h at d o n uts at D u n k i n ' D o n uts or p i zzas from
t h e p i zzeria n ext door would benefit h i m less than the
m e a l s served at t h e restaurants downtown.
A n ot h e r young man, in B a n g a l ore t h i s t i me , s h ared with
u s t h e h i g h est n o r m at i ve p r i n c i p l es of his Bl'ah m i n com­
m u n ity i n terms of d i et: " We t h i n k food i s m atter; then
w h e n we eat, this i s t h e way o u r m i nd g rows ; this i s the
way our m i n d a l s o eats. So, they t h i n k if they pre pare it
with l ove, with which m e nt a l ity they p repare it (t h e i r food)
t h e same w i l l b e in our m i n d s a l so. So they say - and you
rea l l y can see t h i s in I nd i a n fam i l ies - it i s actu a l l y t h e
p e r s o n w h o i s prepa r i n g , t h e mother: h e r m e nt a l ity w i l l be
eaten by p e o p l e in t h e house. It i s h e r food we are eat i ng ,
w h i c h i s prepared f r o m h er. S o , the mental ity f r o m h e r a s
s h e was prepa r i n g food, t h a t i s what w e eat" (02-12-02).
H e re, too, the d i et i s s u bj ected to n o r m s ; it i s structu red
accord i n g to t h e m . The norms t h i s man uses m i g ht be very
d ifferent from the o n es used in the other two cases above
(he g i ves very d ifferent norms by w h i c h h e d e s i g n s h i s
d i et), but they are norms a l l t h e same.
T h e above cases suggest t h at d i et i s organ ized accord i n g
t o part i c u l a r p r i nc i p l e s that d raw comparisons a m o n g t h e
d ifferent cons u m a b l es o n e e n c o u nters. P r i n c i p l e s t h at " . . .
express d i s c r i m i nations o f q ua l it i e s i n conformity w i t h t h e
p o l a r o p p o s i t i o n o f a positive a n d a negative" (Cang u i l h e m
1 991 : 240) . P r i n c i p l e s t h a t d e f i n e t h e matter as e i t h er food
or poison as S p i noza wou l d say. P r i n c i p l e s that code t h e
food w e encou nter, t hat sets f o r t h t h e s paces on t h e b a s i s
o f w h i c h we assem b l e o u r d i ets. When we c o n s i d e r the
q u est i o n ' w h at i s good to eat? ' , our v i ews are
struct u red accord i n g to a n u m b e r of dietary
functions that a l ways a l ready g i ve some v a g u e
f o r m to t h e act i o n s to c o m e . We are a l ways a l ready
offered a c h o i ce from a fixed set of poss i b i l it i es.
Part i c u l a r d i etary f u n ct i o n s most certa i n l y d o n ot make
refe ren ce to some k i n d of transcendental o r absol ute
knowledge. On the contrary, they are relative in the sense
t h at they are com posed o n t h e bas i s of a d i etet i cs t h at
works between, a d i etet ics that m a kes con nect i o n s
betwee n t h e d ifferent e l ements (whether physical o r
cog n i t i ve). D i etet ic f u n ct i o n s that m i ght cause d ifferent
p e o p l e to d raw s i m i l a r conc l u s i o n s. As with the m a n from
Lyon a n d the m a n from B oston , they d e r i ve s i m i l a r norms
accord i ng to which the d i et i s assem b led. B ut w h e n
d i etary f u n c t i o n s come from v e r y d ifferent d i etet ics,
whether i n articu l a t i o n o r i n composition, they produce a
d ifferent pers pect i ve on the d i et, t h ey produce d ifferent
events or even d ifferent rea l i t i e s all together.
These part i c u l a r d i etary f u nctions create a comparison
betwee n a fast food dish a n d a dish from a reg u l a r restau ­
r a n t based sol ely on how ' h ealthy' t h e s e d i s hes are
bel i eved to be. In the case of the Bra h m i n m a n , an i m p l i c it
d ifference i s created between t h e d i shes prepared with
l ove and those n ot prepared with l ove, t h u s based s o l e l y
on h o w 'we l l ' t h e d i shes conform to the Brah m i n
body/m i n d . A t t h e m o m e n t a food i s captured by a
n o r m , it i s not exper i e n ced f ro m a m u lt i p l i c i ty of
p e r s pect i ves (taste, f ra g ra n c e , a p pearance, how it
accom p a n i e s the conversat i o n , how we l l it goes
w i t h t h e w i n e , etc . ) , b ut accord i n g to particular
functions t h at dete rrito r i a l i z e those foods; t h at i s,
by i nterpret i n g t h e m a n d con c l u d i n g t h at o n e food
fits the norm w h i l e the ot h e r does n ot. The part i c u ­
l a r foodst uffs e n t e r i nto a conversat i o n that m a kes o n e
d ifferentiate betwe e n t h e m o n l y o n t h e basis o f t h ese
f u nctions. They are reduced to a not i o n of d ifference:
d ifferences wit h i n t h e m s e l ves and d ifferences from oth e r
prod ucts. " T h e y a r e grasped s o l e l y f r o m t h e po i nt o f v i ew
of t h e i r general ity. They are s u b s u med by a general i d e a or
norm, formed by a d o u b l e system of s i m i l a r ity ( i n t r i n s i c
and ext r i n s i c : of t h e orga n i s m to itself a n d to oth e r s ) "
( M a s s u m i 1 992: 9 6 ) . Matter i s regulated accord i n g to a n u m ­
ber o f f u n ct i o n s that act u a l i z e i t , t hat, for exa m p l e , p e n e ­
t rate t h e f o o d with part i c u l a r n o r m s . T h at mate r i a l i z e it
accord i n g to n o rms. N o rms t hat, for exa m p l e , c o n c l u d e
t hat f o o d served i n a reg u l a r restau rant i s better than food
served at M c D o n a l d 's ; o r norms that c o n c l u d e t hat food
prepared by a l o v i n g person i s better than food p re pared
by a m a l i c i o u s one.
Cang u i l he m c o n c l u d e s from this t h at norms are cultural or
anthropological experien ces. Though we a g ree with h i s
a n a l y s i s t hat once a g a i n stresses t h e relational n at u re of
d i etary norms, these concepts m i g ht lead one to bel i eve
t hat norms are b o u n d to spat i a l and t e m poral u n its, w h i c h 77
<:-· is n ot necessary. Of cou rse, we c o u l d
-
"'
Q) c o m e u p w i t h exa m p les i n w h i c h t h e
0 norms u s e d by t h e Brah m i n m a n from
" Bangal o re res e m b l e t h e norms used
0
0 by other Brahm i ns. Exa m p les that
Cl
(/) s u p port a ' c u lt u r a l i st' pers pect i ve.
But in n o way does t h i s mean that
every B ra h m i n chooses h is d i et based
o n 'the Bra h m i n pre m ises' o r that t h i s
>
way o f asse m b l i ng a d i et i s restr icted
l­
a:: to B ra h m i n com m u n it i es. O r even t hat
<! t h i s part i c u l a r Bra h m i n man a lways
a.
d e s i g n s h i s d i et in a s i m i l ar way. Not
at a l l. We could argue that h i s d i etary
norms fol low from a r i g i d d ef i n it i o n of
the sexes in that h e be l i eves t hat t h e
l o v e o f the one prepa r i n g ( t h e woman)
for those c o ns u m i n g (the f a m i ly)
s h o u l d be expressed t h r o u g h food. I n
t h i s sense, h i s n o t i o n rese m b l e s that
of o n e f o u n d i n t h e m ov i e Tam po po
( lt a m i 1 986) in w h i c h a woman o n h e r
deathbed f u lfi l l s h e r u l t i mate o b l iga­
tion - prepa r i n g a m e a l for h e r fam i l y.
We c o u l d a l s o see a re l a t i o n between
the connection h e makes betwee n h i s
d i et a n d h i s caste a n d t h e way s oc i o l ­
o g i sts l i ke B o u r d i e u ( Bo u r d i e u 1 979)
make rather r i g i d con nect i o n s
betwee n food a n d t h e s o c i a l c l asses
of E u rope.
We b e l i eve t h at the n o r m s by
w h i c h we ass e m b l e our d i ets
a l ways travel w it h i n i m m a n e nce.
They a p p e a r i n t h e eve nt, as we've
seen in the exa m p l e s above, and from
t h e re t h ey s pread o ut. E x p l i c i t l y or
i m p l i c it ly. Through the voice of o n e's
n e i g h bor, the voice of t e l e v i s i o n , t h e
v o i c e o f a book, or f o o d . . . T h ey
s p read i n mater i a l i z i n g matter
with a l a n g uage by w h i c h partic­
u l a r d i etary f u n ct i o n s c a n be
a p p l i e d . T h e y f o r m 'trad i t i o n s i n
d i etet ics' creat i n g d i etary streams
that f l ow. Trad i t i o n s that run t h r o u g h
a m u lt it u d e o f events prod u c i n g a
tan g l e of l i nes of t h o u g ht or p r i n c i p l e s
o f c l as s i f i cat i o n . T h e y pop u p i n c o n ­
versat i o n s a l l o v e r the w o r l d creat i n g
t h e s paces o f i nterpretat i o n accord­
ing to w h i c h a meal comes i nto b e i n g .
D i etetics: a m u lt it u d e o f syste m s of
knowledge Fo ucault wou l d h ave con­
s i d e re d being a part of t h e " . . . posi­
t i ve domains of knowledge" ( Foucault
78 1 970: 365) s i nce its p r i nc i p l e s o f c l as-
·�
u m a ke money). Each a n d every t i me ,
0 d i etetics creates v e r y a r b itrary n o r m s
rJJ
rJJ
Cl)
rJJ
rJJ
Cl)
u life ( Foucault 1 988: 99), a term t hat aptly
0 fits o u r wo r l d today i n t hat it s h ows
�
0-
sificat i o n are n ot b u i lt on natural l aw
or physical pre m i s e s (as they are so
often wit h i n the sci ences), but on
those very t u r b i d concepts s u c h as
' he a l t h i ness' a n d ' hy g i e n e ' .
D i etetics i s b u i lt o n t h e c reat i o n of
norms, on t h e creat i o n of 'the n o r­
m a l ' , 'the healthy', 'the good ' , t hat are
d e e p l y rooted i n s o c i a l , c u lt u ra l , a n d
p o l i t i c a l processes. It does n ot have
to a i m at a c h i e v i n g the n o r m a l (or t h e
healthy, o r t h e g o o d ) , but it n ecessari­
l y re lates to these concepts s i n ce it
moves accord i n g to them. I t con­
structs t h e social, t h e cu ltural, a n d
t h e p o l i t i c a l , w h i l e it i s constructed
by them. For in creat i n g a d i scursive
construct i o n of h u man society,
d i ete t i c s does not s i m p l y
d e sc r i b e w h at w e eat. I n t h e cre­
ation of d i etary norms, it a l s o
s e rves to o r g a n i z e w h atever we
eat. I n o n e c a s e , a d i etary norm pro­
c l a i m s that a M c D on a l d 's meal i s n ot
as good as a 20-e uro rest a u rant meal.
In another, a ( d ifferent) d i etet i c norm
p roc l a i m s that t h e food p re pared by
t h e people who love u s ( o u r fam i l y
mem bers) i s better t h a n t h e food pre­
pared by those who have n o fee l i n g s
for u s (for i n stance, the street ven ­
dors, t h e p e o p l e t h a t s e l l food to
t h at c l a i m to be the j u st u n it o f c o m ­
parison, that d i st i n g u i s h e s betwee n
t h e r i g ht a n d t h e wrong t h u s prov i d i n g
t o o l s t o form u l ate a d i et that s u its
one best. To create a part i c u l ar aes­
thetics of life in w h i c h norms are
a p p l i e d in creat i n g a ' m ost d e s i r a b l e '
d i et. I n Fo u c a u l t's st u d y o f the G reeks
a n d the ro l e of d i et i n their soci ety h e
concept u a l ized d i etet ics as an art of
that t h e d i et is used to create a n d
g i ve form to l ife.
The m u l t i t u d e of d i etary trad i ­
t i o n s , t h e m u l t i t u d e o f d i etary
f u n ct i o n s p ro d u c e s s e r i e s of
n o r m s by m e a n s of w h i c h a d i et
can be assem b l e d . S o m e of t h e m
were appea l i n g to many p e o p l e (con­
s i der h ow ideas of h ot a n d cold food
i nf l uence d i et), a n d others were less
so. But i rrespect i ve of t h e number of
p e o p l e w h o may u s e it, a d i st i nct i o n
wi l l be m a d e betwee n t w o kinds of
d i etetics t hat we w i l l ca l l ' m ajor
d i etet i c s ' a n d ' m i n o r d i etet i c s ' .
Two d ifferent ways o f t h i n k i n g about
d i et that are n ot based o n t h e s paces
t h ey occupy ( n ot based o n a c u lt u r a l
or anthropo l o g i ca l d iffe rence), b u t
r a t h e r o n that they c reate space. Two
d ifferent ways of t h i n k i n g health. Two
d ifferent ways i n w h i c h d i etary n o r m s
a r e prod uced.
B lvl A �J 0 I� ll I E T E T I C S 0 I� S TAT E
M a j o r d i etetics i s d ef i n ed m a i n l y i n its re l at i o n to
t h e State-fo r m , t h e a p parat u s of organ i zat i o n as it
a l ways a l ready e x i sts. F o r t h i s reaso n , D e l e u z e a n d
G u attari w o u l d n ot hes itate to refer to major d i etetics as
part of the State sciences or the Royal sciences ( De l euze
and G uattari 1 987: p l ateau 1 2) . They f o l low t h e arg u m e nt of
Fou c a u l t who, in st u d y i n g t h e h i story of t h e soci a l contro l ,
g ave s o m e i nterest i n g exa m p l e s i n w h i c h d i etetics p roved
to be an i m portant part of the State-form : " M ed i ca l s u p e r­
v i s i o n . . . is i nsepara b l e from a w h o l e s e r i e s of other con­
t r o l s : the m ii itary control over t h e d eserters, the f i scal
control over c o m m o d it i e s , ad m i n i st rat ive control over
remed ies, rat ions, d i sappearan ces, c u res, deaths, s i m u la­
tions" ( Foucault 1 995: 1 44). Fou c a u l t s hows t hat d i etary
norms p ro d u ced by major d i etetic trad i t i o n s can be
stro n g l y con n ected to systems of control. T h at is, the
norms produced by major d i etetics are n ot to be seen as a
separate a p pa ratus of conf i n e ment, but as part of a
" s e r i es of cont i n uous contro l " ( Deleuze 1 995: 1 74) that
h o u ses a State-logic. Major d i etetics i s organ ized accord­
ing to the State-form. It h o u ses an order t h r o u g h w h i c h
t h e N a t i o n State A N D s u p ranat i o n a l organizations AN D
m u l t i n at i o n a l s A N D N GO's AN D any articu lation of t h e
State-form can real i z e i d eas o n bio-political production as
Fo u c a u l t c a l l s it. He meant that major d i etetics is part of a
s e r i es of i m m a n e nt contro l s accord i n g to w h i c h h u man
beings are s u p posed to l i ve t h e i r l i ves. U nd e rstood in
this way, d i etetics i s part of a system t h at prod uces
a n d re g u l ates c u sto m s , h a b i ts, and norms
not i n d e pe n d e n t l y f ro m o n e anot h e r, b ut in accor­
d a n c e with o n e another. It i s part of the general
organ izat i o n of what Deleuze (fo l l ow i n g t h e ideas of
B u r roughs) ca l l s a ' Control Societ y ' , or what H a rdt a n d
N e g r i c a l l ' E m p i re ' .
The l i n k betwee n t h e State-form and m a j o r d i etetics can
b e seen m ost apparently in terms of Law, one of t h e
i n st r u ments o f repressive codification . H a rdt and N e g r i
c o n c l u d e t h at wit h i n E m p i re " . . . the r u l e o f Law cont i n ues
to p l ay a central role i n the context of contempo rary pas­
sage: r i g ht re m a i n s effect ive a n d . . . becomes proc e d u re "
( Hardt and Negri 2000: 26) . The c u r rent deve l o p m e nts i n t h e
E u ropean U n i o n regard i n g p o l icy w it h i n t h e m e m b e r c o u n ­
t r i e s p resent a n i nterest i n g contem porary c a s e o f the
power of l aw. The m ost fam i l i a r exa m p l e of the way t h e
E u ropean U n i o n a p p l ies its i d eas o n h e a l t h i n o r d e r to d if­
fere n t i ate betwee n a good d i et a n d a poor one is t h e i r
i nterference w i t h t h e product i o n o f cheese. A n o r m with
g reat consequen ces to a city l i ke Lyo n . Many market sal es­
men, many restaurant owners wou l d sad l y agree with one
of t h e i r col l e a g u e s who concl udes: " T h e re are q u ite some
cheeses t hat are n ot al l owed to be produced anym ore
s i n c e the way they are produced i s agai nst the E u ropean
pol icy" (07-1 2-02a). The w h it e cheeses, w h i c h are made
from raw m i l k a n d widely p roduced a n d c o n s u m e d i n a n
a r o u n d Lyo n , a r e d e f i n e d as ' bad' accord i n g to t h e d i etary
ll I E T E T I C S
norms set forth by the E u ropean U n i o n . Accord i n g to
t h e i r d i etet i cs, t h ese cheeses form a g ood bree d i n g
g ro u n d f o r the l i ste r i a bacter i a. A lt h o u g h it i s very rare ly
found, a n d if it i s , it i s even m ore u nc o m m o n t hat people
become i l l from it, t h e E u ropean U n i o n stands by these
norms con v i n ced that for b i d d i n g t h e production of raw
m i l k cheeses is m ore benef i c i a l .
T h e re i s c o n s i d e r a b l e protest agai nst t h e s e n ew laws.
Orga n i zat i o n s s u c h as Slow Food or the Confederation
Paysanne of Jose Bove s e i z e every opportun ity to attack
t h i s E u ropean U n i o n po l i cy. They d o n ot q uest i o n these
norms of t h e E u ropean U n i o n by i nt rod u c i n g other r u l es ,
by offe r i n g 'scientific e v i d e nce t h at p roves t h e m wro n g ' ;
t h ey q u est i o n t h e n o r m s t h e m s e l ve s . They q uest i o n
t h e verd ict (past e u r i z e all cheeses!) ret u rned by t h e
E u ropean U n i o n . A n d it i s n ot o n l y c h e e s e t h a t d o e s n 't
c o m p l y with the norms of modern d i etet ics accord i n g to
t h e N a t i o n State. The restau rant owner sad ly cont i n ues,
"Also, we feel as if they are not too fond of the fact that
we eat all these organs - probably because of h e a l t h
reaso n s " (07-1 2-02a).
E m p i re, the m u lt i p l i c ity of a p paratus of contro l , i s
act i v e l y entan g l ed not o n l y i n t h e d i etary syst e m s
i n E u rope o r i n t h e West. I n C h i n a a l so, t h e State
a p parat u s has g reat f a i t h in the n o r m s c reated by
major d i etet i cs t h at d ef i n e w h at a good o r bad d i et
i s . As o n e local p o l i t i c i a n confessed, " S i nce t h e 1 980's,
the govern ment has e nacted several laws, for exa m p l e , the
'food law', a n d t h e q u a l ity of the food l aw, and t h e i n s pec­
t i o n of the food law to make s u re that the sett i n g s in t h e
k i t c h e n s m eet the req u i re m e nts o f t h e l aw. T h e y s h o u l d g e t
some l i cense. O n e part ( of t h e law, r. d . ) i s on al l o w i n g the
reta i l ers to sell some small foods, t h e s m a l l e r eateri es.
They can o n l y s e l l t h e i r food at a specific t i m e of the d ay,
for exa m p le, betwee n 8 and 1 0 o ' c l oc k. They can n ot s e l l the
foods at oth e r t i mes. O n ly the p e o p l e that have a l i cense
can sell t h e food. The second part i s o n t h e q u a l ity of the
food for t h e c h i l d re n . In t h e m i d d l e schoo ls, i n the p r i m ary
schools, and the u n i ve r s i t i es, we s h o u l d h ave the balanced
food with enough nutrition to s u p po rt t h e u n d e r-ag e d "
(05-1 7-01 ) .
The q uest i o n t h at soon comes to m i n d i s why the N a t i o n
State wou l d b e i nterested o n l y i n form u l at i ng norms
regard i n g health g i ven t h e fact t h at t h e re are s o many
ot h e r ways of s u b j ect i n g a d i et to a n o r m . C o n s i d e r i n g the
exa m p l e s of t h e E u ropean p o l icy regard i n g raw m i l k
cheese a n d t h e C h i nese Food Law, o n e beg i n s t o wonder
w hy ot her norms regard i n g d i et - social norms, p o l i t i c a l
norms, or et h i cal norms - a re n ot of i nterest to the Nation
State. In d i scuss i ng the q u a l it i es of his own Longg i ng tea,
a tea farmer in H a n g z h o u descri bed h i s produ ct in terms
of "the taste, the fragrance, t h e col or, and the shape"
(04-28-01a). W hy i s n 't t h e State i nterested i n these norms?
The an swer to this q u estion i s d r i ve n by the p o l itics of
economy that exp l a i n s why tod ay, because of t h e i ncreas- 79
C'· q u est for s u rv i v a l . A u n ity that wou l d
-
"'
Q) n ot be ava i l e d by hav i n g a p o p u l at i o n
0 t hat e nj oys a tasty a n d c o p i o u s meal,
-0 but i n h a v i n g a popu lation that
0
0 p refers a so-ca l led healthy d i et
"'
en (accord i n g to t h e i r p r i n c i p l es of c l as­
- s i f i cation that i s bel i eved to h e l p t h e
"'
.s:: p e o p l e become stronger. The Nation
$
State needs a strong a n d f i t popu la­
>
t i o n in order to keep the m e d i ca l
l­
a: costs l ow, i n order to k e e p product i o n
<! high.
D.
The State a p paratus i s n ot i nterested
in g astron o m i c a l s c i e n ce s ; it is i nter­
ested i n the prod uct i o n of d i etary
f u n c t i o n s a n d propo s i t i o n s regard i n g
h e a l t h a n d hyg i e n e. I s t h e re a State
a p paratus t hat has produced or
e m b raced a f u n ct i o n that sets a norm
with respect to t h e tast i ness of a
d i et? O r that has d e manded p u n i s h ­
m e nt f o r those w h o s e l I food that
tastes bad? Has t h e re ever been a
Law that concerned fragrance except
with regard to t h e fragrance of rotte n
food, w h i c h i s n o t a l l owed to be s o l d
b e c a u s e it bord e rs on i s s u e s of
h e a l t h ? N ever! T h e State is i nterest­
ed in p u b l i c health, in creat i n g the
best health for t h e g reatest n u m ber.
O r, in the words of George Rosen,
"The protect i o n a n d pro mot i o n of the
health a n d we lfare of its c i t i z e n s i s
c o n s i dered to be one of t h e most
i m portant f u n ct i o n s of the modern
state" (Rosen 1 958: 1 7) . N ot the taste,
n ot the f rag rance, nor any other way
i n w h i c h we m i g ht be affected by what
i n g costs of health i n s urance a n d t h e we eat. C reat i ng a concept of health
reduced expe n d i t u res o n welfare, the based o n its own needs i s what i s
State is not i nt e rested so m u c h i m portant to t h e State.
i n a ' h a p py ' o r sat i sf i ed p o p u l a­ The State does n ot use d i etetics o n l y
t i o n , but i n w h at major d i etet i c s to s u pp ress, but m ore often it m a kes
c o n s i d e r s a ' h e a l t hy ' po p u l at i o n : u s e of it i n a pos i t i ve way; t h ro u g h
o n e t h at i n add i t i o n to cost i n g w hat Fou c a u l t cal l s ' n o r m a l i z at i o n ' .
l e s s, prod uces more. I n expla i n i ng N or m a l i z a t i o n i s t h e second way i n
its p reference for a h e a lthy d i et, we w h i c h major d i etetics i s re l ated t o t h e
can n ot escape t h e m e rcant i l e d ef i n i­ State-form .59 H ere, d i etetics i s part of
t i o n of the State-form t h at focuses o n t h e mac h i nes of normalizing codifica­
the maintenance o f its unity i n its tion. Pos i t i ve m a c h i nes that c reate.

59 Rosen refers to this concept of normalization as 'social medicine', w h i ch he considers d iffer­

ent from that of the concept of ' medical p o l i ce' which is more or less i n l i ne with our use of d i sci­
p l i ne (Rosen 1 974) Social medicine i s a technique he sees emerg i ng with the coming of the mod­
ern State referring to Thomas Jefferson who claimed that sick populations were the product of
sick pol itical systems. Jefferson embodies the ideas of progress in h i s conclusion that despotism
80 produces d i sease whereas democracy produces l i berated health ( Rosen 1 952).

·-,
, ,111m "'�
" ""-'� "' , • 1"', k>'" � ,,,
T h e creat i o n of t h e n o r m a l has
a l ways b e e n the stro n g est
d e s i re of t h e State-fo r m ; n o r­
m a l i zat i o n g i ves t h e State-fo r m
t h e too l s o f org a n i z at i o n .
S u ppres s i o n t h r o u g h l aw i s o n l y a
marg i n a l conseque nce of t h e m u c h
m o re i m portant process o f n o r m a l i za­
t i o n . N or m a l izat i o n is p r i m a r i l y
respon s i b l e f o r writ i n g t h e h i st o r i e s
o f the State-form a n d t h e m a j o r
d i etet i cs - a h i story from w h i c h we
can see that both h ave a l ways been
act ive w it h i n one another.
H i sto r i e s of State-forms reveal that
t h e re i s a general need for the c re­
ation of n o r ms. Cang u i l he m a l ready
n oted, " I n terms of n o r m a l i z a t i o n ,
t h e re i s no d ifference between t h e
b i rt h o f g r a m m a r i n France i n t h e sev­
enteenth century and the esta b l i s h ­
m e n t o f the m e t r i c system at t h e e n d
o f t h e e i g hteenth" (Cang u i l h em 1 991 :
244). I n both cases, he notes t h at t h e
norm expressed was, i n fact, a p o l i t i ­
cal n o r m . Both the b i rt h of g ra m m a r
a n d the esta b l i s h m e nt o f t h e metric
system are part of a n a pparatus that
p rom oted t h e " ... ad m i n i strative cen­
t r a l i zation for t h e benefit of royal
power" (Cang u i l h e m 1 99 1 : 244). The rise
of major d i etetics a n d its i nte rest i n
p u b l i c health s h o u l d a l s o b e seen
from this perspect ive; it was part of
an apparatus t hat p ro moted t h e
ad m i n i strative cent r a l i z a t i o n for the
benefit of royal power.
We s h o u l d n 't say that major d i etetics
had its origin i n a specific p l ace a n d
t i m e ; i n a r a p i d l y expa n d i n g State
a pparatus, they found a milieu, an
ambiance, an atmosphere in w h i c h
t h e y t h r i ved best. A n atmosp here i n
w h i c h it f o u n d s o l i d g r o u n d on w h i c h
to s pread i t s n o r m s to a g reat n u m be r
o f people; a m i l i e u t hat g ave it t h e
opport u n ity to con v i n ce many p e o p l e
o f its r i ghtful ness, o f the usef u l ness
of its part i c u l a r d i etary norms by
which t h e i n d i v i d u a l d i ets could be
asse m b l ed . The State-form had t h u s
n o t o n l y a p p l i e d the major d i etet ics
t h ro u g h its l aws i n order to benefit
60 Obviously, there are other major d i etetics that, in t h e i r formal relation to a State-apparatus,
have d o m i n ated the ideas on d i et. One could t h i n k of Jewish m e d i ca l sci ences, Arabic medical
sciences, and Amerindian medical sciences.
p u b l i c health ; major dietet­
ics has always already been a
part of the State apparatus. Major
d i etetics ope rates in para l l e l with
the State a p paratus. Major d i etet­
i c s i m m a n e n t l y con n ects d i et to
t h e State and t h e State i m m a-
n e n t l y c o n n ects d i et to major
d i et et i c s. T h ey p re s u p pose each
other.
T h i s b e c o m e s a g reat d e a l c l earer i f
w e study major d i etary theories f o u n d
t h ro u g h out t h e w o r l d . The ones t hat
i m me d i at e l y come to m i n d are t h e
' T h ree Maj o r Trad i t i o n s ' t h at have
p roved to be t h e m ost d o m i nant i n
t h e way p e o p l e a s s e m b l e t h e i r d i et
t h ro u g h o ut s pace and t i m e : the m o d ­
e r n Weste r n ( a l l o path i c ) trad i ­
t i o n , t h e Ayu rved i c t rad i t i o n ,
a n d t h e C h i n e s e tra d it i o n . 60
T h e norms from these t h ree major
d i etetics have i nvaded a r g u m ents o n
d i ets a l l over the w o r l d . A l l t h re e have
a l o n g h i story; a l l t h ree have devel­
oped wel l-def i ned normative systems
t hat produced strict norms from
which d i ets are asse m b l e d .
We can f i n d t h e b i rt h o f m a j o r d i etet­
ics in t h e West i n t h e r i s e of m o d e r n
a l lopat h i c m e d i c i n e ; it " . . . has f i xe d its
own date of b i rt h as b e i n g in the l ast
years of t h e e i g hteenth
century"(Foucault 1 975: xii) nearly con­
cu rrent with t h e enormous g rowth of
Western b u reaucracy, which has
i ncreas i n g l y d e f i n e d the State-for m
ever s i n ce. I m po s i n g i t s arg u m ents
o n structure a n d eff i c i e n cy, State
b u reaucracy b r o u g ht major d i etet ics
to l ife, a n d v i ce versa. The newly
formed medical science d eve loped a
forma l semiology that was m ore than
wi l l i ng to capt ure o u r d i et i n propos i­
tional f u nct i o n s a n d mathematical
concepts. M ore a n d m ore g u i d e l i n e s
were c reated to eva l uate d iet accord­
i ng to l i p i ds, p rote i ns, carbohyd rates,
i rons, v it a m i n s , etc. M ore and m ore,
Western major d i etet i cs deve l o ped
very str i ct principles of classification
a l o n g w h i c h o u r d i ets c o u l d be meas­
u red, norms t hat p resc ri bed what t h e
81
<'· ' healthy' d i et s h o u l d be.61 Accord i ng to S i v i n , " . . . several
ro
Q) A l l o pat h i c State d i etet i c s has '"'O attem pts at a s i n g l e state i d e o l o g y
0
.... a l ways been stro n g l y i nt e rested � i nc l uded t h i s doct r i n e of cos m o l o g ical
(tj
Q)
""O in c reat i n g 'the nor m a l ' , in creat- � h a r m o ny a n d ot her eq u a l l y adapta b l e
H VJ
0
0
Cl
i n g ' u n i versa l ' norms t h at were 0 c u rrents of t h o u g ht" (Sivin 1 995: I V, 6).

VJ (tj
s
(/) t h o u g h t to benefit p u b l i c h e a l t h . ,...... C o n s e q u e n t l y, he c o n t i n ues, " By t h e
(tj
.... It created a lang uage, a fixed s e t of Q) � H e n d of t h e f i rst century, yin and yang
,......
s
ro
..c
;,;
g u id e l i nes by w h i c h one's d i et c o u l d
be com pared to the ' no r ma l ' , a n d � s 0
H
were n ot forces, a n d wu eh 'ang were
n ot e l e m e nts. They were rather sets of
> · � 0 �
adj usted it accord i n g l y. T h a t i s w h y u u
0 q ual i f i e rs used to descri b e the two o r
u
I-
a:: nowadays an A l l o path i c f e d e r a l n utri- � · � � f i ve as pects of eh 'i [ ' e ne r g y ' , r. d . ] . . .
0
Q)
<t
t i o n expert i s n ot af raid to concl ude: · � � As the scie nces evolved from roug h l y
H ;...i · �
D.

" I t i s proven w i t h o ut d o u bt now t hat u � t h e f i rst century o n , t h i s a pproach to

� VJ
t h e c o n s u m p t i o n of m eat without Q) ;...i t h i n k i n g about natural a n d soc i a l phe-
enough physical act i v ity leads to cho- u ;:J � VJ nomena became u s u a l a l t h o u g h n ever
VJ '"'O
· �
l estero l a n d oth e r s e r i o u s h eart d i s-
eases. B ut most of the p e o p l e know
� � H
stand ard ized to t h e p o i nt t h at it c o u l d
be c a l l e d a parad i g m " (Sivin 1 995: I V, 7).
;...i 0 0
t hat eat i n g these part i c u l a r p rod ucts (tj ,...... ;...i (tj S i m i l a r strat e g i es can be found i n the
,......
has bad effects o n t h e m , but they sti I I � (tj bO � h i story of Ayu rved i c d i etet ics. For
d o i t " (02-20-02) . T h e major A l l opath ic 0 0 a l t h o u g h it i s even m ore fi l i e d with
p r i n c i p l e s of c l as s i f icati o n a l l ow u s
,......
,...... � ·�
�
;...i
r i d d l e s a n d gaps t h a n t h e h istory of
to com pare d i ets accord i n g to s pecif- <( ·
0 '"'O
�
H s C h i nese m e d i c i ne , here too, we f i n d a

ic norms a n d adjust t h e m towards the
normal.
B ut this n o rm a l i z i n g power of t h e
State-form d i d n ot t a k e p l ace o n l y
betwee n t h e Western N a t i o n States
and Western major d i etetics. S i v i n
conv i n c i n g l y argues t h a t a l s o t h e
C h i nese d i etary system i s n ot based
on some k i nd of ' n atu ra l i st i c ' o bs e r-
vat i o n (as is st i l l ofte n arg u e d ) , but i s
a l s o e n g a g ed with the State form as
it also i ntro d uces specific p r i n c i p l e s
o f c l assification t h r o u g h w h i c h eth i -
c a l a n d med ical norms a n d n o r m a l i -
t i e s a r e c reated. T h r o u g h o ut t h e l o n g
and c o m p l e x h i story o f the concept s
o f yin-yang a n d o f w u e h 'ang (t h e f i ve
6 1 It i s thus that contemporary major d i etetics
can st i l l phrase their general goal as such:
" Food research i s a part of the pathophys iolo-
gy that searches for that knowledge which
a l l ows us to make the ri ght choice from avail-
a b l e foods a i m ing at the o pt i m iz i n g the physio-
logical functions of the human being, and if
poss i b l e , the prevention o r slowing down of
path o l og ical changes " [ital ics, r. d.]
(Vergroesen 1 986: 1 ) .
62 It should be noted that the whole of
Ayu rved ic thought is actu a l l y based on two
writings: the Carakasamh ita, which focuses on
herbal theories, and the Sus rutas a m h ita,
which focuses on s u rgery. But since s u rgery is
not add ressed in this part, the Sus rutasam h ita
82 w i l l not be d i scussed.
H Q)
;...i strong connect i o n between t h e rise of
(tj 0
u
t h e N a t i o n State ( o r State b u reaucra-
0
u �
u
• P"""""\ cy) a n d t h e forma l i zat i o n of d i etet ics.
·� ;...i
(tj It can be no c o i n c i d e n c e t hat the most
� (tj ;...i
s ·�
VJ VJ
VJ i nf l ue n t i a l treatise f o u n d i n Ayu rved i c
Q) VJ ;...i ;:J d i etetics (and herbal m e d i c i n e ) , t h e
(tj Q) • P"""""\
' Carakasamhita' (Caraka 1 941) - t hat
� ,... ... · � '"'O conta i n s t h e t h o u g hts of the o l d
� u '"'O (tj Agnivesa Tantra ext e n s i v e l y rev ised by
Caraka - was most l i ke l y produced
constants) - the ideas t h at form the around t h e f i rst cent u ry A . O. u nd e r
bas i s o f t h e C h i nese Trad i t i o n a l the r u l e o f K i n g K a n i ska, t h e m ost
M e d i ca l system - h e s h ows t h at these powerf u l k i n g of t h e K u s h a n
concepts u n d e rwent a s t r o n g f o r m a l - dynasty.62 Acce l e rat i ng i n para l l e l to
i zat i o n together with t h e econ o m i ca l t h i s m a j o r (eco n o m ical a n d p o l i t i c a l )
a n d p o l i t i c a l expans i o n o f t h e N a t i o n g rowt h o f the State, t h e s c h o o l of
State f rom t h e t h i rd century B . C . to Caraka s pread r u l e from J ava to
t h e f i rst century A . O. D u ri n g t hat Afg h a n i stan. A n d , as Kut u m b i a h con-
t i me, both yin-yang a n d wu eh 'ang e l u d es (Kutumbiah 1 967) , whatever
formed the p r i n c i p l e s of c l assif icat i o n happened after Caraka i n Ayu rved i c
t h r o u g h w h i c h d i ets were com pared m e d i ca l t h o u g ht was n ot h i ng more
aban d o n i n g nat u r a l i s m by construct- than i m itat i o n and a bst ract i o n .
i n g a s p e c i f i c system o n its own. The Carakasamhita p ro poses a set of
Deve l o ped m a i n ly from C o n f u c i a n d i etary n o r m s ( t h e vidhi) t hat, i n t h e i r
teach i n g as it t o o k p l ace u nd e r atte m pt to reg u l ate the balance
I m p e r i a l patronage, t h i s major d i etet- between the body and the outs i d e
ics made h a rd l y any reference to t h e w o r l d , s e t u p part i c u l a r p r i n c i p l e s of
study of nature. H ere, too, a d i etet ics c l assification o n which d i ets are corn-
was created by the format i o n of spe- pared. It p ro d u ced a n o r m at i ve sys-
cific q uantit ies, by the creat i o n of tern o n the basis of w h i c h food was
specific formulas on the basis of c l as s i f i ed i nto three f o r m a l cate-
w h i c h a d i et was meas u red. It was g o r i e s that have been about the s u b -
a i m e d at t h e c reat i o n o f a p u b l i c j ect o f conversat i o n for a l most two
h e a l t h , and it was t he N a t i o n State t h ousand years n ow and t hat i s st i l l
that was st r o n g l y i nvolved i n t h i s. t h e basis of the d i et i n B a n g a l o re.
"There is Saatvik, Rajasik, a n d
Tamasik. Saatvik are the t h i ng s t hat
h e l p t h e s o u l . Rajasik are t h e q u a l it i es
t hat keep t h e m i nd very act i ve.
Tamasik i s toxic a n d o n l y for ( used)
l ow-level e n j oy m e nt. So, every q u a I ity
i s c l assified in those categori es.
Basical ly, you s h o u l d focus on
Saatvik. B ut if a m a n has to d o some
Rajasik act i o n s d u r i n g t he day, food i s
req u i red for t h at" (02-23-02a) .
O v e r t i me, t h e Ayu rved i c d i etary sys­
tem has created p r i n c i p l e s of c l assifi­
cat i o n t h at h ave a l l owed p e o p l e to
create a d i et on t h e bas i s of formal
f u nctions (for exa m p l e , bland food is
Saatvik, meat i s Rajasik, garlic is
Tamasik). I t became i ncreas i ng ly s u b ­
j ected to t h e State-form i n its efforts
to g a i n contro l. T h i s pol it ical d i me n ­
s i o n o f t h e Ayu rved i c major d i etet ics
became a p parent part i c u l a r l y in the
caste system as m ore and more the
d i etary f u n ct i ons were used i n the
p o l itical economy of t h e castes
w h e re, for exa m p l e , re l at i on s h i ps
became esta b l i s h e d betwee n a
Rajasik d i et and m e m bers of t h e
castes t h a t had to perform h eavy
physical l a bo r, o r a Saatvik d i et and
m e m b e rs of the castes t hat per­
formed ad m i n i st rat ive f u nctions.
A system was set u p i n which it could
be i m p l ied t hat Saatvik food i s con s i d ­
ered to be ' better' t h a n Rajasik o r
Tamasik f o o d : w i t h t h e a d d e d p o l i t i c a l
d i me n s i o n , d i et has a l s o b e c o m e a
moral issue. The advice from t h e
above q uote to e a t m o r e Saatvik food
comes from a Brah m i n , a caste th at
was s o l e l y focused on a d m i n i st rative
tasks, but over t h e years has defined
t h is d iet to be the g e n e r a l norm that
applies to all castes. Accord i n g to
one Brah m i n woman, "Saatvik i s food,
which i s taken natural, l i ke salads or
f r u its . . . j u st raw, or boil it with a m i n i­
m u m a m o u nt of s p i c e or o i l or gee o r
fat. Saatvik food g e n e ra l ly promotes
good health. And it s u its you o n a
mental stage. W h e n you eat more
s p i cy foods, it t r o u b l e s yo u r m i n d . . .
63 A ct u a l l y, the i d ea that one s h o u l d prefer Saatvik food is a l ready presented in the Bhagawad G ita ( E dgerton 1 972: X V l l , 22). There, we can a l ready
find a strong moral (and political) d i mension regard i n g food ; it states that tasty, rich, and s u bstant i a l food (Saatvik) i s loved by the man of good­
ness; pung ent, sour, salty, very hot, sharp, astr i n gent, and heated foods (Rajasik) are loved by the man of passion as they cause pain, m i s e ry, and
s i ckness; spoiled, its taste lost, putrid and stale, l eavings and fi lth ( Tamasik) are loved by a man of darkness.
i t makes y o u n o isy" (02-26-02) .63 T h e
Carakasamhita d i d n ot d i rectly d i s t i n ­
g u ish the good from the bad (as did
t h e Western syst e m ) ; it was o n l y w i t h
i t s i ncorporat i o n with i n t h e State­
form t hat i nterpreters i ncreas i n g l y
forma l i zed t h e f i n d i ng s o f Caraka i nto
a strict system for c o n s u m ab l es.
We i ntroduced two d ifferent ways i n
w h ic h major d ietet ics i s conn ected to
the State-apparat us. Neverthe less,
we should a l so n ote that t h e major
d i etet i c structures have a l ways been
i nt r i n s i ca l l y i nterco n nected to ot h e r
a pparatuses o f contro l , ot h e r a p para­
t u ses t hat are con n ected to the terri­
tory of t h e State ( o r. . . that constitute
it). This t i me, we talk of relational
codification, of d i et et i c s as part of a n
a pparatus o f f l oat i ng control.
D i et et i cs is by n o m e a n s t h e
o n l y body o f k n ow l e d g e t h a t i s
formed together w i t h a State
a p parat u s o r that s p reads i t s
n o r m s accord i n g to a State
a p parat u s . Foucau lt a l ready i n d icat­
ed t h i s exp l a i n i ng t h at in the West,
m e d i ca l s u p e r v i s i o n c o u l d be one of
the ways in w h i c h t h e State-form
exerc i s e d contro l . M e d i ca l s u pervi­
s i o n wasn 't t h e o n l y way t h e State
exerc i s e d its control. On the contrary.
D i etetics i s a l ways a part of a
system of major t h e o r i es, major
s c i e nces, a n d f o r m a l bod i es of
k n o w l e d g e t h at toget h e r c o n ­
struct t h e State a p p a r a t u s . T h e
t h ree major d i etet i c systems m e n ­
t i o n e d a re a l l capt u red i n t h e s e major
systemat i c s ; they all f u n c t i o n i n a for­
m a l r e l at i o n to ot h e r forms of State
knowledge.
We cannot c o n s i d e r t h e Ay urve d i c
t h eo r i e s o f l ife without i n c l u d i n g t h e
t h o u g hts f o u n d i n t h e four o r i g i n a l
-Veda's a n d i n Ved ic astro logy
(Jyotish-i n n e r l i ght). We can n ot t h i n k
o f trad i t i o n a l C h i n ese m e d i c i n e w i t h ­
out i n c l u d i ng t h e t h o u g hts f o u n d i n
' I-Ching'. T h e n oted T'ang Dynasty
medic, Sun S i mao (581 -682 A . D. ) ,
c l a i me d " I f y o u d o n o t s t u d y I Ching,
you can n ot u n d erstand
med i c i n e at a l l " (Tsuei 1 992:
2 1 ) . We can not c o n s i d e r a l l opat h i c
Western theories without recog n i z ­
i ng i t s f o r m a l re l a t i o n to anatomy,
m e c h a n i c s , physics, and even eco­
n o m ics because these sci ences of the
E n l i g ht e n m e n t a l l carry t h e s i m i l ar
p r i n c i p l e s of compos i t i o n that a re
s o m et i mes l i kened to a the steam
e n g i n e - a mac h i ne that can be
stopped a n d repa i re d , the mechan i s m
t hat has n o re l a t i o n to a n y e nv i ro n ­
m e n t a t a l I , with e rrors t h a t can b e
i s o lated - a n d t hat appear i n a l l these
d i s c i p l i nes.
In conc l u s i o n , S i v i n 's stat e m e n t
that t h e most i m portant C h i n e s e
i d eas o n t h e d i et w e r e " . . . s i m u l ­
taneo u s l y p o l i t i c a l , m o r a l , a n d
n at u ra l i st i c " ( S i v i n 1 995: 29)
t e l l s us somet h i n g about how a l l
m a j o r d i etetics are c o m p o s e d .
O f c o u rse, t h e y a r e st i l l i n s o m e way
natura l istic, as he puts it, in t h e
sense t h at a d i et i s a l ways open to
i nterpretat i o n . At t h e same t i me, h ow­
ever, major d i et et i c s a l ways i n c l udes
moral ity i n t hat t h e specific p r i n c i p les
of c l as s i f i cat i o n a lways a l ready
i m pose a h i e rarchy, a concept of
goodness that echoes t h r o u g h t h e
norms o n t h e basis o f w h i c h the d i et
is created. M a j o r d i etet i cs d et e r­
rito r i a l i z e s food i n t h e s e n s e
t h at it i nter prets food only f ro m
t h e pers pect i v e o f d i etet i c p r i n ­
c i p l e s . Putt i ng it i n a n order that i s
essent i a l l y moral ( " t h i s i s a good
d i et" , "that i s a bad o n e " ) . F i n a l ly, the
formal p r i nc i p l e s of major d i etet ics
p res u p pose a p o l i t i c a l space i n which
the State-form a n d the oth e r major
forms of knowledge are read i l y at
work. In c reat i ng formal relations
( between castes, within a popu lation),
the medical norms acti ve through t h i s
compart m e nt a l i zat i o n create a p o l iti­
cal ' u n ity'. A grid i s organized as a
consequence of d i etary n o r m a l i z at i o n
t hat promotes t h e State-form and its
power.
83
 �
C'·
....
"' C lvl l N O I� D I ET E T I CS 0 1� N O lvl A D D I ETET I CS
"'
0
.... T h e major d i etary n o r m s c reated w i t h t h e C h i n e s e d i etetics that focuses on m e d i c i n e (and s u rge ry) i n order
-a
0
trad i t i o n , t h e Ay u rved i c trad i t i o n , t h e M o d e r n to create a st ructural system of p u b l ic health that best
l
West e r n trad i t i o n ( a n d t h e other m a j o r trad i t i o n s s u its t h e State.
i
0

(/) we have not d iscussed) do not s u m marize the h is­ P l ato q u a l ifies far better for the position of ' Fath e r of
1
tory of d i etary t h o u g ht. Many n o r m s escape i t s natura­ Western Major D i etetics' t h a n H i p pocrates, for it is act u ­
l i st ic, moral, and p o l i t i c a l p resu m ptions t u r n i ng agai nst a l l y the latter who g i ves us a h i nt as to w h a t minor dietet­
them o r even ward i n g them off com p l et e l y. C o n s i d e r that ics ( o r nomad dietetics) is a l l about. It is a d i etary system
>
i n C h i na, I n d ia, a n d a l s o i n t h e Western wor l d , people very d ifferent from its major cou nterpa rt as was d i scussed
(whether consci o u s l y or u n consc i o u s l y) make u s e of the i n t h e previous paragraph. W h e reas the d i etary norms p ro­
theories of h ot a n d c o l d food that h ave been t rave l i n g d u ced by major <!i etet ics s u bj ect u s to a g e n e ra l i z i n g
t h r o u g h conversat i on s f o r t h ousands o f years. Very s u p p l e moral ity, a g e n e r a l i d ea o f what i s g ood a n d what i s n ot
theories t hat have n ot h i n g to do with t h e State-a pparatus. good to eat, m i n o r d i etet ics proposes t h e creat i o n of an
Peop l e make use of them i n asse m b l i ng a d i et i n re l a t i o n ethi cs, t h e creat i o n o f f l u i d
t o t h e i r body, i n re l a t i o n t o t h e t i m e o f day a n d to t h e sea- norms that search for the
son. They m ake u s e of its norms when eat i ng ' h eavy' m e a l s good . o n the basis o f i m ma-
in t h e wi nter a n d l i ghter m e a l s in t h e s u m m e r. A n d w h e n n e n ce. W hereas t h e n o r ms
seg m e n t i n g the day i nto t h ree d ifferent m e a l s ( b reakfast­ from the major d i etetics
l u nch-d i n ner), or two, or four. . . These norms have n ot h i ng are stro n g l y re l ated to t h e
to do with any major d i etetic theory, with any major o r State-form, its d ifferent
State d ef i n it i o n o f w h a t i s s u p posed to be h e a lthy a n d appa rat uses of contro l, and
what i s n ot. There are p l e nty of d i etary norms that d o n ot the other major theor ies,
adhere to the major moral ity a n d t hat d ef i n it e l y do not which are compat i b l e with
coalesce with a State a p paratus. T h e re are d i etary norms it, m i n o r d i etetics does n ot
cont i n u a l l y b e i n g produced that have l itt l e to d o with have formal re l a t i o n s to
these formal p r i n c i p l es of c l as s if i cation. P l e nty of d i etary other territories, but rat her
theories that are of an e n t i r e l y d ifferent c o m p o s i t i o n . That create them i n t h e eve nt,
were " . . . no l on g e r onto l o g ical, but d y n a m i c, no l o n g e r with i n the act of asse m ­
loca l i z at i o n i st, b u t tota l i s i n g " (Cang u i l h e m 1 991 : 40) . b l i n g a d i et. T h u s , t h ey cre­
W h e n H i p pocrates, w h o i s st i l l be l i eved to b e t h e fat h e r of ate immanent p r i nc i p l e s of
t h e Western m e d i c a l t rad i t i o n , t a l ks of d i etary meas u re­ c l assification that do not
m e nts in his ce l eb rated oath ( w h i c h , in some cou ntries, is s u bj ect the food one is
st i l l o b l i g atory when one wants to accede to the m e d i c a l confronted with to a metric
profess i o n ) ; h e c l a i m s : " I w i l l a p p l y d i etet i c measures for system in order to see
the benefit of the sick accord i n g to m y a b i l ity a n d j u d g ­ whether it wi 11 properly
m e n t ; I w i l l k e e p them f r o m harm a n d i n j u st ice" serve o n e r i g ht, but looks
( H i ppocrates 1 943: 1). H i p poc rates was n ot i nterested i n t h e at it from t h e v i ewp o i nt of
c reat i o n of a system o f p u b l ic h e a l t h , but only i n the we l l­ t h e affect i o n s that befal I
b e i n g of t h e i n d i v i d u a l pat i ent. H i p pocrates was not them mapping them and
a p p l y i n g f o r m a l f u nct i o n s to the c o n d i t i o n of t h e creat i n g a normative sys­
pat i e nt, but c reat i n g t h e m o n t h e bas i s o f h i s tem accord i n g to h ow t h e
obse rvat i o n s . H i s t h o u g hts d o not te l l u s a n yt h i n g specific case re lates t o
of w h at t h e s e d i etary m e a s u res s h o u l d l o o k l i ke ; whatever i s o u t s i d e it.
he d o e s n o t g i ve u s r u l e s or p rov i d e u s w i t h a s y s ­ Accord i n g to the m i n o r
t e m on how we can as s e m b l e a d i et t h at s u its u s . d i etetics: " O n e d oes n ot
O n t h e cont rary, Foucau lt c l a i m s : " H i ppocrates a p p l i e d g o ... by deduction from a
h i m s e lf o n l y to o b s e rvat i o n a n d d e s p i s e d a l l sys­ sta b l e essence to the prop­
tems" ( Foucault 1 975: 1 07). erties d e r i v i n g from it, but
I t i s thus that Foucau lt ( Fouca u l t 1 988: 97) , in stu d y i n g t h e rat h e r from a problem to
d i et of a n c i e nt G reece, creates an opposition betwee n the acci d e nts t h at c o n d i ­
H i p pocrates a n d P l at o ; for w h e reas H i p poc rates ( i n h i s t i o n and r e s o l v e i t "
d e s c r i p t i o n o f what h e c a l l e d ' o l d ' m e d i ca l s c i e n ce ( D e l euze and G uattari 1 987:
( H i p poc rates 1 948)) p roduces an i m manent d i etetics t hat 362). "The i r s e m iotic i s
c o n s i ders t h e search for t h e d i et that ' s u its ones n at u re n o n s i g n if y i n g , n o n s u bjec­
best' (its most i m portant e m p ha s i s ) , Plato ( i n h i s utop i a n t i ve, essent i a l l y col l ecti ve,
84 v i s i o n of t h e perfect State ( Pl ato 1 970)) p refers a formal polyvocal, and corporeal,

p l a y i n g on d i verse forms and s u b ­
stances" ( De l eu z e and G uatta r i 1 987:
367). The d i etary norms of m i n o r
d i etet ics a r e a l ways f l uct u a t i n g as its
terr itory is a l ways in motion and not
orga n i zed t h r o u g h a center.
Because of i ts i m manent c ha racter,
because m i n o r d i etet ics c a n n ot be
regarded as c u m u lative wh ereas
maj o r d i etet i cs can, because the i n d i ­
v i d u a l obse rvat i o n s a r e n o t i n l i n e
with e a c h other, a r e n o t c o m p l e m e n ­
t a r y to e a c h o t h e r s f i n d i ngs, m i n o r o r
n o m ad d i etetics i s i n n o way conn ect­
ed to a c a l c u l us. I t does n ot evolve
along st r a i g ht l i n es t hat connect
t h e i n d iv i d u a l t h oug hts p l a c i n g it i nto
a l a rger hori zontal f ramework t hat
s p reads itself t h ro u g h s pace. A
t h o u g ht or a norm d e r i v i n g from m i n o r
d i etetics i s r a t h e r a vector i n of itself:
" ... it o pe rates in an open s pace
t h ro u g hout w h i c h t h i ngs-f l ows are
d i st r i buted, rat h e r than p l ot t i n g out a
c l osed s pace for l i near a n d s o l i d
t h i n g s " ( D el e u ze a n d G u attari 1 987: 361 ) .
It operates i n open t i me i n a s e n s e
t h at it does n ot p lace i t s e l f i n a s e r i e s
o f stra i g ht l i nes that con n ect the i n d i ­
v i d u a l t h i n ke rs. M i n o r d i etetics i s n ot
s u bjected to c l osed t i m e ; m i n o r
d i etetics does n ot h ave a history.
M i n o r d i etet i c s is n ot a s u cces­
s i ve stream of t h o u g hts, but
rath e r a nomad i c s p i r i t t h at t rav­
e l s i r resp ect i v e of s p ace a n d
t i m e . I t pops u p a l o n g s i d e t h e
m a j o r d i etet i c s t h ro u g h out i t s
h i sto ry, yet i t i s n o t i nt e rested i n
b e i n g conf i n ed t o its f o r m a l
structu re, to its p r i n c i p l e s of
c l as s i f i c a t i o n . R a t h e r, it c reates
them o n its own over and over
again.
The flux o r flow o f minor dietetics
creates realities that continuously
tra verse the different histories of
major dietetics. Its tact ics do n ot o n l y
c o m e i nto existence n ext to Western
major d i etet ics, t h e i m manent s e m i ­
o lo g i es o f m i n o r d i etetics produce
t h e i r d i etary norms i rrespect i ve of
trad i t i o n s , a n d they pop up a n y p l ace,
anyt i me. Fo r a l t h o u g h we stated that
m i n o r d i etetics has n o h i story, we d o
n o t c l a i m t h a t m i n o r t h o u g hts t hat
were briefly d i scussed h ave d i sap­
peared. M i n o r t h o u g hts have a lways
wan d e re d a bo ut s l i p p i n g i nto a l l k i n d s
o f pract ices, i n s p i r i ng m a n y m i n o r
t h i n kers t h ro u g h o ut s pace a n d t i me.
In a way, form i n g an ' ow n ' tra d i t i o n ,
b u t t h i s t i m e n o t a l i near o n e o r o n e
t hat i s a l ig ned to a ny m a j o r d i eteti cs.
A problematic trad i t i o n rat h e r t h a n a
theorematic one.
As wit h i n Western major d i etetics
w h e re t h e m i no r t h o u g hts of
H i ppocrates are st i l l regarded t h e
_ ' myt h i cal o pe n i n g statement' o f i t s
b o d y o f knowledge, t h e Ayu rved i c
m a j o r d i etetics ( i n t h e i r focus o n t h e
s u bstances, q u a I i t i es, a n d act i o n s
that c a n b e l ife-enhancing ( veda means
"knowled g e " , and ayus i s d ef i n e d as
" l ife")) also pays t r i b ute to an i m m a­
nent s e m i o logy (ca l l e d the Trividh
Pariksha) w h e n they keep stres s i n g
t hat a l I senses a n d s e n s e organs of
the m e d i c (except t h e mouth) s h o u l d
be focused o n f i n d i ng t h e i m ba l ances
of t h e s i c k by a l I means
( Ku t u m b i a h 1 967). B ut s i m i l a r to
t h e Western case w h e re the
t h o u g hts of H i p poc rates d o n ot f i t
wit h i n t h e trad i t i o n o f t h e m a j o r
d i et etics, these ' p r i m it i ve statements'
f ro m which t h e Ayu rved i c major
t h o u g ht s c l a i m to o r i g i nate a re also
d if f i c u l t to fit wit h i n t h e contem porary
Ayu rved i c system.
The strongest t rad i t i o n s i n m i n o r
d ietet ics can be f o u n d a l o n g s i d e the
theore m s of t h e C h i nese d i etary t ra­
d it i o n . Its major theore m s have con­
sta n t l y been t raversed by m i n o r med­
ical t h o ughts that q u estion its t h eore­
matic struct u re a n d rep l ace it by a
p r o b l e mat ic one. Z h a n g Z h o n gj i ng
( 1 50-21 9 A . D . ) , for i n stance, known as
the 'Saint of Medicine', was o n l y one
of the scholars who saw the problems
of m e d i ca l forma l i zat i o n h e saw tak­
i n g p l ace a l ready in his t i me. H e stat­
ed : " I t seems to m e t hat p hys i c i a n s
nowadays f a i l to l oo k i nto m e d i ca l
' s c i e n c e ' a n d i m p rove t h e i r med ical
s k i l ls. I n stead, f o l l o w i n g t h e same
way as their a ncestors i n p ract i c e and
a d h e r i n g to t h e o l d therapies, these
p hys i c i a n s exa m i ne pat i ents a n d l i s ­
ten to t h e i r c o m p l a i nts, a n d a l l of
t h e m g i ve bas i s for t h e i r treatment"
( H uang 1 995: 6-7). L i ke H i p pocrates, h e
rejected any k i n d o f systematic
app roach . H e cont i n ue d : " S o this i s
t h e so-ca l led ' l o o k i n g a t a l e o pard
t h ro u g h a ba m boo tu be.' A p ract ice
l i ke t h i s wou l d certa i n l y m a ke it d iff i­
cult to d i scri m i n at e between l if e and
deat h " ( H uang 1 995: 7). H e favored a
tota l i z i n g and d y n a m i c approach
i nstead of a loca l i z i ng a n d onto l og i cal
one. L i ke H i ppocrates, h e too, p re­
ferred the creat i o n of an i m m a n e nt
s e m i o logy at t h e m o m e nt of obse rva­
t i o n i nstead of deterrito r i a l i z i n g the
foods accord i n g to a formal o n e o n
t h e bas i s o f w h i c h the d i et i s j udged.
C h i nese trad i t i o n a l t h o u g h t no d o u bt
has major d i etary t h e o r i es as S i v i n
conv i n c i n g l y stated i n t h e p rev i o u s
para g raph. B u t if we com pare it espe­
c i a l l y to the r i g i d formal i z at i o n s pro­
d uced by modern Western d i etetics,
t h e C h i n ese a pparatus rem a i n s
u n m i staka b l y s u p p l e ; i t avo i d s
contra d i ct i o n ; it adjusts; it grad u a l l y 85
<'·
-
cont i n ues its pat h .64 T h i s d ifferent
"'
Q) ' mode of ex istence' i s n ot l i m ited to
0
-
d i etary t h o u g ht it i s t h e d ifference
"' between C h i na a n d the West. It i s
0
0 t e l l i n g that i n H a n g z h o u a c o m p a r i s o n
(/) between Western and C h i nese t h i n k i n g
- w a s ofte n d e p i cted as t h e d ifference
"'
..c betwee n the fork a n d the chopst i c k
;;:
where the i ndented f o r k ( t h e West) i s
>
f u l l o f opposit ions, contradict i o ns,
I­
ll: a n d stri ated d ifferences, w h i l e the
<(
D.
c h o pstick ( C h i n a) i s a l ways i n the
process of g radual change. The chop­
stick i s the abstract l i ne, the vector,
the affect of s m ooth s paces. It wards
off o r g a n i zat i o n . It ref uses to c reate
a v i sage o pposed to the one of t h e
Western med ic. I n stead, it m oves
a lo n g with it; it puts a c r i m p in its
style. The chopstick is the line of least
resistance. O r, as H e n ry M i l l e r
descri bes t h i s pos i t i o n : " C h i n a i s t h e
weed i n the h u man cabbage patch . . .
O f a l l t h e i m a g i nary e x i stences we
attri b ute to p l ant, beast, and star, t h e
weed leads the m ost sat i sfactory l ife
of a l l. True, the weed produces no
l i l ies, no batt l e s h i ps, n o Sermons on
the M ou n t ... The weed e x i sts o n l y to
f i l l t h e waste s paces l eft by c u l t i vated
areas. It g rows betwe e n , among ot her
t h i ngs. The l i ly i s beaut i f u l , t h e cab­
bage i s prove n d e r, the poppy i s mad­
d e n i n g - but the weed i s rank g rowth . . . :
it poi nts a m o r a l " ( De l euze and
G uattari 1 987: 1 8-9) .
M i n o r d i etet i cs has a l ways
re m a i ned s u rp r i s i n g l y v i t a l i n
C h i n a. Of course, i t can be f o u n d
everywh e re a n d every t i m e (th u s a l s o
i n t h e West a n d i n I nd i a ) ; it a l ways
stays at the marg i n s of the State
d i etetics t h at f u nct i o n as the major
normative forces. B ut in C h i na, the
marg i n s of t h e State d i etetics l eave
enough s pace for m i n o r t h e o r i es to
evol ve. I n c h i n a, contrary to t h e
p ract i c e s of the We st ( a n d of
I n d i a to a I esser d e g re e ) , State
d i etet i c s has n ever b e e n very
S U CCessf u l i n S u bj e ct i n g t h e
m i n o r t h o u g hts to t h e i r W i s h e s ,
to t h e i r syste m at i c s , t h e i r p r i n -
c i p l e s of c l a s s i f i c at i o n .
T h u s , in C h i n a, w h en ever you v i s it t h e
so-ca l led trad i t i o n a l d octor 65, you are
86 l i ke l y to be confronted with m i n o r
d i etet i cs. Fo r w h e n it comes to t h e d octor, t h e C h i n e se m i n o r doctor
d i et a n d the n o r m s a n d w h e t h e r or n ot i s not s o much i nte rested i n
a d i et i s good for yo u , t h e C h i nese local i z i n g a n i l l n e s s . H e i s n ot
doctor i s l i ke l y to keep h i mself far even i nt e rested i n i l l n e s s at a l l .
from a p p l y i n g e x i st i ng t h e o r i es o n the H e i s i nt e rested i n t a k i n g c a re of
c o m p o s i t i o n of your d i et o r from con­ t h e body. Fo r t h i s reason, it is n ot
st r u ct i n g an a r g u m e nt along its l i nes. a l ways c o m m o n i n C h i n a - espec i a l l y
Kee p i n g in m i n d t h e popu l a r say i n g i n the r u r a l areas w h e re t h e m i n o r
'food i s b ett e r t h a n m ed i c i n e f o r d i etetics sti l l h o l d a s t r o n g posi t i o n -
yo u r h e a l t h ' , the trad i t i o n a l C h i nese to pay a d octor whe never you become
i l l. O n t h e contrary, s i nce many
d octors pay t h e g reatest att e n t i o n to
one's d i et. N ot c l a i m i n g that food has C h i nese stro n g l y bel i eve that for the
more c u rat i ve q u a l it i e s than m e d i ­ m ost part of o u r l i ves, our bod i es are
c i ne, but stat i n g that because f o o d i s in a state of s l ow d ec l i ne, t h e d octor
consu med on s u c h a reg u l a r basis is paid in order to keep u s as h e a l t hy
( i n stead of m e d i c i ne, w h i c h i s o n l y as poss i b l e . A n d t hat is what h e
occas i o n a l l y take n ) , food i s m uch s h o u l d be paid for. H i s j o b i s n ot to
m o re capable of contro l l i n g o n e 's bal­ make you better, to cure you from a
ance, a n d t h u s , it i s p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h d i sease, but rath e r to keep you i n
f o o d that goodn ess comes to t h e body shape, to keep your body i n b a l a n ce i n
than t h r o u g h m e d i c i ne. This say i n g order t o g i ve t h e d i sease no chance
c o m e s very c l ose to H i p pocrates' to i nfect yo u .
i d eas that food s h o u l d be our f i rst The m i n o r d octor b e g i n s by look i n g at
m e d i c i ne. w h at h a p p e n s between t h e pat i e nt a n d
" Th at i s why t h e C h i n ese people focus the d i et, by t a k i n g a look a t the affec­
o n t h e food. Sometimes they also put t io n s that befa l l t h e m . N ot by start i n g
C h i nese m e d i c i n e in the food, b u t the w i t h a p reset i dea o f a g o o d d i et a n d a
focus i s o n t h e food. C h i nese tradi­ g ood patient. The m i n o r d octor starts
tional d octors w i l l a ls o tell you t h i s . from the m i dd l e. H e ( re)cre ates both
T h ey w i l l a d v i s e y o u t h e best f o o d f o r the pat i e nt and the d i et accord i n g to
e a c h season adjusted to you r own o n e a n ot h e r. A minor d octor wo u l d
b e i ng . Rich p e o p l e take g reat bel i ef i n never c o n s i d e r t h e h a m b u rg e r to b e
th is. E s p ec i a l ly Cantonese take t h i s ' bad food ' , or t h e '20 e u r o ' resta urant
to b e very i m portant; t h e y change m e a l s to be ' g ood ' . A m i n o r doctor
their d i et at t h e change of t h e season. wou l d form u l ate his m i n o r norms
I d o not take notice of that. I am n ot solely o n the basis of obse rvat i o n .
r i c h . B ut w h e n a person g ets r i c h e r, The m i n o r d octor i s n ot s u bjected to
he w i l l d efi n it e l y go to t h e t rad i t i o n a l a medicalisation of health as it has
doctor for advi ce. Peo p l e from the capture d the major doctor. W h e reas
party, for i nstance, who are q u ite rich, Fou c a u l t m i g ht say that m i no r d i etet­
wi l l a lways consu lt a t rad i t i o n a l d oc­ ics are m o re i nterested i n the d i et,
tor to esta b l i s h a d i et accord i n g to w h i l e major d i etet ics are m ore i nt e r­
t h e i r specific body" (05-02-01 ) . ested i n m e d i c i ne, we s h o u l d come to
C o ntrary to t h e Western major t h e con c l u s i o n t hat m i n o r d i etetics
64 In a book on C h i n ese cuisi ne, S i m oons starts by g i v i n g us a n i ce exa m p l e i n which an opposi-
t i on between C h i n a a n d t h e West is beaut i f u l l y v i s i b l e. H e com pares t h e way t h e C h inese have
esta b l i shed their 'culture' to the way the A meri cans did: "In their southward m i g ration, the
C h i n ese, a l iterate people who had the only system of writing i n East A s i a from the second half of
the second m i l l e n n i u m B . C . u n t i l the second century A . D. , faced a s i m i lar s ituation b u t acted very
d ifferently from the A n g lo-A mericans i n their westward expansion across t h e U n ited States.
Whereas t h e A n g lo-Americans largely e l i m inated o r d i s p l aced the abor i g i n a l i n h a bitants, the
C h i n ese commo n l y settled among, and ulti mately absorbed them" (Si moons 1 991: 1 ) .
65 The concept of a 'traditional doctor' i n C h i n a states for the most part that the doctor does not
work according to t h e a l l o pathic m e d i c semio logy, a n d that he h a s stud ied C h i n ese (and Western)
medical theories thoro u g h l y. . . the use of the concept of 'trad ition' refers to a problematic connec-
tion rather t h a n a theorematic one.

act u a l l y do n ot k n ow the d ifference
betwee n food a n d m e d i c i ne. For as
m i n o r med i c i n e d oes not s u bject the
obse rvat i o n to a formal sem i o l ogy,
but rat h e r com poses one o n the bas i s
o f t h e affect i o n s it maps w it h i n t h e
observat i o n , m i n o r d i etet ics d o e s n ot
start with a d ef i n it i o n of the m e d i c a l ,
but r a t h e r i m m a n e n t l y com poses it on
the bas i s of t h e affect i o n s it has
found.
A n d thus, t h e C h i nese m i n o r trad i t i o n
can c o n c l u d e that honey has strong
m e d i ca l powers: " C h i n ese honey
becomes m ore and m ore i m portant
from a h e a l t h perspect ive. I n it i a l l y it
was n ot too popular i n C h i na, but n ow
it is very p o p u l ar, a n d exported a l l
over t h e w o r l d . Peo p l e h ave been eat­
i n g it for a l o n g t i m e in C h i n a, but n ot
very m uc h . O n l y i n t h e 1 990's, p e o p l e
b e c a m e aware o f the h e a lthy effects
h o ney had on the h u ma n body. It is
used to c u re cancer; it can m a ke you
m ore beaut i f u l ; it l owers the b l ood
p ressu re. T h e refore, n owadays p e o p l e
m o re a n d m ore a r e eat i n g honey; it
has become rea l l y popular i n these
d ays. T h e roya l jelly i s t h e m ost
expen s i ve one. It i s very rare, a n d a l s o
o n e o f t h e m ost p o p u l a r o n e s . It i s
made o n l y by the q u e e n h e rs e lf. It i s
very natural, very hea lthy f o r the
body" (05-23-01 b) . The t rad i t i o n a l
d o ctors i n C h i n a s e e n o reason
to att r i b ute o n l y l itt l e m e d i c a l
potent i a l t o t h e d i et. A p rod uct
l i ke h o n ey i s bel i eved to be j u st as
capable of c u r i n g a s e r i o u s d isease
l i ke cancer ... The r i g ht d i e t 66, these
doctors argue, can a l ways h e l p i n
resto r i n g b a l a n ce n o matter how
s e r i o u s the d i sease.
State d i et e t i c s , or major d i et et­
i c s , a l ways starts f ro m t h e b i n a­
ry o p pos i t i o n betwe e n m ed i c i n e
a n d food . T h at i s why s o many of
u s w i t h w h o m m a j o r d i etet i c s
a r e extre m e l y popu l a r s e e m t o
h a v e n o p ro b l e m i n accept i n g
t h at m ed i ca l powers a re b y
d ef i n i t i o n l i m i ted t o p i l l s a n d
powders. T h e refore, m a n y o f u s
h a v e g reat d iff i c u lty be l i e v i n g
t h at h o n e y c a n actu a l l y c u re a
s e r i o u s d i s ease l i ke c a n c e r . O r
t hat m e d i c a l powers a re b y d ef i n it i o n
acc o m p a n i e d by a b a d taste.
Sh o ul d n 't we f i g ht t h i s d i sease by
u s i n g h o r m o n es and c h e m i c a l s ?
S h o u l d n 't we loca l i z e t h e
t u m o r a n d d i s m a n t l e it with
rad i ot h e ra py?
Western major d i etet ics has n ever
shown g reat i nterest in food when it
comes to i ncreas i ng one's h e a l t h i ­
n ess. A major Western (al l o pat h i c )
d octor m i g ht c o n c l u d e th at a fresh
salad i s health i e r for you than a ham­
b u rger, but h e wi l l d ef i n itely not c l a i m
t h a t y o u w i l l g e t better from t h e
s a l a d . I n o t h e r words, h e w i l l d ef i n ite­
l y n ot c l a i m t hat the salad can h ave
m e d i c a l powers. Let a l o n e that it can
c u re serious d i seases l i ke cancer o r
even A I D S.67 F o r t h e p r i n c i p l es of
c l assification to w h i c h he s u bscri bes
wi l l o n l y att r i b ute m e d i c a l powers to
t h e i r d ef i n it i o n of m e d i c i n e, which i s
b i o m e d i c i ne. T h us, o n l y when p e o p l e
a r e c o m p letely contro l led by State
d i etetics can they say: " I 've never
rea l l y wo r r i ed about health . . . You
k now, m ost g ood food aro u n d h e re i s
healthy. . . T h e u n h e a l t hy food p e o p l e
t e n d to e a t a l ot of i n A m e r i ca i s the
fast food and t h i n g s t h at p e o p l e get
w h e n they are j u st o n t h e r u n a n d
they w a n t to e a t " ( 1 0-21-01 a). M i n o r
d i etetics cou l d n ever c o n c l u d e s o m e ­
t h i n g l i ke th at. M i no r d i etetics wou l d
argue that everyt h i n g w e c o n s u m e
has t h e pot e n t i a l to s t i m u l at e t h e
i n d i v i d u a l i n a v a r i o u s ways a n d every
i n d i v i d u a l has t h e pote n t i a l to be
st i m u l ated in v a r i o u s ways. M i n o r
d i etet i cs a r g u e s t h a t t h e c o n ­
ce pts o f f o o d a n d m ed i c i n e a r e
n ot two s e p a rate e n t i t i es.
M e d i ca l pote n t i a l i s a l ways
a l ready act i ve in everyt h i n g
con s u m a b l e j u st l i ke taste a n d
f r a g r a n c e i s pot e nt i a l l y th ere
wait i n g to be act i vated. The
med i c a l is not a n i so l ated cate­
gory cut l oose from the e d i b l e.
It i s n e c e ss a r i l y a part of it.

66 S i m i l a r l y, Lu i nforms us of the benefits g a r l i c has on the body with respect to curing cancer. He exp l a i n s : " . . . it is bel ieved that a s m a l l quantity of
g a r l i c can counteract cancer, but an excessive quantity of g a r l i c can cause cancer ( based on the C h i nese theory that excessive g a r l i c is bad for the
stomach and l i ver)" ( L u 1 992: 52).
67 Consequently, i n the m i d - n i neties i n Holland, there was a very popular TV show in which a n elderly woman from a s m a l l v i l lage ( Klazien u it Zalk)
gave many ( D utch) traditional medical cures that had been passed o n to her from her mother. The t i ps she gave the viewer on how herbs could c u re
a cold or a headache were tolerated (although often r i d i c u l e d by the 'educated' part of the nation). But when she c l a i med on national television that
nature could probably also g i ve u s a cure for a d i sease l i ke A I D S , her TV career was over and the media turned its back o n her. Comedians a l s o
made f u n o f her; one duo e v e n proposed to " . . . perso n a l l y i n s e m i n ate her with the A I D S v i ru s after which she may graze i n her herb g a r d e n u n t i l she
f i nds someth i ng . We hope she succeeds." (Lebbis en Jansen 1994). 87
 D T H E G I� 0 W I N c; C 0 N T I� 0 L
0 O n e a l ways makes u s e of major and m i n o r d i etet ics i n
-0 order define a d iet, i n order to create an est h e t i cs o f l ife.
0
0 They so often ove r l a p t hat one i s f o u n d e m bedded with i n
Cl
(/) t h e other. T h e m i n o r t h o ughts a s we l l a s t h e major wi l l
always b e t here. Regard i n g t h i s l atter category t h o u g h ,
t h e re have b e e n some r a d i c a l changes t a k i n g p l ace as
today on a g l obal scale more and m ore of t h e major d ietary
>
norms used in asse m b l i ng a d i et come from Western al l o ­
path i c d i etetics. A l l o v e r the w o r l d , p e o p l e a r e m ore a n d
m o re p ract i c i n g t h e major m e d i c a l l aws co m i n g from t h e s e
part i c u l a r p r i n c i p l e s o f c l assificat i o n . T h ey h ave b e e n
i ncorporat i n g its l o g i c a n d a c t accord i n g to i t . They have
been capt u red by its parad i g m s and j u d g e t h e i r d i et (th e i r
food a n d t h e i r m e d i c i n e) on t h e bas i s o f t h e a l l o path ic for­
m u las and t h e norms it p roduces.
It is r i d i c u l o u s to t h i n k t h at the c u r rent s u c c e s s of
the m o d e r n West e r n a l l o pat h i c ideas t h at are now
k n ow n th r o u g h o ut the wo r l d a s m ed i ca l s c i e n c e
has anyth i n g to d o with t h e pers i stent r u m o r t h at
t h i s trad i t i o n i s ' better t h a n any ot h e r ' . A s if t h i s
a l l o pat h i c p ract i c e by d ef i n it i o n h o l d s m o re
d i etary truth or good n e s s t h a n t h e Ay u r ved i c o r
the C h i n e s e syst e m s o r t h a n t h e m i n o r d i etet i cs.
W h at a r ro g a n c e . . . N ot o n l y d o w e t h e n forget t h e many
m e r its of t h e alternat i ve major a n d m i n o r d i etetics, we
a l s o l ose s i ght of t h e pol i t i c a l a n d eco n o m i c powers that
have acco m p a n i e d a l l o path i c d i etetics o n its t r i u m phant
marc h . The reaso n s for the present al lopat h i c d o m i n a t i o n
can n ot be found i n its d i st i n ct i ve natu r a l i st i c approach o r
i n i t s m o r a l stre n g t h ; a l lopat h i c m e d i c i n e became t h e
m a j o r d i etetics o f today because o f its p o l it ical and eco­
n o m i c strength. O n ce agai n , the q u i c k r i se of a major
d i etetics s h o u l d be conn ected to pol i t i cs o r to a pol i t i c a l
econo my. Contem porary al l o path i c d o m i n a t i o n s h o u l d
t h e refore be con nected to t h e exp l o s i ve g rowth o f t h e
Western State a pparatus s i n c e t h e e n d o f the 1 8th century,
to colonialism a n d post-colonialism; two art i c u l a t i o n s of
t h e same power str u ct u re (the f i rst t h r o u g h presence,
t h e second t h r o u g h mass com m u n i cat i o n ) t hat made it
poss i b l e for the Western State-form to s u bject t h e rest of
the wo r l d to its rule A N D to t h e major a l l o pat h i c m e d i c a l
sci ence.
With the c o l o n i a l era, a l l o path i c s c i e n c e t rave l e d
with t h e State-apparatus a n d m e r g e d w i t h t h e d if­
ferent soc i et i es a l o n g s i d e t h e other i n st i t u t i o n s
.
i ntrod u ced by t h e Western s u perpowers. T h u s today,
afte r several cent u r i e s of B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l d o m i n at i o n : " . . .
about 95% o f the people i n I nd i a g o f o r a l l opat h i c m e d i c i ne,
and the rest of the 5% go for Ayu rved i c or h o m e o pat h i c
m e d i c advice" (02-1 1 -02) , as o n e B a n g a l o re-based g e n e r a l
pract i t i o n e r est i m ated. A l l o pa t h i c m e d i c i n e has a l o n g
trad i t i o n i n I nd i a , a n d it has s pread its r u l e across t h e
w h o l e o f its territo ry. Even i n t h e poorest areas o f t h e
tow n , p e o p l e have s u c h g reat b e l ief i n t he a l lopat h i c
88 science t hat t h e y d e m a n d to be c u red by an i njection, an
0 F A LL0 PAT H I C D I ET E T I C S
i m portant part of t h e a l lopat h i c i nst itutions i n I nd i a as t h i s
i s what g reatly d i s t i n g u i s h es t h e m f r o m the t rad i t i o n a l
Ayu rved i c m e d i cs w h o do n o t make use o f i t . A n d t h u s , the
q u acks traverse t h e poorest parts of the town making a lot
of money by g i v i n g i nject i o n s wherever it h u rts (pain i n t h e
arm i s c u red by an i nject i o n i n t h e a r m ; pai n i n the h e a d i s
c u re d b y an i nject i o n i n t h e head ) . A l l opat h ic m e d i c i n e
h a s t a k e n control o f I n d i a i n cooperat i o n with the econom­
ic a n d t h e pol i t i c a l power of t h e State-form s u bject i n g the
peop l e of l n<;l i a t9 its r u l e and t h u s to its medical norms
alongside the r u l i ng powers.
It is i nterest i n g to n ote that t h e r u l e of a l l o p at h i c
m e d i c i n e , w i t h i t s s u p posed onto l o g i c a l a n d l o c a l ­
i zat i o n a l i st med i c a l n o r m s , h a s forced Ay u r ved i c
m ed i c i n e i nto a s i m i l a r p o s i t i o n a s h o m e o p at h i c
m ed i c i n e h a s i n t h e West i n t h at today, brands s u c h
as Himalaya i nt e n d to appeal to the h i g h e r c l asses by tak­
ing up a more a n d m o re m i n o r perspective as both sets of
theories a re stres s i n g a d y n a m i c a n d tota l i z i ng approach
that somet i mes even seems to appeal to some k i n d of
h o l istic, a l most s p i r i tu a l, truth. And w h e reas homeopathic
med i c i n e o n l y occas i o n a l l y m a kes reference to a
( E u ro p e a n ) past i n w h i c h h e rbs were reg u l a r l y used for
their m e d i ca l poten t i a l , an Ayurved i c brand s u c h as
H i ma l aya makes a very strong connect i o n to a rich past
w h e re p e o p l e l i ved in harmony with nature, when they took
good care of nature and nature took good care of them.
In H a n g z h o u , C h i na, the c o l o n i a l i st mach i n e has not been
operat i ve , but its post-co l o n i a l s u ccessor i s presently r u n ­
n i ng a t f u l l speed. T h i s t i me, t h r o u g h t h e m a s s m e d i a (the
p r i nted m e d i a, t e l e v i s i o n , a n d more a n d m ore, the i nter­
n et), t h e trust i n t h e a l lopat h i c m e d i c a l norms has g rown
d ramat i c a l l y. T h o u g h h e re , it i s n ot j u st the i njections that
are great l y ap preciated. The q uacks found at t h e local mar­
kets ( d ressed in t h e i r wh ite coats, prou d l y wea r i n g t h e i r
stet h oscopes) do m ake use o f i n j ect i o n s , b u t t h e p i l l s they
s e l l most of t h e t i me ma ke a g reater i m pres s i o n ( perhaps
because t h e C h i nese trad i t i o n was a l ready f a m i l i a r with
the use of needles i n terms of acupu ncture). W hat i s m ost
st r i k i n g h e re are t h e ' m iracle p i l l s ' that are cons idered a
v a l u a b l e add i t i o n to t h e n o r m a l d i et accord i n g to ma ny.
Stores s u c h as Nature Pure U.S. A . , wh ere p i l l s are s o l d at
i ncred i b l e p r i ces t hat c l a i m to i m p rove o n e 's i nt e l l i g ence
o r i n crease the breast s i ze of t h e C h i nese women ( g ener­
ated by Western bea uty ideals), m a ke enormous profit
based o n the g reat 'trust' in Western a l l o path ic m e d i c i ne.
B ut also the more ' accepted ' products of a l l o pat h i c theory
h ave taken root i n t h e city of H a n g z h o u . Even an e l d e r l y
w o m a n i s event u a l l y conv i n ced o f i t s m e d i ca l power:
" Western m e d i c i n e i s more effect i ve, but if you have a
headache it o n l y k i l l s the headache; if you h ave l eg-ache, it
wi l l o n l y c u re yo u r leg. W h i l e accord i n g to t h e C h i nese
syst e m , both food a n d m e d i c i n e j ust want to c u re a person,
the w h o l e body. To cure the whole c o n d i t i o n of a person.
For exa m p l e , if you have a headache, C h i nese food w i l l
focus on t h e w h o l e body; n ot l i ke t h e
as p i r i n s, j u st k i l l yo u r h eadache. I
u s u a l l y use the Western m e d i c i n e . . .
because i t i s m o re effect ive. If I have
some c h r o n i c d i sease, I prefer it t h e
C h i n ese way" {05-1 2-01 a)
A most i nterest i n g d eve l o p m e n t is
that the C h i nese trad i t i o n a l m e d i ca l
p rod ucts today s e e m to have trans­
formed t h e m s e l ves i nto their Western
cou nterpa rts. N ot so m uch in terms of
content o r of methodol ogy, but in
t h e i r appearance they seem to h ave
s l i pped i nto the image of Western
m e d i c i n e as seen in t h e local p h a r m a­
c i es t h at s e l l these ' d i etary s u p p l e­
ments' pressed into u n recog n i z a b l e
p i l l s a n d put i nto st r i ps a n d pots.
A l o n g with the l i st of i ngredi ents a n d
i n struct i o n s for u s e , t h e y h ave even
somet i mes g i ven the m ost t rad i t i o n a l
C h i nese m e d i c i n e a sem i - Lat i n b r a n d
name.
B ut a l l opat h i c d i etetics a l s o has not
rem a i n e d st i l l. On the contrary. I t has
n ever been a c l osed syst e m , and it
has not been i n s e n s i t i ve to t h o u g hts
it encou ntered in t h e c o l o n i a l and
post-co l o n i a l era. Ear l i e r we argued
t hat major d i etetics is a l ways based
o n formal p r i n c i p l e s of c l as s i f i ca t i o n ,
w h i c h means t hat t h e t h e o r i es t h at
are i n c l u d e d have to f i t its premises
in some way; they have to be compati­
b l e with o n e another. This means that
any major d i etetics a lways cons i sts of
f r a g m e nts t hat i n some way work
together as was argued earl i e r; they
f i l l one another; they contri bute to
o n e another ref i n i ng t h e system a n d
c reat i n g w hat i s c o m m o n l y refe rred to
as 'progress '. The m i n o r d i etetics d o
n ot k n o w of p rog ress s i n c e t h e i r
s e m i ot i c i s n ot forma l ; t h e y create
i m manent theories with i m manent
relations that m i g ht, o n t h e bas i s of a
part i c u l a r s i t u at i o n , go back to p r i m i ­
t i ve r u l es, b u t that do not a d d any­
t h i n g to t h e m and t h at certa i n ly do
not take t h e m to b e the start i n g po i nt
of t h e i r analysis.
T h ro u g h out the c o l o n i a l e r a and
in the post-co l o n i a l e r a of today,
t h e a l l o path i c t h e o r i es h ave
been w i d e l y exposed to d i etary
t h e o r i e s t h at were i n c o m p at i b l e
t o t h e i r a p parat u s . M i n o r t h e o r i es
rJJ
+..J
�
ro
p...
�
Cl)
+..J
�
;$
0
u
�
�
Cl)
+..J
rJJ
Cl)
�
a n d other maj or t h e o r i es: s i nce both
of them do not f i t t h e i r formal s e m i ­
o t i c s on w h i c h they base t h e i r m e d ­
ical norms, they d o n ot d i s c r i m i nate
betwe e n t h e m . We c o u l d even say t h at
other major theories a l s o appear to
be m i no r to al l o pat h i c medical theo­
ries s i nce it does not reco g n i z e the
struct u res it i m p l i c i t l y i ncorporates.
A l lopat h i c science s u s pects all t h eo­
r i es t hat are l ocated at the m a rg i n s
o f i t s conversat i o n s , all t h e t h eo r i e s
t h at s e e m to escape i t s p r i n c i p l es.
E s pec i a l ly today, the a l l o pat h i c
sci ences are more powerf u l t h a n ever,
yet t h ey a re attacked from every pos­
s i b l e a n g le. T h e i r doct r i n es and norms
are q uest ioned i n many ways. How
does the major d i etetics of today deal
with t h i s ?
First o f a l l , al l o pat h i c m a j o r d i etetics
( o r State d i etetics) i ntends to s u p -
p ress the t h e o r i es that do n ot f i t its
premises s i m p l y by t h e u s e of Law. If, 89
C'· for i n stance, we take a look at t h e focuses o n locat i ng a n d i d e nt i f y i n g a new d r u g s by p rov i n g the m e d i c a l
-
"'
"' many h e a l t h food stores or v i ta m i n d i sease, " . . . we try to focus on g i vi n g pot e n t i a l o f a 'trad i t i o n a l med i c i n e'
0
-
s h o ps that can b e f o u n d nowadays i n t h e p e o p l e t h e prod ucts that s u p p l y accord i n g to the p r i n c i p l es of a l l o ­
""Cl Bost o n , w e see that t h e n o n -a l l o pat h­ t h e m with n ut r i e nt s t h a t k e e p t h e m pat h i c t h e ory. A n d with g reat s u c ­
0
0 i c in which they are i nterested are n ot h e a l t hy ; It's a d ifferent approach" c e s s . C o n s i d e r how t h e recent ' proof'
Cl

en accepted by the State-fo rm. O n e
store m a n a g e r, for exa m p le, arg u e d :
"So somet h i ng that i s b i g n o w i s
'Noony' j u ice, w h i c h i s from t h e
>
Polynesian I slands. Those people
u s e d it trad i t i o na l l y to h e l p to d estroy
cancer. I mean, they d i d n 't rea l l y ca l l
i t cancer back t h e n , but t h at's w h at
they h ave been u s i n g it for. For t h o u ­
sands of years. It's p retty b i g now f o r
t h e l a s t c o u p l e of years" ( 1 1 -2 1 -0 1 c ) .
But it i s a l s o pretty expensive s i nce,
"A l ot of i n s u rance c o m p a n i e s d o n 't
cover these t h i n g s , so you rea l l y g ot
to pay it out of your own pocket"
( 1 1 -21 -01 c). The m a i n reason for t h i s i s
that if t h i s health food store manager
wants to patent a v i ta m i n o r a medi­
c i n e, which i s n ecessary i n order for
it to b e cove red under a health care
program, he s h o u l d be a b l e to p rove
t hat t h i s m e d i c i n e works . . . according
to the paradigms of allopathic theories.
A n d w h e reas the a l l opat h i c method
( 1 1 -2 1 -01 c ) . An a pproach that ma kes it
u n a b l e to f i t the p r i n c i p l e s of c l as s i f i ­
cat i o n o f al lopat h i c med i c i ne , a n d i s
t h u s n ot accepted as a ' m e d i c i ne ' .
B ut second l y, as prev i o u s l y m e n ­
t i on e d , major al l o pa t h i c science c o n ­
t i n uo u s l y i ncorporates the m i n o r, or
n o m a d , t h o u g ht after it has trans­
formed it accord i n g to its prem ises.
As D e l e u z e a n d G uattar i concl ude:
" ... State science cont i n ua l l y i m poses
its form of sovere i g nty on the i nven ­
t i o n s of n o m a d s c i en ce. State s c i e n ce
ret a i n s of nomad science o n l y what it
can appropr iate; it turns t h e rest i nto
a set of str i ct l y l i m ited form u l as with­
out any real s c i e n t i f i c stat u s . . . "
( De l euze and G uatta r i 1 987: 362). A n d
it d o e s so with g reat eagerness.
C o n s i d e r t h e g reat i nterest that many
p h a rmaceutical c o m p a n i es show
today in 'tra d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e ' .
Together with b i otechnology f i rms,
they d o their very best to ' d i scover'
that o l ive o i Is can l ower ones c h o l es­
terol - a n d thus p revent card i ovas c u ­
l a r d i sease - has c a u s e d a r a d i c a l
c h a n g e i n t h e d i et o f p e o p l e i n
N o rthwest E u rope and N orth-A merica.
We stern a l lopat h i c t h o u g h t i s
not what i t was 200 years a g o . O r
50 years ago. O r 1 0 years ago. I t
i s not a ' co n stant' i n t i m e. N o r i s
i t i n s pace a s the cases of Bangal ore
and H a n g z h o u h ave s h o.w n . I t i s con­
t i n uo u s l y a rt i c u l at i ng itself i n a d if­
ferent way; it is a l ways in a process of
redef i n i ng itself, of reconstruct i n g
itself f r o m f r a g m e nts t h a t c o m m u n i ­
cate. O n t h e one h a n d , t h e major
State science stro n g l y represses a n d
bans t h e t h e o r i es it cons i d e rs i ncom­
pat i b l e to its a p paratus. O n the ot h e r
h a n d , it i s m o re than w i l l i n g to i nter­
pret theories ( i n the name of prog ress)
t hat were at the marg i ns of its r u l e ,
but t hat h ave b e e n c o n s i d e red a p p ro­
p r i a b l e to its prem ises.

E l� E S I S T I N G T H E A LL O PAT H I C l� lJ L E : D I ETET I C S
I N LY O N
By say i n g that a l l o pat h i c s c i e n ce has s pread its r u l e " Pe o p l e j u st ask m o re a n d m o re q u est i o n s on food with
across t h e w o r l d n owad ays a n d h a s become the major mad cow d i sease a n d anyt h i ng t hat has h a p pe n ed rece ntly.
d i etet ics of the post-co l o n i a l w o r l d , we d o N OT mean that They want to know w h e re t h e prod u cts come from . . . " (07-
a l l t h e p e o p l e of t h e world assem b l e t h e i r d i et accord i n g 1 1 -02b ) . A l so t h e fear for Genet i c a l l y M od ified food a n d the
to t h e a l l o pathic n o r ms. O n t h e contrary, m a n y o f t h e conseque nces this m i g ht have for t h e e n v i r o n m e nt, ma kes
n o r m s accord i n g to w h i c h p e o p l e ass e m b l e t h e i r peop l e t h i n k. A s u p e r m a r ket manager c o m m e nts: "They
d i ets c a n be f o u n d a t t h e m a rg i n s o f a l l o pat h i c
t h e o ry, or act u a l l y, a t t h e m a r g i n s o f every m a j o r
d i etary s y ste m . A n d act u a l l y, w i t h the i n crease o f a l l o ­
pat h i c o r m a j o r d i etet ic power, we w i t n e s s resistance i s
g ett i n g stro n g e r a n d stro n ge r.
Let m e take you to t h e city of Lyon wh ere we can c l e a r l y
see t h i s n o rmat i ve batt l e t a k i n g p l ace, w h e re t h e forces of
a l lopat h i c scie nces as they strong l y coalesce with the
State-form find m o re a n d m ore backlash a g a i n st t h e i r
d o m i n at i o n . Lyon i s i ncrea s i n g l y p l a c i ng itself outs i d e its
control as the al l o pat h i c norms are w i d e l y q u estioned and
p u b I i c l y prov i d e d with object i o n s from other t h e o r i es,
other n o r m s that p e o p l e c o n s i d e r m ore val u a b l e , m ore
cont r i bu t i n g to the d e s i re d d i et.
In the streets of Lyo n , the d i s c u s s i o n s on the notion of
'terroir', o n the v a l u e s of l ife, o n the et h i cs of the d i et h ave
b u rst out i n g reat i ntens ity after t h e recent o ut break of
90 mad cow d i sease. Even t h e health food storeowner adds:

· ' organ i c ' foods 68 t hat c a n b e f o u n d i n
check the n otes, n o r m a l l y they do not
check . . . you c a n 't s e l l GM foods here;
it i s agai n st t h e l aw. I t i s j u st a scare"
(07- 1 1 -02) . H e sees remarkable
changes: " Because of t h e mad cow
d i sease, p e o p l e try to f i n d h e a l t hy
food m ore a n d m ore . . ." (07- 1 1 -02) . B u t
what i s t h i s ' healthy' f o o d t h e n ?
S u re l y they d o n o t m a ke g reater use
of a l l o path ic norms regard i n g health
when they assem b l e t h e i r d i ets. T h at
m o re a n d m o re p e o p l e start d r i n k i n g
m i neral water i nstead o f w i ne, as t h i s
s u perma rket manager notices, i s n ot
contrary to a l l o pat h i c theory.
H owever, t h e q u i c k r i s e in so-cal l e d
every s u perm arket n owadays does n ot
rea l l y conform to the a l lopat h i c norms
of a h e a lthy d iet. That t hese foods
m i ght n ot have been t reated with
pest i c i d e s does n ot make t h e m
h e a l t h i e r. P e n c e argues: " I n t r u t h ,
organ i c f o o d can be u n safe. Orga n i c
l ettuce o r s p i n ac h , com m o n l y g rown
in soi l to w h i c h m a n u re has been
added, can conta i n £. coli bact e r i a
[£. coli 0 157:H7 bacter i a, r. d . ] , w h i c h
can c a u s e h e m o r r h a g i c c o l i t i s , acute
k i d ney f a i l u re, and even death" ( Pence
2002: 1 1 7) . And what about the rise of
'trad i t i o n a l ' d i shes that conta i n a l l
sorts o f i ntest i nes that i s d ef i n it e l y
i ncompat i b l e with t h e p r i n c i p l e s of
major med ical t h o u g ht? A n d w hy i s
t h e salesman o f specialty cheeses
,.....
d o i n g bett e r a n d better? " Pe o p l e a re
0
m ore and m ore rea l i z i n g t hat i n d ustri­
a l izat i o n i s n ot as good as what t h ey d
t h o u g ht. The pro d u cts, w h i c h we s e l l ,
a r e perhaps q u ite expensi ve, b u t they
are of h i g he r q u a l ity t h a n you can f i n d
t h e m i n a n y ot her p lace. I t i s s afer t o
b u y h e re " (07-1 8-02b). Safety i s cer-
t a i n l y an argu ment for the p e o p l e to B ove, head of t h e 'Confederation
change t h e i r d i ets. B u t we cannot say Paysanne' farmers u n i o n . A l t h o u g h h e
t hat t h i s ' ot h e r searc h ' for health can ofte n seems to fal l i nto a rat h e r 'tra-
be exp l a i n e d only i n terms of a search d it i o n a l i st' d i scou rse, h e seems to
for safety. p reach a d y n a m i c set of m i no r norms
I t is n ot s i m p l y a fear or a more c r i t i ­ that a re stron g l y t i e d to t h e terroir
cal att itude toward m a j o r m e d i c a l (the so i l , the l a n d ) that ca l l s for a
norms. W h at we witness h e re is good d i et on the basis of w h at affects
a s l ow s h ift towards a m i n o r the body i nstead of deterritori a l i z i ng
d i etet i cs, towards m i n o r d i etary foods i nto a f o r m a l m e d i ca l syste m .
norms t h at are n ot o p posed to A l s o , h e f u n ct i o n s as the head o f t h e
major d i etary n o r m s , but t h at resistance i n h i s f i g ht agai nst w h at h e
h ave a d ifferent n at u re a l togeth­ cal l s 'malbouffe' ( bad food ) , t h e
er. T h e y a r e n o r m s t h a t have d ifferent
p r i n c i p les o f compos i t i o n , that are n ot 68 Organic foods are not o n l y popu lar i n
c u m u l at i ve, t hat d o n ot p l ace foods in France or i n t h e Western w o r l d . I n Hangzhou,
a formal system in order to d eterm i n e C h i na, where the concept o f ' t h e natura l ' has
if they a re ' h ealthy'. They ref u s e m ore a l ways attracted many people, especia l l y when
and more to be s ubject to the dom i nant it comes to the composition of a d i et, restau-
al lopat h i c system as they are c reat i n g rants nowadays are s e l l i n g more 'wild vegeta-
a d i etet ics of t h e i r own. b l e s ' - vegetables t h a t a r e n o t grown by farm-
These m i n o r norms are best expressed ers, but that are freshly pi cked from the woods
by t h e farm er/s h e p h e rd /act i v i st, Jose every m o r n i n g . 91
<'· d ietary norms i m posed on us by the
-
"'
Q) a l l o path i c sci ences i n cooperat i o n
0
-
with t h e State-apparatuses. H e f ig hts
-c the major a l l o pathic m e d i c a l powers
0
0 t hat d o m i n at e the wo r l d acco r d i n g to
Cl
(/) t h e i r parad i g m s a n d t h e way these
norms are used by the State appara­
tuses in t h e i r efforts to norma l i z e a n d
code t h e social i n o r d e r for capita l i s m
to sl ide in.
l­
a:: It i s n o c o i n c i d e n ce t h a t t h e Fre n c h
et
a.
press often c o n s i d e rs h i m a m o d e r n ­
day e q u i v a l e nt o f A sterix, the c o m i c
h e r o created b y U d e rzo a n d G o s c i n ny.
N ot o n l y because B ove and A st e r i x
p hys i ca l l y res e m b l e e a c h oth e r ( a
stocky com bative a ppearance with a
large mo ustache) , but a l s o because,
l i ke A sterix, h e f i g hts t h e c o l o n i z e r,
t h e d o m i nant State a pparatus, a n d
the socio-econom ical orga n i zations
t hat accompany it. . . Aste r i x f o u g ht t h e
R o m a n s a n d t h e i r d o m i nance; B ove
f i ghts E m p i re - that c o n g l om erate of
State-forms t hat o perates a l o n g s i d e
the m a j o r m e d ical norms h e s o
stro n g l y rejects.
But whe reas Aste r i x kept Roman
power at a d i stance by conq u e r i n g the
Roman army at t h e time of J u l i us
Caesar, Bove ha-s--to adopt d iffe rent
tech n i q ues. M a i n ly because the d o m i ­
n a n t powers of today a r e n ot l i m ited
b y t e rritorial b o u n d a r i e s ; they d o n ot
have an o uts i d e a nym ore s i nce the
i nte rco n n ectedness of the m u lt i t u d e
o f appa ratuses c reates cont i n uo u s
contro l , a continuous forc e o f deterri­
t o r i a l ization Jameson calls the
' post m o d e r n ' (Jameson 1 99 1 ) , the
phase w h e re modern ist oppositions
cease to be o p p o s i t i o n s any m o re, but
s l i d e i nto o n e another c reat i n g
streams o f control, streams o f sover­
e i g n power.69 E m p i re can n ot be kept
o uts i d e as were t h e Romans. E m p i re
has s pread itself ac ross t h e e n t i re
face of t h e eart h . Its o r g a n i z a t i o n i s
everyw h e re. H e can n ot s t e p o uts i d e
E m p i re to f ig ht i t , h i s p rotests m ust
come from t h e i n s i de. He can n ot
attack the order of E m p i re from the
o ut s i d e ; h e i s forced to excavate it
f rom the i n s i d e l i ke a terrori st.
I n the absence of s o l d i ers, B ove
attacks the s y m b o l s of E m p i re, t h e
s i g n s t hat rad i ate its power. A n d t h u s , across m a n y s h o p p i n g a reas of t h e
near a s m a l l city i n the sout hwest o f worl d ; it rad i ates i t s power over
France i n 1 999, a batt l e between a many moto r i sts as it towers above t h e
representative of m i nor d i etary norms h i g hways l i ke a m o d e r n d a y A rc d e
a n d a representative of major d i etary Tr i u m ph . The G o ld e n A r c h e s does not
norms took p l ace when Bove, together s i m p l y s ym b o l i z e the power of
with his 'Confederation Paysanne', M c D o n a l d 's ; n o r d oes it symbo l i z e a
attacked a M c D o n a l d 's restau rant by p o l itical a n d econ o m i c s u pe r i ority - it
d e mo l i s h i ng t h e famous G o l d e n e m b o d i e s it. It rad iates its l o g i c , its
Arches d is p l ayed o n i t s rooftop. Bove norms. U nfo l d i ng a moral ity the
h i mself e x p l a i n s : "We d i d n ot want m o m e nt it i s recog n i zed, t h e moment
M c D on a l d 's to b e seen as a p r i m e tar­ its author ity acknowl e d g e d .
get. It's merely a symbol of econ o m i c To B o v e a n d h i s comrades, the G o l d e n
i m pe r i a l i s m . It rep resents anonymous A rches e m b od i es t h e 'ma/bouffe', t h e
g l obal ization, with l itt l e re l evance to deterrito r i a l i zed food ; f o o d t h a t i s s o
real food ." 70 The G o l d e n A rc h e s rad i c a l l y deterrito r i a l i zed t h at it h a s
rad i ates i m p e r i a l i s m ; i t i s t h e l itt l e to d o any l o n g e r with the f r u i t
c o r re l ate o f postcol o n i a l power o f the l a n d , w i t h t h e terroir, or w i t h
that not o n l y overcodes the n o n ­ anyt h i n g t hat even res e m b l es an
Weste r n part of t h e Wo r l d , b ut i s a g r i c u l t u ra l product. H ow stro n g l y
act i ve everyw h e re. Today, t h e Bove resents that!
G o l d e n Arches has s pread its r u l e

F T li E V l l� T lJ A L I T Y O F
The a r g u m e nts between m a j o r a n d m i n o r d i etetics d o n ot
i nt e n d to be descr i pt i ve i n any way. Ear l i e r, we q uoted
Pence who c l a i me d t h at o rg a n i c food was not a l ways so
' healthy' (accord i n g to the present a l lopat h i c t h eo r i es)
s i nce it forms a good b reed i n g g ro u n d for the harmful £.
co/i 0 157:H7 bacter i a. At the same t i me, h owever, E r i c
S c h losser, w h o wrote the bests e l l e r 'Fast Food Nation '
�
(Schlosser 2002) g i ves us exact l y th e same reason for
avo i d i ng fast food. For a large part of his book, h e f u l m i­
n ates a g a i nst M c D o n a l d 's a n d t h e way it keeps its t h e cat-
69 O r as Jameson h i mself says: "Postmodernism i s what y o u have when
the modernization process i s compl ete and nature i s gone for good"
(Jameson 1 99 1 : ix).
92 70 Wednesday J u n e 1 3 , 2001 , T h e G u ardian, Manchester, U K .
N O l� lvl S
t i e u nd e r such poor c o n d i t i o n s that m i crobes s u c h as £.
co/i 0 157:H7 have every opport u n ity to f l o u r i s h a n d u l t i ­
m a t e l y to d o s e r i o u s d a m a g e to the c o n s u m e r (as these
bacter i a can release powerfu l tox i n s called Verotonix or
Shiga toxin t hat attack t h e l i n i n g of the i ntest i n e, he
exp l a i n s ) .
O n c e m o re, t h i s convi nces u s t h a t d i etary d i s c u s s i o n s
a re n o t based o n i d ea s o n n at u r a l l aw or p h y s i c a l
p re m i s es, but o n n o r m s . T h ey i ntend to create a 'nor­
mative logic'. D i etetics a re part of t h e " . . . pos i t i ve d o m a i n s
o f knowledge" ( Foucault 1 970: 365), a s w a s a r g u e d ea r l i er, i n
t hat they create functions that center around those very
vague concepts l i ke ' h e a l t h ' and ' hy g i e n e ' . The norms
accord i ng to w h i c h a d i et i s asse m b l e d are p o s i t i o n e d
acco r d i n g to t h e s paces c reated by these f u n c t i ons. T h e
act of assembling: t h i s i s w h at
d i et'e t i c s i s a l l about. A n d regard­
less of whether t h i s takes p l ace
accord i n g to a formal or an i m manent
sem i ot i cs, we cannot deny that a d i et
is n ecess a r i l y created between the
e l e m e nts that compose it. It a l ways
a l ready escapes the i n d i v i d u a l e l e­
m ents. It is n ever an essentialist p rac­
t ice. It is a relational one.
H ow else can we m a ke sense of the
rad ical d ifference t h e yo u n g p e o p l e in
Lyon experience betwee n p u rc h a s i n g
a C o c a - C o l a with some f r i es a t a
M c D on a l d 's a n d p u rchas i n g it at a
kebab shop. As one you n g woman con­
c l ud e d : " I won't say it i s an i de o l o g i ­
cal c h o i ce, but a s far I am concerned,
it i s i d e o l o g i c a l . I do not l i ke the
A m e r i can way of l if e ... It i s j ust a
social p o i nt of v i ew. . . It is rea l l y a
c h o i ce to go to the kebab p l aces; it i s
n ot a choice if you l i ke it, but t h o s e
p e o p l e w i l l n ot g o t h e A m e rican
p l aces" (07-1 2-02b).
The g reat d ifference betwee n h ow
t h i s woman experie nces a m e a l
serve d a t M c D o n a l d 's a n d a m e a l
serve d a t a k e b a b s h o p has l itt l e to
d o with the i ng re d i e nts. As was men­
t i o n e d , both m e a l s i n c l u d e a C oca­
cola and some Fre n c h f r ies. An oppo­
s it i o n i s created because of t h e way
t h e m e a l is com posed in re l a t i o n to
its context. She ma kes her c h o i ce n ot
so m u c h on the basis of w hat t h e d if­
ferent m e a l s taste l i ke or what t h e i r
fragrance i s ; she distinguishes the
meals because of what they express.
A n d in th at respect, they d iffer g reat­
ly. T h e mea l s c o m pose a very
d ifferent s e m i ot i c s . A s e m iotics
that, in bot h cases, a lways a l ready
transcends the d ifferent e l e m e nts,
a n d codes them accord i ng to part i c u ­
l a r norms.
H ow e l se can we can we make sense
of this c h o i ce other than by stres s i n g
t h e i m me d i at e relational character of
t h e way she assem b les h e r d i et? H ow
e l se can we descr i be h e r search oth e r
t h a n as 'an aesthet ics o f I i f e ' to u s e
71 Desi res are always about t h e need f o r cre­
ating a connection. G u attari c l a i m s : " ... there is
no des i re-in-itself" ( G uattari 1 995: 226). Desire
is by defi n ition a relational concept.
.
"'d
0 t h e l i nes of d i vergence a n d t hat can
0 o n l y b e i nterpreted from the i m ma­
bO
. ,...-(
u with whom w e have s po ke n i n
. ,...-(
"'d
C'd
s
0
z a normative l og ic.
t h e words of Foucau lt? A n aesthetics
composed betwee n t h e e l e m ents, t h at
creates a cont rast, a stage for t h e self
l i ke a ready-m ade. It i s an aesthetics
of com b i na t i o n , an aesthetics of sen­
sation in that it defines t h e p o l itical
accord i ng to t h e eth i cal, accord i ng to
t h e moral, accord i n g to the m e d i c a l .
L i f t i n g i t s e If f r o m the face o f t h e
earth as it i m m a n e n t l y creates a
p la n e para l l e l to it.
N o rms are d ef i n it e l y e m p i r i c a l , but it
i s an e m p i r i c i s m t hat by d ef i n it i o n
removes i t s e l f from m atter. It i s by
d ef i n it i o n transce n d i n g the mat e r i a l
a s it a l ways a l ready acts accord i n g to
a m u l t i p l i c ity of virtual re l a t i o n s t h at
acco mpany the experience as Levi­
Strauss a l ready stressed (Levi­
Strauss 1 986). His ideas o n struc­
t u ra l i s m a l ready consi ders that o u r
i d eas o n t h e t h i ng s w e e a t are n ot
struct u re d by o u r l i v i n g from o n e
act u a l ity to a n ot h e r, b u t
by norms t hat b e a r a v i rt u a l i -
ty t h at i s actu al ized accord i ng to
n e nt perspect i ve of the act u a l i zat i o n
o f t h e v i rt u a l . T h e a c t o f eat i n g
a l ways a l ready enters t h e v i rt u ­
a l ity o f t h e real.
T here i s n o o t h e r way w e can exp l a i n
t h e i l l u s t r i o u s words o f t h e f o u n d e r
a n d pres i dent o f M c D o n a l d 's i n
J a p a n , D e n F u j ita, w h o i m p ressed h i s
fel low J a p a n e s e i n stat i n g : " If w e eat
h a m b u rgers for a thousand years, we
w i l l become b l on d . A n d when we
become b l o n d , we can conquer t h e
wor l d " (Rifkin 1 992: 271 ) . I n n o way was
h i s c l a i m ' i rrat i o n a l ' or s i l l y as so
many Western c o m m e ntators h as­
tened to say. O n the cont rary, it defi­
n it e l y bears a l og i c. A v i rt u a l l o g i c
i nv o l v i n g n o r m s t h at a r e i nterwoven
with the real. And it i s a l o g i c that has
spread, t hat has t raveled t h r o u g h
v a r i o u s conversat i ons. Many p e o p l e
H a n g z h o u s u p ported h i s c l a i ms. They
re late to the conn ections h e makes;
they f o l low the f l ows, the con nect i ons
between the territories, the s u rfaces
he asse m b l es. It is d ef i n it e l y a l o g i c ,
Levi-Strauss a l ready n oted t hat, "The
world begins to s i g n ify before anyone
k nows what it s i g n if i e s ; the s i g n if i e d
i s g i ven w i t h o ut be i n g known" ( Levi­
Strauss 1 968: 48-49) . A n d the same
goes for norms. I t i s never t h e case
t hat we attach norms to w hatever we
experience i n t h e confrontat i o n . T h at
i s not t h e case at a l l . N o rms are
a l ways a l ready a n i nt r i n s i c part of
w hatever we see. N o r m s are
a l ways a l ready t u r n i n g matter
i nto mater i a l i ty ' b efore' cod i n g
it, before i t confronts u s . T h ey
are a l ways a l ready penetrat i n g
m atters w i t h t h e i r f u nct i o n s,
d eterrito r i a l i z i n g t h e m by
i n c l u d i n g t h e m i nto new t e r r ito­
r i es, pos i t i o n i n g them accord i n g
t o parad i g m s, t o other f u n ct i o n s ,
to a l o g i c .
T h e v i rt u a l i s a lways a l ready act ive
with i n t h e c h o i ces we are a l l owed to
m ake. It i s " real w i t h o ut being act u a l , 93
('-
....
i d e a l without b e i n g
"'
Q) abstract " , as Proust con-
0 ject u res ( De l euze
"O Berg son i s m 1 988: 96).
0
0
"'
W h e t h e r we h ave to
(/) d e c i d e between a
.... m e a l from an e x p e n -
"'
..<: s i ve rest a u rant a n d a
$:
M c D o n a l d 's m e a l , o r
>
• betwe e n a m e a l p re-
I-
II: rJJ pared by s o m e o n e
et
w h o l oves us a n d a
a.
� m e a l p repare d by
� s o m e o n e t h at does
0 not k n ow u s , our diet
is always already
CJ.)
incorporated within a
� multiplicity o f system-
· �
atics that transcends
rJJ
it. Whether we make use
� of a State d i etet i cs
· �
(reacti ve) o r create a
� nomad d i etet i cs (act i ve ) ,
ro we rem a i n o n e step away
from the e m p i r i ca l .
s L i ke State d i etetics,
0 nomad i c d i etetics
� i n ev i t a b l y m a kes use of
codes, but it does not
CJ.) overcode. It keeps itself
� open to the real as m uch
+..J as pos s i b l e aware of its
+..J
�
·
constant i n novat i o n , of
� the d ifferent s paces it
ro creates. It n ever c l a i m s a
q u a l ity to be part o f 'food
CJ.) itse lf' i n t h e sense t h at,
> as p h e n omena, foodst uff
ro pre s u p poses a synthesis
� whose s o u rce is t h e
s a m e as the s o u rce of
� re lations. N o m a d i c
�
d i etet i cs dete r r i t o r i -
ro a l i z e s w h at you are
CJ.) about to eat, b ut it
deterrito r i a l i ze s it i n
� ll
re l a t i o n to the s e lf. I t
do'es not p l edge a l l e-
g i ance to a formal s e m i -
ot i c , to for m u l as t h at te l l
y o u w h a t to eat a n d what
not to eat; it creates an
i m m a n e nt s e m i ot i c on
the b a s i s o f re l a t i o n s . I t
i s n ot a morality in t hat it
comes u p w i t h r u l e s o n
94 w h a t i s good f o o d a n d
what i s n ot; it i s an ethics i n that it
p ro poses an i m ma n e nt search for the
good.
A search for that d i et that affects you
best. It d oes n ot ma ke u s e of ready-
made d ef i n it i o n s on what is healthy
a n d what i s not. I t c reates a concept
of h e a l t h i ness i n i m m a n ence .
N om a d i c d i etetics d oes n ot say t hat
alcohol i s bad. T h e C h i nese com poser,
Z ha n g Z e n g X i n g , t e l l s u s : " W h e n I
com pose some m u s i c , I wi l l h ave.a
c u p o f a l c o h o l " (05-1 7-01 ) because h e
c l a i m s t h at it g i ves h i m i ns p i ration.
N om a d i c d i etetics i s a search for t h e
good, an active creat i o n of l if e t hat
comes about as a res u lt of evad i n g
t h e major ru les. I t i nvolves a d i etetics
as a s i n g u l a r searc h . I n t h e words of
a n I nd i an h o u sewive: " M o re t h a n l i s -
t e n i n g to w hat t h e d octor s a i d , we
have t r i ed it on o u r own with t r i a l a n d
error. W e t r i e d out a n d whatever expe-
r i e n ces we had is i m po rtant. . ." (02- 1 9-
02) . It i s t h e assem b lage o f a d i et i n
i m ma n e n c e o n t h e bas i s of which it
becomes a frame of life. Arran g i n g
itself i n t h i s frame. Pure experience. A
pure experiment. Perhaps Tom Wa its
p h rased it most e lo q u e n t l y i n a song
from his early years: " N ow I ' m smok-
ing c i g a rettes and I strive for p u rity"
(Waits 1 992) . H ow e l s e c o u l d h i s voice
have become so expres s i ve, s o coa-
l esced with l ife if it weren't for the
frequent use of c i g a rettes (and
w h i s key)? What doctor st i l l has the
a u d acity to c l a i m t hat ' s m o k i n g i s bad
for ones h e a l t h ' ?
We all have a l itt l e n o m a d i n s i d e
of u s . A nomad that does n ot b l i n d ly
f o l low t h e r.u l e s a n d reg u l at i o n s that
a r e assigned us, b u t that searches for
the good by h i ms e lf. I t does n ot fol low
t h e l i near, c u m u l at i ve roads that stri-
ate t h e s paces h e e nters, but creates
t h e m by f o l l o w i n g h i s t u r b i d affec-
t i ons, the con nect i o n s created by its
desi res.71 It d o e s n o t ward off t h e
p r i nc i p l e s of t h e major b y recod i n g
the s pace. O n the contrary. The
n o m ad ma kes n o att e m pt to d o t h at.
The n o m ad creates a " perpetual d i s -
p lacement i n t h e i nt e n s i t i e s d e s i g nat-
ed by proper names, i nt e n s i t i e s t hat
i nterpenet rate o n e another at t h e
same t i m e that they a r e l i ved, experi-
enced by a s i n g l e body" ( De l euze 1 986:
1 46). N om a d i c t h o u g ht proposes a
d y n a m i cs that trave l s i n para l l e l to
the d y n a m i cs of l ife. It i s n ot separat-
e d from l if e o r i nten d i n g to contro l it.
It f u nct i o n s with l ife. As O n e.
N om a d i c t h o u g ht p ro poses that we a l l
become M aster G reat M a n , one of t h e
Seven Sages of t h e Bamboo G rove
a n d t h e central character i n t h e poem
by L i u L i n g (? - 265 B . C . ) s hown be l ow.
Master· G reat M a n , the D i onys u s,
father o f the Obermensch as N i etzsche
c a l l s t h e o n e who has l i be rated h i m -
s e l f f r o m a l l t h e struct u res o f contro l .
Or t h e Body Without Qrgans as
D e l e u ze a n d G uattar i refer to t h i s
position that h as done away with
organizat i o n , that h as d o n e away with
t h e acceptance o f f o r m a l oppo s i t i o n s .
To Master G reat M a n , it i s the w i n e
t hat i s g o o d for t h e body/ m i n d , t hat
strengt h e n s t h e body/ m i n d , that g i ves
h i m j oy. B ut becom i n g Master G reat
Man has n oth i ng to d o with an a d d i c-
t i o n o r even with a focus on w i n e
' itself'. T h e re i s no reason for us to
adopt h i s h a b i t of d r i n k i n g wine.
N o mad i s m has n ot h i n g to do
with a ret e r r i t o r i a l i zat i o n or w i t h
a recod i n g o r a re- o rd e r i n g of
what we eat. It i n vol ves a cont i n -
uous deterrito r i a l i z a t i o n . A n
absolute deterr ito r i a l i z a t i o n .
It i s t h e true aesthetics of life Liu L i n g
proposes. That is, in order to become
n o m a d , we should f o l l ow his search
for the good. L i ke Master G reat M a n ,
w e s h o u l d asse m b l e a d i et t hat f i t s
o u r l i ves best, that sat i s f i es o u r l o n g -
i n gs, that ' m akes us pass to a g reater
perfect i o n ' as S p i noza m i ght say. L i ke
Master G reat M a n , we s h o u l d ward off
any form of o r g a n i z a t i o n o r any power
that i m poses a formal structure upon ·Il
the way we asse m b l e our d i et, t h at
i ntends to striate o u r experiences of
food. N ot by t u r n i ng our backs to
M a j o r r u les o r State d i etetics per
s e , but by becoming unaware o f t h e m ,
by see i n g t h o u g h them. I f we reach
out to t h e n o m a d , we s h o u l d n ot be
i nterested i n the s i g n s it c reates, i n
the way it t r i e s to s u bject us to its
r u l es. T h e power of M a j o r o r
State d i etetics s h o u l d b e c o m e
i m pa l pa b l e to u s . . .
Juide song (In Praise of the Virtue of Wine)
Liu Ling (? - 265 B.C.)

There is Master Great Man-

For him heaven and earth are a single morning,
A thous and ye ars just a short moment.
The sun and the moon are mere windows for him,
The Eight Wilds are his plea sure garden.

He travels without whe el s o r tracks,

S o j o urns without house or heart.
Heaven is his curtain and earth his s e at ;
He indulges i n what he pleas e s .

Stopping, he grasps h i s wine-cup,

Holds fast to his goblet;
Moving, he c arries a casket,
Holds a j ar in his hand.
His only obligation is toward wine,
But o f that he knows plenty.

S om e noble princely c ourtier

And an official in s e clusion
C om e to hear my s ong,
To deliberate its worth.

Flapping wildly their s l e eves,

Pulling up their robes,
Anger in their eyes,
They l oudly gnash their teeth_

They explain to me
The rules of ritual and order,
Raise for me their lances
To show what's right and wrong.
The Master, however, only
Holds up his j ar
And goes on with his wine,
Cherishing his cup
To the last lees.

With ruffled whiskers he sits,

Legs spread indec ently apart;
The yeast b e c o m e s his pillow,
The s e diments his mat.

Utterly free from yearnings and from worri es,

Always happy and full in his c ontentment­
Without ever moving he gets drunk,
Then, with a start, he sobers up.

Listens quietly,
But d o e s not the b o o m o f rolling thunder;
Watches intently,
But d o e s not s e e towering Mount Tai.

Unaware of the c o l d biting his fl esh,

Unmoved by the afflictions of c ommon gre ed.

Looking down he watch e s :

T h e myriad b eings b u s t l e there about
Like tiny p i e c e s of duckweed
Floating on the Han and the Jiang.

The two courtiers stand as s e rvants at his s ides,

Like c aterpillars near a sphinx.

( Kohn 1 993: 300-1 ) 95

96
A T H E C l� E A T I O N O F TA S T E
O n e of t h e l ast conversat i o n s I had for t h i s book was with the famous c hef P h i l i ppe C have nt on the roof
terrace of h i s 'la Tour Ros e ' restaurant in t h e h eart of t h e o l d center of Lyon where we spent about four
h o u rs ta l k i n g over a f a b u l ou s l unch about food and everyt h i n g that con n ects to it. Known to be a very c re­
ative and o r i g i n a l c hef, h e reco u nted how h i s passion for coo k i n g came with h i s l ove for ( m o d e r n ) classi­
cal m u s ic, fine arts, and arch itect u re. H e exp l a i n e d to m e how h e crossed the barriers of t h ese d i s c i p l i nes
as h e h i mself was often i nvolve d i n ' i nterd i s c i p l i n ary' art proj ects that s o m e h ow i nvolved food, very popu­
l a r i n a rt these d ays ( K i rschenb latt- G i m b l ett 1 999). Perfor m a n ces that i nvolved t h e act of eat i n g , that
i nvolved food products, o r that were somehow con nected to t h e d es i res of c o n s u m p t i o n 72• Performances
t hat asked an express i o n i s m from food i n its re l a t i o n to ot h e r art forms. At the end of the conversat i o n ,
wheri C havent d e l i be rated about w hat t h e n made t h e a rt o f cook i n g d ifferent from ot her art f o r m s , he t o l d
me a b o u t h i s l if e l o n g d r e a m to start an 'lnstitut d u Gout': "An I n stitute o f Taste. N ot o f products. Peo p l e
a l ways m a k e a d i rect l i n k betwee n products a n d taste, but I d o n 't s e e t hat. I am i nterested i n taste . . .
C o o k i n g i s a bout t h e c reat i o n o f taste." (07-30-02a).
C havent gave a n i ce s u m mary of what was performed t h ro u g hout t h i s text by stat i n g t hat coo k i n g is about
the creat i o n of taste a n d n ot about t h e products. It i s n ot an i nterest in what food i s o r what it s h o u l d be.
Rat h e r it i s a n i nterest in how the ed i b l e comes i nto e x i st e n c e , in h ow the relations betwee n the
e l em e nt s create the e d i b l e , h ow they create sense and sensat i o n , the eth i cal and the esthetical. By stat­
i n g t h at h e is s o l e l y i nterested in w hat happens betwee n t h e i n g red i e nts, C h avent f o c u s e s on i m m a­
n e n c e ; on how, w it h i n t h e conf rontat i o n , o n e e l em e nt is re l ated to t h e ot her. He is n ot i nterested i n t h e
d ifferent i n g re d i ents t h e m s e l ves, but rat h e r i n what h a p p e n s betwee n t h e m w h e n t h ey a r e confronted
with one another. Between the Port wine r i p e n e d in oak barrels, a n d the sa lty bitterness of an aged
cheese; between t h e soft text u res of Japanese tofu a n d t h e orange that perm eates it with its sweet fresh­
n ess. O r between a 1 998 Beau j o l a i s C r u itse lf, a n d the way the f l owers, t h e lavender, t h e o l i ves, a n d t h e
w i l d raspbe r r i es are i nc l uded with t h e g r a p e s c reat i n g a c o m p l ex b o d y o f tastes a n d f l avors. I n a wonder­
f u l cookbook on C h i nese c u i s i n e, B uwei adds to C havents a n a l y s i s on coo k i n g : " D i shes are prepared i n
relat i o n t o t h e m a n n e rs o f eat i n g t h e m " ( B uwei 1 956: 40) . S h r i m p i s pre pared i n re l a t i o n t o t h e way the
chopst i c ks can get a grip on t h e m , t h e cut l et s are prepared accord i n g to t h e fork a n d t h e kn ife.
I was g reatly i n s p i red by what C havent (and B uwei) had to te l l me. For i n deed t h i s i s n ot only an e l e m e n ­
tary l esson i n c o o k i n g . K i n g W e n H u i , who w a s i nt roduced i n the f i rst part o f t h i s book, a l ready s a w that
the e l o q u ent way in w h i c h his C h ef Ting g u i d ed h i s knife t h r o u g h the ox, t h o u g h the textu res, crevi ces,
and h o l lows t hat com pose the body of the ox. K i n g Wen H u i saw t h at h i s C hef was d o i n g m u c h more than
slaughtering or bon i n g a n ox. C h ef Ting taught h i m a bout life, h e exc l a i med, w h i c h i s exact l y w hat
C havent and Buwei a l s o do. The t h ree of t h e m teach u s to t h i n k from the relation. The re l a t i o n between a
Port a n d some ch eese, betwee n s h r i m p a n d t h e chopsticks, a n d betwe e n the ox a n d t h e kn ife. They teach
u s the Tao, the Way of Life, as K i n g We n H u i exp l a i n ed . The true Tao as it was p e r haps best p h rased by Lao
Tze, the i l l ustrious f o u n d i n g fat h e r of Tao i s m , w h o stat e d : "We put t h i rty s po kes together a n d call it a
w h e e l ; but it is the s pace where t h e re is not h i n g that the usef u l ness of t h e wheel depends" Lao-Tze ( Lao­
Tze 1 993: 1 1 ) . They teach us to t h i n k from t h e s p ace between . T h ey teach us to t h i n k how t h e
e l e m e nts f u n ct i o n i n struct u res, h o w t h e e l e m ents a r e c o d e d o r e v e n overcoded from t h e
betwe e n . They teach u s to t h i n k n ot i n t e r m s o f t h e q u a l i t i e s to b e f o u n d wit h i n each e l e me nt, b u t i n how
q ual i t i e s are created between the e l e m e nts. T h ey teach u s that the essence of a body is its com­
positeness.

72 C havent told me about one of h i s projects that was fasc i n ating: "We created a show with dancers, m u s i cians, and lyrical
s i n gers who sang with t h e i r mouths f u l l. A n d the cooks were cooking while the m u s icians were playing; thus the noises they
were m a k i n g w h i l e cook i ng were part of the music. So, for i n stance, it was written down when they s h o u l d start m i n c i n g meat
and that it should make such and such noi se. It was part of the m us ic, and people were eating at the same ti me. And the singer
sang accord i n g to the taste: so when the taste was sweet, she sang i n a sweet way; when it was sour, i n a sour way. It was part
of the whole show. B ut there was a l so a dancer coming down from Parmesan clouds, and her d ress was made of cheese; and she
__,
was j ust r u n n i n g among the aud ience, so they cou l d taste a l l these cheeses. S o i n the end, she wou l d have no c l othes on" (07-
30-02a). 97
 B
"
0
0 T l-I E C l� E A T I O N O F CO N C E P T S
S i m i l a r to t h e way C h avent searches to create tastes, t h e p rev i o u s sect i o n s were searc h i n g
to c reate c o n c e pts as we l e a r n e d f rom D e l e u ze a n d G u attari ( De l euze and G u attari 1 994).
Language has re p l aced the foodstuff and the coo k i n g ute n s i l s m a k i n g the enterprise a very d ifferent one,
(/) but an et h i cs all t h e same. L i ke t h e tastes created by C havent, t h e concepts were n ot created ex nihilo
u
either; they were put forward w h i l e f o l l o w i n g the text u res, crevi ces, a n d h o l l ows that com pose the texts.
They were composed accord i n g to the books, the conversat i o ns , and the experie nces in the c i t i es
c:
"'
sojourned. L i ke with taste the concepts were cont i n uo u s l y ( re)com posed i n t h e process. With o u r p h i l o­
c:
s o p h i ca l ant h ropology we c reate concepts t h e way C havent creates taste with the art of cook i n g .
0
I n the prev i o u s paragraph, w e noted t h at w i t h t h e c reat ive p rocess o f coo k i n g and i t s focus on w h at hap­
(/)
::l pens betwee n prod u cts, C h avent not only t e l l s u s somet h i ng about cook i n g , h e teaches u s about l ife. I n
u
_
c: experi me n t i n g , i n h i s focus o n expres s i o n , h e s h ows u s l ife. H e s hows u s how l ife works. S i m i l a r l y, t h e
0
u prev i ou s parts, i n t h e i r p h i l o s o p h i c a l str u g g l es, i n t h e i r creat i o n o f conce pts, a r e n ot o n l y d e s c r i pt i ve i n
t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f food a n d h o w w e l i ve with i t ; a s w a s m e n t i o n ed i n t h e i ntroduct i o n , t h e concepts are
art i c u l ated with food, but are d ef i n it e l y n ot l i m ited to it. The sect i o n s in t h i s v o l u m e are n ot o n l y a
response to t h e fo rces that orga n i ze o u r world a n d to t h e s i n g u l a r i t i e s that escape t h e m . These texts a re
n ot o n l y a response to conservat i s m a n d l i be ra l i s m , to c h a n g e or to t h e rat i o n a l . They p ro pose an act i ve
i ntervent i o n s i m i lar to t h e way C h avent a n d B uwei a n d C h ef T i n g p ro posed th at. They p ropose an act u a l ­
ized eth i cs. I n a l l t h e s e cases, it i s n ot o n l y a p o l i t i c a l state m e nt t hat i s b e i n g m a d e . It i s necess a r i l y an
eth ic a l statement just t h e same.
A s C h avent i nt e n d s to produce a b u n d l e of tastes w h e n creat i n g a m e a l , our i nt e n t i o n was
to c reate a b u n d l e of c o n c e pts w it h i n each of the p a rts of t h i s book. C o n ce pt s t hat acq u i re
t h e i r i d e ntity i n t h e i r re l a t i o n to o n e another. . . t h e s o u r accord i n g to t h e sweet, the salty accord i n g to t h e
bitter. It i s in t h e i r re l at i o n s , in t h e i r performativity, t h at t h e c o n c e pts are d e f i n e d . I t i s what
g ra p h i c artist M . C . Escher so n ic e l y i l l u st rated i n h i s d rawi n g of two hands i n the p rocess of d rawi n g
each oth e r. T h e concepts i n t h i s book a r e composed l i ke t h e h a n d s Escher d raws. A n d as these concepts
are defi ned by one another, it is i m pos s i b l e to ' r e p eat' t h e m h e re . H ow c o u l d I d ef i n e the concept of
' State-food ' without connect i n g it to the ' p o l i s ' , to the ' K i n g ' and ,t h e • J u r i st ' ? How cou l d I exp l a i n
what ' a l i m e ntary revo l ut i o n s ' a re w i t h o ut connect i ng t h i s to t h e concept o f 'te r r i to r i e s ' , w i t h o ut
introd u c i n g ' be c o m i n g -woman ' , ' b e c o m i n g - n o n - w h i t e ' , a n d ' bec o m i n g -ch i l d ' ? How cou l d I e x p l a i n
' m i n o r d i et et i c s ' w i t h o ut l i n ki ng t h i s concept to 'major d i etet i c s ' , w i t h o ut l i n k i ng it to ' n omad i s m '
o r t o ' i m m a n e n c e ' ? I cannot.
I c a n not re i ntrod uce t h e c o n c e pts c reated i n t h e prev i o u s parts w i t h o u t redef i n i n g t h e m ,
w i t h o ut cod i n g t h e m accord i n g to t h e w a y t h i s co n c l u s i o n i s f o r m e d . C o n cepts are a l ways
i m ma n e n t l y composed: i n accordance with the other concepts they travel w i t h , in accordance with the way
the text in w h i c h they appear. They produce the text w h i l e the text produces t h e m . We wou l d n 't ask chef
C havent to recreate t h e tastes from t h e m a i n d i s h in t h e desert. H ow could we expect from a composer
l i ke Bach t h at t h e Gigues in his Fre n c h S u ites s u m m a r i z e t h e Sarabandes a n d Gavottes that p receded it?
W h e n Cha vent a r g u e s t h at coo k i n g is a bout the creation of taste, we s h o u l d not so m u c h be
i nte rest ed in w h at h e d ef i n e s as ' taste', but a l l t h e m o re in h i s e m p h a s i s on creatio n . I n
other words; i t i s the act of creating tastes that coo k i n g i s a l l about. S i m i l a r l y, i t i s t h e act of creating con­
cepts t hat p h i losophy, o r the p h i l os o p h i c a l anthropology we p rod uce, i s a l l about. I t is in the expe r i ment
itself, i n t h e exper i e n c i n g itse lf, that p h i losophy can teach u s about l ife. T h e concepts i ntroduced do n ot
s u m m a r i z e a p h i l osophy of food, or of t h e ways we l i ve with food. They do n ot even s u m ma r i ze what t h i s
b o o k i s about (another reason why I a m n ot w i l l i n g to s u m m a r i z e t h e m i n t h i s con c l u s i o n ) . It i s the act of
creat i n g concepts a n d in its focus on p u re i nt e n s i t i es t hat s h ows us l ife. I n its act i v ity, in expe r i e n c i n g
how l ife works.
The way t h i s text com poses concepts i s a l ways a l ready a n act of res i stance. I t i s a n expe r i ment t h at in its
d e s c r i p t i o n of a world, com poses a new world a n d t h u s p ro poses a re-creat i o n of the world we l i ve in at
the same t i me. Of cou rse, when H ardt and N e g r i come u p with the concept of E m p i re, as w h e n Marx comes
u p with the conce pt of C a p ital, it i s n ot d iff i c u lt to see how t h e c reat i o n of these pol itical concepts n eces­
s a r i l y comes with an et h i cal s ide. B ut D e l e u ze and G u atta r i 's conce pt of the war mac h i ne , o r Vi r i l i o's
i d eas about speed are j ust as we l l com pos i n g a n eth ics. They, too, have t h e ' no b l e ' goal set. T h ey, too,
propose a ' better wo r l d ' . Not s o m u c h because it i s their intention to d o so. Because t h e c reat i o n of
con cepts, n ecessa r i l y comes with a ' po s i t i ve message ' . Even w h e n Kafka writes about t h e State, a power
98 h e c a n n ot reach, o r about the construction of the C h i nese Wa l l , h e produces an et h i c s a l o n g the way. H i s
texts practice an eth i cs. Kafka's expe r i m e ntal writ i n g is never l i m ited to t h e rea l m s of t h e p o l i t i c a l :
t h ey a r e eth i cal texts a l l t h e s a m e . J u st l i ke the w r i t i n g s o f M a r x o r V i r i l io. J u st l i ke t h e w r i t i n g s of
D e l e u ze a n d G u attar i , or Hardt a n d N e g r i . Every o n e of t h e s e a u t h o r s is i nvol ved i n an e x p e r i ­
ment f ro m w h i c h t h e po l it i c a l a n d t h e et h i c a l are j o i nt l y c o m p o s e d .

C A N E T l-l l C S I N S T E A D O F A lvl O l� A L I T Y
The texts i n t h i s book p ract i ce an eth ics, a D e l e u z i a n eth i cs , an ethology. They focus o n t h e relations, on
what happens betwee n t h e e l e m e nts, thus compos i n g a p o l i t i c s of food a n d a n ethics of food. A n et h i cs.
N ot a m o r a l ity. N ever h ave t h ey d i ctated moral c l a i m s t hat i ntend to te l l u s what i s good a n d what i s
bad. N ever d o these texts te l l u s w hat i s good food a n d what i s b a d food. T hey even back away from c l a i m ­
i n g what f o o d ' i s ' , o r w h at it s h o u l d b e . The texts compose an et h i cs i n t h e s e n s e t hat t h e y offer a "typ o l o ­
gy o f i m m a n e nt modes o f existence" ( D e l e u ze Spinoza, Practical Philos ophy 1 988: 23) . Of what i s art i c u l ated
with food in the event. T h e s e texts constant l y compose a conc ept of good n e s s t h at is e m p i r i ­
c a l , that i m m a n e n t l y p r o d u c e s itself w it h i n t h e eve nt. " I n t h is way, Et h ics . . . rep laces M oral ity,
w h i c h a l ways refers existence to transcendental values. M o ral ity is the j ud g m ent of God, t h e. system of
J u d g m ent"( Deleuze S p i noza, practical p h i l osophy 1 988: 23) .
T h e f o u r parts c o n stan t l y practice a notion o f t h e good D e l e u ze reads i n S p i noza; t h e g reat p h i losopher
who wrote a m o n um e nt a l book c a l l e d 'the Ethics ' w i t h o ut i n c l u d i ng a s i n g l e moral rule i n it! We agree
with D e l eu z e t h at i t is S p i noza who g i ves us the one and o n l y d ef i n it i o n of goodness w h e n h e states:
" B y g o o d , I u n d e rsta n d h e re every k i n d of j oy a n d everyt h i n g t h at c o n d uces to it; c h i ef l y,
however, anyt h i n g t h at sat i sf i es l o n g i n g , whatever t h at t h i n g m i g ht be" (Spi noza 2001 : 3P39 Scho l ) .
It i s the d ef i n it i o n of g o o d n e s s that i s pract iced wit h i n the texts i n t h i s b o o k , but a l s o by t h e schol ars it
i n c l u des; M c L u h a n , H ardt and Negri a n d V i r i l i o , Levi-Stra uss, Sassen and of course by Deleuze and
G uattari ... T h ey a l l become S p i n oz i sts w h e n they stress t h at goodness i s a search a n d n ot a wel l-def i ned
i d ea t h at i s opposed to e v i l . O r maybe they become N i etzscheans w h e n t h ey keep showi n g u s t hat good­
ness s h o u l d n ot b e seen a tool for m o ral j u d g ment as N i etzsche h i m s e lf has t o l d u s so ofte n : "My d e m a n d
upon t h e p h i l os o p h e r i s known, that h e take h i s s t a n d beyond good a n d ev i l a n d l eave the i l l u s i o n o f moral
j ud g m ent beneath h i mself. This d e m a n d f o l l ows from a n i n s i g ht w h i c h I was t h e f i rst to formu late: that
there are a/together no moral facts." ( N ietzsche 1 91 5 : l o M 1 )
T h e a r g u m e nts i n t h i s book are com posed a l o n g w i t h these authors, a n d above a l l , a l o n g w i t h D e l e u z e a n d
G uatta r i , w h e n they compose t h e d ifferent foodscapes that i m manently propose a rad ical d e m ystificat i o n
o f the concept o f goodness. T h e y propose a good n ess t hat h a s d o n e with moral ity, t h a t d o e s n ot d e n y t h e
existence of esta b l i s h e d n o r m s o r val ues t h a t c l a i m the good, but t h a t s i m p l y ig n o re t h e m , w a l k past, or
even t h ro u g h them. We ca l l good w h at we d es i re, and w h at we are averse to we ca l l bad.
I n the i ntroduct i o n , w e p resented t h i s not i o n o f goodness w h e n w e b r o u g h t forward S p i noza's concept of
t h e affect. T h u s , we com posed an onto l o g y of co n s u m pt i o n not on t h e bas i s of o u r d ef i n it i o n
of w h at food i s , but by co n c l u d i n g that s o m et h i n g i s c o n s i d e red food, w h e n i n t h e event,
it affects u s as food and we a re affected by it's 'food l i n e s s ' ; w h e n o n e c o n s i ders it to f u lf i l !
on e's d es i res, to sat i sfy one's l o n g i ngs. T h e f o l l o w i n g parts h ave never abandoned t h i s perspective. They
p ract ice an eth i c s of food i n t hat they st u d i e d t h e relat i o n s betwee n food and l if e p u re l y on t h e basis of
affect i o n . Of how we c o n s i d e r food to be u s ef u l to us, to be a b l e to sati sfy whatever l o n g i n g s we have.
O b v i o u s ly, t h i s i s m ore c o m p l ex than s i m p l y relat i ng food to h u n g e r. Of cou rse, we n ever d e ny that food
can be desi red in order to sat i sfy o n e 's h u n g e r, but t h i s is d ef i n it e l y n ot everyt h i ng t h e re i s to be said on
food and how we are affected by it. As we've f o u n d from the beg i n n i n g when M arce l Prou st, i n tast i n g a n d
s m e l l i ng a made l e i n e w a s b r o u g h t b a c k to h i s c h i l d hood years, h i s aunt Leon i e a n d t h e way s h e d i pped the
mad e l e i n e i n her tea o r t i sane for l it t l e Marcel, food i s end l e s s l y coded with mean i n g . It i s taken . i nto a l l
k i n d s o f sem i ot i c struct u res i n a l l k i n d s o f a bstract m a c h i nes or regi mes. It f u n ct i o n s w i t h a l l k i n d s of
forces that a l ways a l ready mate r i a l i ze it or g i ve it a vague corporeal essence before the event even takes
p l ace.
I n that res pect, t h e re was l ittle d ifference between the way Proust t a l ked about the made l e i n e and the way
the p e o p l e from H a n g z h o u , B oston , Bangal ore, and Lyon m e n t i o n e d food in the conversat i o n s I had with
t h e m . Whether it concerned an I t a l i a n man i n B oston a park ta l k i n g of how stron g l y h e felt con nected to
the N orth End - the Ita l i a n sect i o n of town - to his Ital i a n f r i e nds, a n d to Ita l i a n food; whether it con­
cerned an elderly m a n in H a n g z h o u exp l a i n i n g to u s that it i s not only t h e taste and the fragrance a l o n e
t hat a l low h i m to enjoy h i s t e a , but a l s o t h e shape o f t h e l eaves a n d t h e c o l o r o f tea t h a t p l ease h i m ;
whether i t i s a B ra h m i n yo u n g ster from B a n g a l ore te l l i ng u s t h at h e occas i o n a l l y eats c h i c ken n ow, w h i c h 99
 g reat l y u psets h i s vegeta r i a n parents a n d i s even kept secret from h i s g ra n d parents; or whether it con­
-a
0
0
cerned P h i l i p pe C h avent at t h e beg i n n i n g of this conc l u s i o n exp l a i n i n g to u s the a rt of c o o k i n g , every
..c:
Cl t i m e we s e e a n et h i c s of food b e i n g p ract i c e d . Each a n d every t i m e they s h owed u s t h e way
::>
0 food f u n ct i o n s in struct u res. B y t h e i r a n e c d otes, by t h e i r expe r i e n ces, t h ey s h owed u s h ow
food works, how it re l ates. T h e y s h owed u s t h e structu res i n w h i c h they l i ve. I n s h a r i n g t h e i r
(/) everyday experi ences w i t h u s , t h e y s howed u s the codes, t h e struct u res, a n d t h e f l ows t h a t e i t h e r o r g a n ­
()
i z e o r d i sorg a n i z e t h e i r worlds accord i n g to f o o d . I t was not m e add i n g the pol i t i c a l o r t h e et h i c a l .
-
Q) It w a s a l ways a l ready i m m a n e n t i n everyt h i n g t h ey s a i d . T h i s i s t h e reason these texts are rep lete
c:
"' with d i rect q u otes. Q u otes that are treated no d ifferent than those by D e l e u z e a n d G u attari or H ardt a n d
c:
N e g r i . T h e s e v o i c e s d o n ot need a n i nterpreter; t h ey d o n ot need a s c h o l a r to exp l a i n w hat they ' re a l l y '
m e a n . I n w hatever t h e y express, t h e re i s a l ways a l ready an et h i cs a t work.
0

(/)
::> We h ave o n l y m a p ped a few p l anes, a few structures o n the basis of a few books, a few conversat i o ns, a
()
c: few s paces. Yet we do n ot t h i n k they o n l y g ave us a l i m ited v i ew on food. O n t h e contra ry, we be l i eve
0
() t h at even the s m a l l est e x pe r i e n c e i s a b l e to t e l l u s everyt h i n g t h e re is to k n ow about food .
I n fact, we b e l i eve it i s a b l e to te l l u s everyt h i n g there i s to k n ow about l ife as K i n g Wen H u i
a l ready proc l a i me d . We bel i eve t h at w h e n t h e p e o p l e with whom we spoke t a l ke d o f food, they p a i nted a
c o m p l ete portrait of t h e i r l i ves. L i ke t h e poet, L u cebert, we b e l i eve that t h e tact ics and the d y n a m i cs of
even the s i m p l est texts are capable of express i n g "the space of l ife in its e n t i rety" ( L ucebert 1 999: 46) .
W h e n someone ex p l a i n s the powers of g l obal i za t i o n s o l e l y t h r o u g h t h e i nf l u e n ces of M c D o n a l d 's a n d
C oca- C o l a, w h i l e at t h e same t i m e n ot i c i n g the m u c h m o re marg i n a l t h o u g h ext e n s i ve s pread o f the
Italian and C h i nese c u i s i n e, we be l i eve that this s i n g l e expe r i e n ce al l ows u s a total perspective o n t h e
p o l i t i cal a n d t h e e t h i c a l . C h ef T i n g s hows l ife to u s w h i l e carv i n g u p an ox; C havent w h i l e creat i n g tastes;
t h i s book w h i l e creat i n g concepts.
Every t i m e the m i crop o l itics of food i s a l ways a l ready showi n g u s everyt h i n g . A d i n f i n i t u m . . .

1 00
101
 ' ''tl!!li\11n*"
1•1·filKli�,

...

L I S T O F Q U O T E D C O N V E l� S A T I O N S :
T h ro u g hout t h e texts, ref e rences are made to t h e conversat i o n s performed d u r i ng my stay i n the various
citi es. H ere's a I ist of a l I the conve rsat i o n s I made use of.

M a p p i n g H a n g z h o u :

04-04-01
a g i r l f rom H a n g z hou i n Rotterdam --._
04-19-01
L e u n g P i n g - Kwan i n H o n g Kong
04-23-01 ------
Men S u q i n
04-26-01 ------
S h o p keeper
04-28-01 a
� S u n We n Q i a n
04-28-01 b
A b bot -----
04-29-01
G u Q i Y i n g .......
05-02-01
/ C h eng We i d o n g
05-04-01
Cai Q i ng l i n
'
05-06-01
Wa n g J i an
---- 05-07-01
J i ao We i
05-08-01 ----
---- C a i We i d i n g
05-09-01
two g i r l s i n M c D o n a l d 's
05-1 0-01
----
two e l d e r l y l a d i es i n t h e park
05- 1 1 -01
t h re e wom en at the West- Lake "-......
05- 1 2-01 a
Li Ai Lin
05-12-01 b
two teenagers i n M c D o n a l d 's
05-13-01
---- Xu J i an and Wu X i ao
05-15-01
/ Zhao Shenqi
-05-17-01
Seng Hong and Zhang Zeng Xing
05-1 9-01
C ro u c h i n g T i g e r \
05-21-01
two Lawye rs
05-23-01 a
Wan D i n g d i n g
05-23-01 b ------
------ Z h u We i j a n
05-24-01
S u n X i eoxu 1 03 i
en
c
M a p p i n g B osto n :
0

"'
en
1 0-20-01 a
Q)
> H a rvard U n i vers ity P rof essor
c
0
1 0-20-01 b �
CJ
S h ort conversat i o n s
"O
1 0-21 -01 a
-----
Q)

M att hew Q u a r k
1 0-21 -01 b
Ita l i a n man
0
1 0-22-01
en 1 0-23-01 a at Bertucci
Ky r i akos \
1 0-23-01 b
manager of a large s u pe r m a r ket
1 0-24-01
m a n i n a park ----
1 0-26-01
manager of a health food store
1 0-28-01
conversat i o n s with a P h . D. st u d ent
1 0-29-01
in Roxbury
1 0-30-01
S y r i a n G rocery ( i m porting company)
1 0-31 -01
Dav i d W. R itch i e , manager of the Parker H o u s e
1 1 -0 1 -01
p rof. Thomas O ' C o n n o r
1 1 -02-01
at the m a r ket
1 1 -06-01
S u z a n n e Ke l l ey, m a n a g e r o f D u rg i n Park
1 1 -07-01
1 1 -08-01 Kev i n , manager of Te a l uxe
N athan F i e l d s
1 1 -09-01
at a students 1 1 - 1 4-01
with A d e W i c h e r n
1 1 - 1 6-01
with a professor i n eco n o m i cs
1 1 -1 9-01
Wa l l M a rt
1 1 -21 -01 a
- woman from P u erto R i co
1 1 -21 -01 b
several peo p l e at the s u p erma rket
1 1 -21-0 1 c
manager o f Vita m i n wo r l d
1 1 -23-01 -------
A l Sta n k u s
1 1 -24-01
M ichael 1 1 -26-01
Kev i n
1 1 -27-01 ------
1 04 Ed
 M a p p i n g B a n g a l ore:

02-06-02
several s h ort conversat i o n s
� 02- 1 1 -02
g e n e r a l doctor
02-1 2-02
d r. C h etan and d r. P rasadanku
02-1 3-02
P rashanth L . H e g d e
02-1 4-02
j o u r n a l i st (from the H i nd u )
02-1 5-02 ---­
m r. S h as h i k i ra n
02-1 6-02a ----
m a n a g e r of J ava city
02-1 6-02b
m a n a g e r of C offee Day
02-1 8-02 /
ms. S h a n t h a l a
02-1 9-02 ----
t h ree ho usewives
02-20-02
m r. A n andag i r i
02-21 -02
two youngsters
02-22-02
t h re e housew i ves and o n e d a u g hter ( l i ved i n France)
02-23-02a ---­
m r. Laks h m i kanth H e g d e ( part one)
02-23-02b
m r. Laks h m i kanth H e g d e ( part two)
----- 02-25-02a
m r. Ramana Kutty
02-25-02b
ms. M u n i y a m m a
02-25-02c
M u s l i m woman
02-26-02
two yoga teachers \
02-27-02
C e d r i c J o s e p h A b u ratt i
02-28-02
two Kab i r panths ( M ithun a n d Av i nash)
03-01-02
Lawrence D ' Souz a, m a n a g e r of Food wo r l d
03-02-02 -----
m r. K. Ramanathan
I 03-04-02
m r. A n d m r s . Swa m i (of the S hankaracharia sect)
03-05-02a
----- l a n d l ord
03-05-02b
p h i l o s o p h e r a n d h e r daughter ----
03-06-02
an I T- p rof e s s i o n a l 1 05
"' M a p p i n g Lyo n :

"'
"'
07-09-02
Pas c a l Bata i l l a rd
01-1 0-02 I
veget a r i a n woman
07-1 1 -02a
m a n a g e r of a b i g s u pe r m a r ket
07-1 1 -02b
----- m a n a g e r of a health food store
07-1 2-02a
Yves R i vo i ro n , m a n a g e r of a ' bo u c h o n ' cal l e d ' C afe d e s Fe d e rat i o n s ' -----
07-1 2-02b
Noemie
07-1 5-02
m r. J o u rd a i n
07-1 6-02
N ad i a Becaud, t h e c h a i rperson o f t h e ' C h a Yu a n ' org a n i sat i o n
07-1 7-02a
t h ree women at c h o i x rousse
07- 1 7-02a
t h ree women at c h o i x rousse
07-1 7-02b
two yo u n g sters "-.
07-1 7-02c
A l g e r i a n h o u s ewife
07-1 8-02a
__.- m a n a g e r of a N o rth A f r i c a n s pec i a l ity store
---
07-1 8-02b
A l a i n , c h eese s a l es m a n
07-1 9-02
C h r i st i n a
\ 07-23-02
A c h m et
07-24-02
wholesaler
07-25-02 ---­
h o u s ewife
07-26-02a
m i d d l e aged m a n
07-26-02b ------
� young woman
---
07-27-02
J e a n Fra n c;: o i s M e s p lede, c u l i n a ry j o u r n a l i st of " Le P rogres"
07-28-02a
e l d e r l y woman i n the park
07-28-02b
i m m i g rant g i r l i n t h e park -----
07-29-02a
e l d e r l y woman in m u s e u m g a r d e n
07-29-02b I
m i d d l e aged woman
07-30-02a
P h i l i p pe C h avent
07-30-02b
1 06 M o roccan Lecturer
 L I T E l� A T LJ l� E
A d a ms, Carole. 1 990. The Sexual Politics of Meat: Feminist- Vegetarian Critical Theory. N ew York: Cont i n u u m .
Appadurai, A r j u n . 1 986. The Social Life o f Things : Commodities in Cultural Perspective. Cambridge [Ca m b r i d g es h i re] ; N ew York:
Cambridge U n i vers ity Press.
_. 1 988. H ow to Make a National C u i s i ne: Cookbooks in Contemporary I ndia. Comparative Studies i n Society a n d History 30: 3-24.
_. 1 996. Modernity at Large : C ultural Dimensions of Globalization. P u b l i c wor l d s ; M i n n eapolis: U n iversity of M i n nesota P ress.
A r i e s, P h i l i ppe. 1 962. Centuries o f Childhood : A Social History of Family Life. New York: Vintage.
Badiou, Alain. 1 988. L'etre et l'evenement. L'ordre p h i losophique. Paris: S eu i l .
Bat a i l l e , Georges. 1 989. Theory o f Religion. N ew York: Zone Books.
Beauvoir, S i mone d e . 1 972. The Second Sex. New York: Pen g u i n .
B habha, H . 1 986. O f M i m icry a n d Man: T h e Ambivalence o f C o l o n i a l D i scourse. I n Politics and Ideology, e d . J. & H a l l D o n a l d , S .
M i lton Keynes: Open U n i versity.
B i nsbergen, Wim M .J. van. 1 999. 'Cultures do not Exist '. I naugural S peech ( i n d utch, 'Culturen Bestaan Niel'). Rotterdamse
Fi l osofische Studies X X I V.
Bourdieu, P i erre. 1 979. La Distinction : Critique Sociale du Jugement. Le Sens C o m m u n . Pari s : E ditions de M i nu it.
Braidotti, Rosi. 2002. Metamorphoses, Towards a Materialist Theory of Becoming. Cambridge: Pol i ty.
Braudel, Fernand. 1 977. A fterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism. The J o h n s H o p k i n s Symposi a i n Comparative
H istory ; no.7. Balti more ; London: Johns H o p k i n s U n i versity P ress.
Brunette, Peter and D a v i d Wills. 1 994. Deconstruction a n d t h e Visual A rts : A rt, Media, Architecture. Cambridge Stu d i es i n New
A rt H i story a n d Criticism. Cambridge ; N ew York: Cambridge U n iversity Press.
Brum berg, Joan J acobs. 1 997. The Appetite as Voice. In Food and culture : A Reader, ed. Carole C o u n i h a n and Penny Van Ester i k.
N ew York: Rout l edge.
Butler, J u d i t h . 1 993. Bodies that Matter : On the Discursive Limits of "Sex". N ew York: Routl edge.
_. 1 999. Gender Trouble : Feminism and the Sub version of Identity. N ew York: Routl edge.
Buwei, Yang C hao. 1 956. How to Cook & eat in Chinese. London: Faber and Faber.
Canetti, E l i as. 1 962. Crowds and Power. N ew York: V i k i n g Press.
Cang u i l h e m , Georges. 1 991 . The Normal and the Pathological. New York: Zone books.
Caraka. 1 941 . Carakasamhita. Carakasa m h ita.
Carro l l , Lew i s . 1 872. Alice's A dventures in Wonderland. London: M ac m i l lan.
Castells, Manuel . 1 996. The Rise o f the Network Society. Ed ited by M a n u e l Cast e l l s. I nformation age ; 1. Cambridge, Mass.:
B lackwe l l P u b l i s hers.
C e r t e a u , M i c he l d e . 1 984. The Practice o f Everyday Life. Berkeley: U n iversity of Cal iforn ia P ress.
Copley, Fra n k Barkley. 1 923. Frederick W. Taylor, Father o f Scientific Management. N ew York London : Harper and Brothers.
Dante, Alighieri. 1913. La Commedia. E d ited by Gi useppe Mazz i n i . Classici ita l i a n i ; novissima b i b l i oteca, serie 1, v.7. M i l a n :
l stituto Editoriale Italiano.
Davidson, A l a n . 1 999. The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford ; New York: Oxford U n ivers ity P ress.
Davidson, Arnold I ra . 1 997. Foucault a n d his Interlocutors. C h i cago: U n i versity of C h icago Press.
Deleu ze, G i l les. 1 983. Nietzsche a n d Philosophy. E u ropean Perspectives. New York: C o l u m b i a U n i versity Press.
_. 1 986. Nomad Thoug ht. In The New Nietzsche, Contemporary Styles of Interpretation, ed. David B . A l l i s o n : 1 42-1 49. Cambridge: M IT
Press.
_. 1 988. Bergsonism. New York: Zone Books.
_. 1 988. Spinoza, Practical Philosophy. San Francisco: City Lig hts Books.
_. 1 990. The Logic o f Sense. E u ropean Perspectives. N ew York: C o l u m b i a U n ivers ity Press.
_. 1 991 . Empiricism and Subjectivity : A n Essay on Hum e 's Theory of Human Nature. E u ropean Perspect i ves. N ew York: C o l u mb i a
U n ive r s ity P ress.
_. 1 993. The Fold : Leibniz and the Baroque. M i nneapo l i s : U n ivers ity of M i n n esota Press.
_. 1 994. Difference and Repetition . N ew York: C o l u m bi a U n i versity Press.
_. 1 995. Negotiations, 1972- 1990. E u ropean Perspectives. N ew York: C o l u m bi a U n i versity P ress.
_. 2000. Proust & Signs. Theory Out of B o u n d s ser. M i n nesota, USA: U n ivers ity of M i n n esota P ress.
_. 2001 . Pure Immanence, Essays on a Life. Tra n s l ated by Anne Boyma n . New York: Zone Books.
_. 2002. L'ile Deserte et Autres Textes : Textes et Entretiens 1953- 1974. Paradoxe. Paris E d itions d e m i n u it, .
Deleuze, G i l les and F e l i x G uatt a r i . 1 984. A n ti-Oedipus : Capitalism and Schizophrenia. N ew York: Athlone P ress.
_. 1 987. A Thousand Plateaus : Capitalism a n d Schizophrenia. M i n n e a p o l i s : U n i versity of M i n nesota P ress.
_
. 1 994. What is Philosophy? Eu ropean Perspectives. N ew York: C o l u m b i a U n i ve rs ity P ress.
D e l e u ze, G i l les and C l a i re Parnet. 1 977. Dialogues. Paris: F l a m m arion.
Derrida, J ac q ues. 1 987. The Truth in Painting. C h icago: U n i versity of C h icago P ress. 1 07
Ql
D u m ez i i , Georges. 1 990. Mitra- Varuna: An Essay on Two Inda-European Representations of Sovereignty. N ew York: Zone books
Edgerton, Fra n k l i n (ed.). 1 972. The Bhagavad Gita. Cambridge: H arvard U n i vers ity Press.
"'
Feher, M i c h e l and Stanford Kwi nter. 1 987. Zone1/2: The Contemporary City. Cambridge: M IT press.
Ql
Fou cau lt, M i c h e l . 1 970. The Order of Things: A n A rchaeology of the Human Sciences. N ew York: Random H ouse.
_. 1 975. The Birth of the Clinic; an Archaeology of Medical Perception. N ew York: V i ntage Books.
_. 1 988. The History of Sexuality part 2: The Use of Pleasure. N ew York: Vintage Books.
_. 1 995. Discipline and Punishment. New York, NY: Random House I nc.
Gabaccia, Donna R . 1 998. We are what we Eat : Ethnic food and the Making of A mericans. Cambridge: H arvard U n i versity Press.
Galston, A et a l . 2000. New Dimensions in Bioethics. D o rdrecht: K l uwer.
G a u lt, H e n r i . 1 996. Nouvelle Cuisine. In Cooks and Other People, Oxford Symposi u m on Food H i story 1 995. Oxford : P rospect books.
Geertz, C l i fford. 1 973. The Interpretation of Cultures; Selected Essays. New York: Bas i c Books.
_. 2000. A vailable Light : A nthropological Reflections on Philosophical Topics. P r i nceton, N . J . : P r i nceton U n i versity P ress.
Gleick, J a mes. 1 999. Faster, the A cceleration of just about Everything. N ew York: Pantheon Books.
G u att a r i , F e l ix. 1 995. Chaosophy. Tra n s l ated by Sylve re Lotri n g e r. New York: Sem iotext[e]
H a l l , Stuart and Paul D u Gay. 1 996. Questions of Cultural Identity. London ; Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Haraway, Donna. 2003. The Companion Species Manifesto : Dogs, People, and Significant Otherness. C h icago, I L : P r i c k l y Paradigm
P ress.
Hardt, M i c h a e l and Antonio N e g r i . 2000. Empire. Cambridge: H arvard U n i vers ity Press.
Harris, Marvin. 1 991 . Cannibals and kings : The Origins of Cultures. New York: Random House.
H i ppocrates. 1 943. Hipp ocrates t h e Oath o r the Hippocratic Oath. C h icago: A res P u b l i s he rs.
_. 1 948. L'Ancienne Medicine. Tra n s l ated by A. Fest u g i e re. Paris: A . Fest u g iere.
H j e l m s l ev, Louis. 1 96 1 . Prolegomena to a Theory of Language. M a d i s o n : U n i ve rsity of Wisconsin P ress.
Hobbes, Thomas. 1 996. Leviathan. Tra n s l ated by R ichard Tuck. Cambridge Texts i n t h e H i story of Political Thoug ht. Cambridge ;
New York: Cambridge U n i ve rs ity P ress.
H o l l a nd, E ugene W . 1 999. Deleuze a n d Guattari's A nti-Oedipus: Introduction to Schizoanalysis. London : Routledge.
H o l lows, Joanne. 2003. Fee l i n g l i ke a domestic goddess. European Journal o f Cultural Studies 6, no. 2: 1 79-202. : 1 79-202
H u me, Dav i d . 1 896. A Treatise of Human Nature. Oxford: C l arendon press.
l la i a h , Kancha. 1 996. Why I am not a Hindu, a Sundra Critique of Hindutva Philosophy, C u lt u re and Political Economy. Kolkota: Samya.
l t a m i , Juzo. 1 986. Tam popo, ed. J uzo lta m i.
Jacobs, Jane. 1 969. The Economy of Cities. New York: Random H ouse.
Jakle, J o h n A . and Ke ith A . S c u l l e . 1 999. Fast Food : Roadside Restaurants i n t h e Automobile A g e . The Road a n d A merican Culture.
Balti more, M d : J o h n s H o p k i n s U n ivers ity Press.
Ja meson, Fredric. 1 99 1 . Postmodernism, or, t h e Cultural Logic of L a t e Capitalism. Post-Contem porary I nterventions. D u rh a m : D u ke
U n i ve rs ity Press.
_. 1 998. The Cultural Turn : Selected Writings on the Postmodern, 1 983-1998. London ; New York: Verso.
Joyce, J a mes. 2002. Finnegans Wake. A msterd a m : Atheneum-Polak van G e n n i p.
Kant, I m manuel . 1 794. Critik der Reinen Vernunft. Frankf u rt, Le i pz i g , .
K i rs c h e n b l att- G i m b l ett, Barbara. 1 999. P l ay i n g to the Senses: Food a s a Performance M e d i u m . Performance Research, 1 -30.
Koh n , L i v i a . 1 993. The Taoist Experience : A n A n thology. S u ny Series in C h i nese P h i l osophy and C u lt u re. A l bany, N .Y. : State
U n i ve rs ity of N ew York P ress.
Koo l h aas, Rem, Stefano Boeri, Sanford Kwinter, N a d i a Taz i , and H a n s - U l r i c h O br i st. 2000. Mutations. Barce lona, Bordeaux:
Actar ; A rc en Reve Centre d ' A rch itectu re.
Kort h a l s , M ic h i e l . 2002. Voor het Eten, Filosofie en Ethiek van Voeding. A msterd a m : Boom.
Kut u m b i a h , P . 1 967. A ncient Indian Medicine. Bombay: O r i ent Long man.
Lao, t z u . 1 993. Tao Te Ching. I nd i anapol i s : H ackett Pub. Co.
L e b b i s and J ansen. 1 994. Cheap s o l utions ( goedkope oplos s i n g e n ) .
Lefebvre, H e n r i . 1 991 . The Production o f Space. Oxford C a m b r i d g e : B lackwe l l .
Legge, J a mes, Laoz i , a n d Z h u a n g z i . 1 891 . The Sacred Books o f China; the Texts o f Taoism. Oxford : Cl arendon Press.
Lenin, Vladimir l l ich. 1 943. State and Revolution. Little Len i n L i brary vi.: I nternational P u b l ish ers.
Levi-St ra u ss, C l a u d e . 1 968. Introduction a l'Oevre de Marcel Mauss. In Sociologie et A nthropologie, ed. Marcel Mauss. Pari s :
P resses u n i ve rs itai res d e France.
_. 1 969. The Raw and the Cooked. Introduction to a Science of Mythology. N ew York: Harper & Row.
_. 1 986. The Structural Study of Myt h . In Critical Theory since 1965, ed. Hazard Adams and Leroy Searle. Ta l l ahassee: Florida State
U n i vers ity Press.
L i beskind, Daniel. 2000. Daniel Libeskind : The Space of Encounter. New York: U n i verse : D i stributed to t h e U.S. Trade by St.
M a rt i n 's P ress.
1 08 L u , H enry C . 1 992. Chinese System of Food Cures. Prevention and Remedies. Selangor Darul E h s a n : Pel a n d u k P u b l ications.
Lu, Yeu. 1 974. The Classic of Tea. Bosto n : Little.
Lucebert. 1 999. Van de A fgrond en de Luchtmens. A msterd a m : de Bezige Bij.
MacCannell, Dean. 1 999. The Tourist : A N e w Theory o f t h e Leisure Class. Berkeley: U n i vers ity of Cal ifo r n i a Press.
Majeed, Javed. 1 992. Ungoverned Imaginings : James Mill's the History of British India and Orientalism. Oxford E n g l i s h
M onog raphs. Oxford [ E n g l a n d ] N ew York: C l arendon Press ; Oxford U n i versity P ress.
Mandel brot, Benoit B. 1 982. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. San Francisco: W. H . Freeman.
Mariani, J o h n F. 1 983. The Dictionary o fAmerican Food a n d Drink. N ew Have n : Ticknor & Fields.
M ar s h a l l , Fran k . 1 993. A l ive: D i sney Studios.
M arx, Karl. 1 967. Economic a n d Philosophic Manuscripts o f 1884. M oscow: P rogress P u b l ishers.
_. 1 971 . The Grundrisse. N ew York: Harper & Row.
Massumi, Brian. 1 992. A User's G uide to Capitalism and Schizophrenia : Deviations from Deleuze and Guattari. Cambridge, Mass.:
MIT Press.
M c L u h a n , Marshal l . 1 962. The Gutenberg Galaxy; the Making of Typographic Man. Toronto: U n i versity of Toronto P ress.
_. 1 997. Media Research : Technology, A rt, Communication. Critical Vo ices in A rt, Theory and C u l t u re. A msterdam : G&B A rts.
_. 2001 . Understanding Media : The Extensions of Man. London : Routl edge.
M c L u h a n , M a r s ha l l . 1 967. The Medium is the Massage. N ew York: Random House.
M ead, George H erbert. 1 934. Mind, Self & Society; from the Standpoint o f a Social Beha viorist. Ch icago: The U n iversity of C h icago
P ress.
M engue, P h i l i ppe. 1 994. Gilles Deleuze, ou, le Systeme du Multiple. C o l l ection P h i l os o p h i e, e p i stemologie. Paris: Editions K i m e .
M it c h e l l , W . 2002. Landscape a n d Power. C h i cago: U n i ve rsity o f C h icago P ress.
M o r l ey, Dav i d . 2000. Home Territories : Media, Mobility and Identity. Comedia. London; New York: Routledge.
N ietzsche, Friedr i c h W i l h e l m . 1 91 5 . The Twilight of t h e Idols : Or, How to Philosophise with t h e Hammer, t h e A ntichrist, Notes to
Zaratus tra, and Eternal Recurrence. The C o m p l ete Works of Fried r i c h N i etzsche, e d ited by Oscar Levy. V. 1 6 . E d i n burgh, London : T. N .
Fou l i s .
. 1 967. The Will to Power. N ew York: Random H ouse.
_. 1 994. On the Genealogy of Morality. Edited by Keith A n s e l l - Pearson. Cambridge Texts in the H i story of Po l itical Thoug ht.
Cambridge ; N ew York: Cambridge U n ivers ity P ress.
O ' Con nor, Thomas. 2001 . The Hub: Boston Past and Present. Bost o n : N ortheastern U n iversity Press.
O kakura, Kakuzo. 1 964. The Book of Tea. N ew York: Dover P u b l ications.
O o s t e r l i n g , H enk. 2000. Radicale Middelmatigheid. A msterdam : Boom.
Parkhu rst Ferguson, P r i sc i l l a. 2001 . A C u ltural Fi e l d i n t h e Making: Gastronomy i n the N i neteenth centu ry. In French Food : On the
Table, on the Page, and in French Culture, ed. Lawrence R. S c h e h r and A l l e n S. We iss:vi, 262. New York: Routledge.
Patton, Pau l . 2000. Deleuze and the Political. T h i n k i n g t h e Po l it ical. London ; New York: Routl edge.
Patton, Paul and Protevi John (ed.). 2003. Between Deleuze and Derrida. London, N ew York: Cont i nu u m .
Pence, Gregory E . 2002. O r g a n i c or G e n e r i ca l l y Modified Food: W h i c h is Better? I n T h e Ethics o f Food, e d . G regory E. Pence: 1 1 6-
1 22. Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield P u b l i s hers.
Pendergrast, M ar k . 2000. For God, Country a n d Coca- Co/a : The Definitive History o f t h e Great American Soft Drink a n d the
Company that Makes it. New York: Bas ic Books.
P i ke, Kenneth Lee. 1 971 . Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structure of Human Beha viour. Janua l i ng u a r u m . S e r i e s
m a i o r ; 24. The H a g u e : M outon.
P l ato. 1 970. The Laws. Harmondswort h : Peng u i n.
Point, Fernand. 1 974. Ma Gastronomie. W i l t o n : Lyceum Books.
Probyn, E ls p e t h . 2000. Carnal Appetites : Foo dsexiden tities. London; New York: Rout l edge.
Proust, Marce l . 1 981 . Swann 's way. Within a Budding Grove. (vo l u m e 1 ). Remem brance of Things Past. London: C h atto & Windus Ltd.
Ra, S u n . 1 966. N oth i ng I s : Base Records.
R i f k i n , Jeremy. 1 992. Beyond Beef : The Rise and Fall of the Cattle Culture. New York, N .Y. , U . S . A : Pl ume.
Rosen, George. 1 952. Pol itical O rder and H u man Health i n J effe rso n i a n Thoug ht. Bulletin o f t h e History o f Medicine 26: 32-44.
_. 1 958. A History of Public Health. Md M onographs on Medical H i story, no. 1 . New York: MD P u b l i cations.
_. 1 974. From Medical Police to Social Medicine: Essays o n t h e History o f Health Care. N ew York: Sci ence H i story P u b l i cations.
S a s s e n , Saskia. 1 991 . The Global City : N e w York, London, Tokyo. P r i nceton, N .J . : P r i nceton U n i ve rsity P ress.
_. 1 998. Globalization and its Discontents : Essays on the New Mobility of People and Money. New York: New Press.
Saussure, Ferd inand d e . 1 975. Cours de Linguistique Generate. Payotheq ue. Pari s : Payot.
S c h losser, E r i c . 2002. Fast Food Nation : What the A ll-American Meal is Doing to the World. London: Pen g u i n .
Seccombe, Wally. 1 992. A Millennium o f Family Change : Feudalism t o Capitalism in Northwestern Europe. London ; N e w York:
Verso.
Sen net, R i c h a r d . 1 996. Flesh and stone: The Body and the City in Western Civilization. New York: W.W. N orton and Company.
S h a n karacharya. 1 965. Brahma-Sutra-Bhasya. Calcutta: Swa m i M u m ukshananda. 1 09
><
Q)
S i m m e l , Georg. 1 968. Soziologie : Untersuchungen Ober die Formen der Vergesellschaftung. Gesammelte Werke ; bd. 2. Berl i n :

c:
D u ncker & H u m b l ot . .
S i moons, Frederick J . 1 991 . Food in China, Cultural and Historical Inquiry. Boston: C r C Press.
S i vin, N at h a n . 1 995. Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in A ncient China : Researches and Reflections. A l d ershot, H a m p s h i re, G reat
Q)
Britain ; B rookfi e l d , Vt., U S A : Var i o r u m.
S pi noza, Benedictus de. 2001 . Ethics. Tra n s l ated by W. H . W h i te. H e rtfords h i re: Wordsworth E d i t i ons L i m ited.
S pivak, Gayatri C h a kravorty. 1 999. A Critique o f Postcolonial Reason : Toward a History of t h e Vanishing Present. Cambridge,
Q)

Mass.: H arvard U n i versity P ress.

S t i vale, C h arles J. 1 998. Th e Two-fold Thought of Deleuze and Guattari : Intersections and A nimations. New York: G u i lford Press.
Tsuei, We i . 1 992. Roots of Chinese Culture and Medicine. Selangor Darul E h s a n : Pel a n d u k P u b l i cations.
Tylor, Edward Bu rnett. 1 958. Primitive Culture. The L i brary of R e l i g ion and C u l tu re. N ew York: Harper.
Tzu, S u n . 1 998. The A rt of War. Tra n s lated by Yuan S h i b i n g . Ware: wordsworth.
Vergroesen, A . J . 1 986. Geneesmiddel, Dieet of Gezonde Voeding. O rat ion, Erasm u s U n i ve rsity Rotterdam: Rotterdam.
Vidl er, Ant hony. 2000. Warped Space : A rt, Architecture, a n d A nxiety i n Modern Culture. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT P ress.
Viri l io, Pau l . 1 991 . Lost Dimension. New York: S e m i otext(e).
_. 1 997. Open Sky. London ; N ew York: Verso.
_. 2000. A Landscape of Events. W r i t i ng architecture. Cambridge: M IT Press.
Waits, Tom . 1 992. G rapef r u i t Moon: B izarre/St a i g ht.
Wa l lerste i n , I m manuel M a u r i ce. 1 979. The Capitalist World-Economy : Essays. Studies in Modern Capitalism. Cambridge [Eng.] ;
N e w York: Cambridge U n ivers ity Press.
Weber, Max. 1 968. Economy and Society : A n Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Berkeley: U n i ve rsity of Cal ifornia P ress.
Wittig, M on i que. 1 981 . O n e i s not Born a Woman. Feminist Issues 1, no. 2.
W r i g ht, Frank Lloyd. 1 992. The Art and C raft of the Mach i n e. In Frank Lloyd Wright Collected Writings, ed. B ruce Brooks Pfeiffer:5
v. New York [Scottsdale]: R i z zo l i ; Frank L l oyd W r ight Fou ndation.
Zhong, X Y (ed.). 1 992. Song o f t h e Immortals. B e i j i n g : N ew Wor l d P ress.
Zhuangzi. 1 964. Basic Writings. N ew York: C o l u m bi a U n i ve rs ity Press.
Z i zek, S lavoj. 1 998. Pleidooi voor de lntolerantie. Boom essay. A m sterd am : Boom.

110
INDEX
A la Recherche du Temps Perdu: 1 3
A bstract mach i n e : 31 , 44
A d a m s , Caro l e : 66
Affect: 8, 1 0 , 1 5- 1 6 , 1 7, 1 8, 22, 24, 25,
28, 31 , 38, 42, 49, 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60,
63, 64, 65, 67, 70, 80, 84, 86, 87, 9 1 , 94,
99
-capacity to be: 23
A lice: 1 7
A l l o pathic d i etetics: 81 -82, 85, 86, 88-
92
A m e r ica: 24, 30, 40, 46, 57, 64, 68, 69,
87, 90, 93
-in B a n g a l o re : 1 8-20, 7 1 , 74, 86
A m e r i ca's West C oast and B oston 28
A n doui/lete: 33, 36
A n g l o - i n d i a n s : 7 1 , 73, 75
A n o rexia n ervosa: 22-23, 66
Appadurai, A rj u n : 36, 49, 55, 57
A rch itecton i cs: 25
A rch itect u re: 25, 27, 28, 29, 97
Ayu r ve d i c d i et etics: 81 -85, 88
Bach , J . S . : 98
Bad i o u , A l a i n : 37
Bat a i l le, Georges: 1 4
Beaujolais: 33, 97
Beauvo i r, S i m o n e d e : 63
Becom i ng-ch i l d : 63, 64-65, 67, 68, 69,
70, 98
Becom i n g -exot i c : 66-68 See becoming
non-white
Beco m i ng - n on -wh ite: 63, 64-65, 66, 67,
68, 70, 98
Beco m i ng-wo m a n : 63, 65-67, 68, 69, 70,
98
Bocuse, Pau l : 65
B o d i e s : 1 7, 31 , 49, 50, 58, 62, 67, 83, 86
See also Spinoza
B o l t z m a n n , L u d w i g : 43
Boston Baked Beans: 33, 38, 42
Boston Cream Pie: 33, 34, 38 42
B o u rd i e u , P i e r re : 78
Bove, Jose: 79, 91 -92
Brah m i n s: 40, 41 , 69-75
B ra i d otti, Ros i : 65 See also becoming­
woman
B r a u d e l , Fer n a n d : 45
B r u m berg, Joan J acobs: 22, 66 See
also anorexia nervosa
B u s h , George W. : 43, 44
B ut l e r, J u d i t h : 8, 60
B uwe i , Yan g C ha o : 97-98
Ca n g u i l he m , Georges: 81 , 84
Can n i b a l i s m : 17 See also Hannibal
Lecter
Capita l i s m : 9, 26-27, 45-48, 92 E vo l ut i o n i s m : 35
-and B a n g a l ore 69-75 Expres s i o n : 1 4 , 50, 60, 97, 98
Cara ka/ Carakasa m h ita: 82-83 See Fast-food : 20, 26 , 27, 30, 51 , 69
also Ayurvedic dietetics Ford, H e n r i : 25
Caste syste m : 41 , 42, 69-75, 78, 83 For m : 1 5 See also State-form
C ertea u , M i c h e l d e : 7, 55 Foucau lt, M i c h e l : 8
Ch 'a Ching: 23 - o n gove r n m entality 40-42, 51
C haos: 1 4 , 24, 35, 42, 43 See also -an d d i etetics 78-84, 86, 92-93
Greeks Geertz, C l ifford: 20-22
C havent, P h i l i ppe: 97-98, 1 00 G l e i ck, J a m e s : 30
Chef Ting: 25, 97, 98, 1 00 See also King G l ossematics: 21
Wen-Hui G reeks: 1 4, 24, 34, 78
Chia-No: 35 Cakes in H a n g z h o u 28
C h i l d re n 's meal/me n u : 60, 61 -62 H ardt, M ichael a n d Ton i N e g r i : 46, 48,
C h uang T z u : 1 4 , 25 79, 99, 1 00 See also Empire
City: 27-35 H a r r i s, Marv i n : 33
-and t i m e 29-30 H e g e l , G.W. F. : 9 , 20, 44, 62
-as a p h e n o m e n o n of i nt racon s isten- H i ppocrates: 84-86
cy 34 H j e l m s l ev, L o u i s : 8, 1 5, 1 6, 21 , 22, 24,
-as a p h e n o m e n o n of t ranscon s isten­ 28
cy 27, 34 -on m atter 1 4
-as po/is or -pur 34-35 - o n C ontent/Expres s i o n 1 4
Clam Cho wder: 33, 36 -on Form-Su bstance 1 5
C oca- C o l a : 93, 1 00 H obbes, Thomas: 43
- and t h e State form 45-51 H o l l a n d , E u g e n e : 60
C o l d food/ h ot foo d : 3 1 , 78 H us s e r l , E d m u n d : 27
C o l o n i a l i sm / post co l o n i a l i s m : 20, 88- I C h i n g : 83
90, 92 I m ma n e n ce : 7, 25, 28, 31 , 34, 46, 60, 78,
C oncept of food : 1 6- 1 8 84, 94, 97, 98
C o n c e pts { t h e creat i o n of) : 9, 98, 1 00 -a bsol ute 1 3,
C ontent: 1 4 -i n t i m e 1 3- 1 5 ,
C u l i nary sovere i g nty: 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, -in s p a c e 1 8- 1 9
40, 42 I nformat i o n tech n o l ogy a n d
C u lt u re : 1 9 , 20-22, 35, 39, 48, 71 , 74, 86 B a n g a l ore: 28, 69-75
Dante: 1 3 , 1 9 I nt e r i o r a n d ext e r i o r: 30
Saussure, Ferd i n a n d d e : 1 4 , 21 Italy: 33, 39, 40, 43, 55-59, 74, 75, 99,
D e r r i d a, J a q u e s : 36, 38, 67 1 00
Desi re: 1 3- 1 4 , 1 6, 23, 40, 42, 45, 49, 50, J a m e s o n , Fred e r i c : 9, 27, 29, 91 , 92
55, 63, 67, 8 1 , 93, 94, 97, 99 J oyce, J a m e s : 53
D iffe rence: 1 6 , 34, 56-58, 59, 63 J u r i st: 35-48, 53, 98
D u F u : 31 Kant, I m m a n u e l : 20, 22, 38
D u me z i l , Georges: 35-37 K F C : 26, 28, 33, 51 , 68, 71
D u n k i n ' D o n uts: 33 - in H a n g z ho u 69
Ernie: 20-22 A lso see etic and Pike K i n g : 35-48, 53, 98
E m p i re : 46-48, 51 , 53, 70, 79, 92, 98-1 00 King Wen Hui: 25, 97, 98, 1 00 See also
See also Hardt and Negri Chef Ting
E m p i r i c i s m : 20-22, 93 Koo l haas, R e m : 29
Escoff i e r, August: 66 K roc, Ray: 26-27
Eth ics: 1 0 , 25, 30-31 , 84, 89, 93, 94 K roc i s m : 26
Eth n ic/Et h n i c ity: 34, 38-40, 58, 62, 63, Landscape: 27-28, 34
64, 68 Lawson, N i g e l l a : 60
Eth o l ogy See ethics Lecter, H a n n i b a l : 1 7 , 23
Elie: 20-22 Also see emic and Pike Len i n , V. I . : 44
Event: 8, 9, 1 4-31 , 34, 35, 37, 40, 42, 44, Levi-Strauss, C l a u d e : 9, 93
46, 50-52, 62 , 77, 78 , 84 , 99 L i e b es k i n d , Dan i e l : 55 111
 c Linneaus: 1 7 -i n Bangal o re 1 8- 1 9 , 28, 51 , 68, 74, 75 -ri g i d territory 58-63
Q)
L i u L i n g : 94-95 Poi nt, Fe r n a n d : 65-68 -s u p p l e territory 58-62, 68
E
Q) W r i g ht, Fra n k L l oy d : 27 Pooja: 40 Terroir: 33
Cl
Local restau rant: 37-38 P r i n c i p l e s of c l as s i f i cat i o n : 81 , 82, 84, -i n Lyon 90-91
Q)
Londo n : 29 88, 90 T h a n ksg i v i ng ( i n the B osto n ) : 41
;;:
0 Lotus Root filled with Sweetened Rice: Probyn, f l speth: 8, 22, 69 Tou r ist: 33-39, 41 -42, 46-48, 57
c
33, 36, 38 Prou st, Marc e l : 1 0 , 1 3- 1 8, 21 , 24, 25, 27, Trad i t i o n a l C h i nese M e d i c i n e : 81 -89
Lu T ' u n g : 23 30, 94, 99 Ty l o r, Edward B u r n ett: 20-21
Lu Wu : 23-24 Ra, S u n : 1 7 Van B i nsbergen, W i m M. J. van : 20-21
>< L u ce bert: 1 00 Ragi-balls: 33, 34, 36, 43 Vegeta r i a n i s m and Bangal ore 28, 68,
Q)
Made l e i n e : 1 3- 1 8, 21 , 24, 30, 99 Reg i m e : 23-24, 31 , 36, 38, 42, 44, 99 71 -75, 1 00
Major d i etetics: 78, 79-83, 84, 85, 86, -sexu a l reg i m e of anorex ia n e rvosa Victorian era: 22-23, 30, 61 , 66, 74
87, 88, 89, 90, 98 22-23 V i r i l io, Pau l : 8, 50, 51 , 52, 98
Malbouffe: 91 See also Jose Bove -re g i m e of haste 29-30, 64 -on architecture 25, 27, 29
M a n d e l brot: 24 -a l i m e ntary reg i mes 69-70, 73 -on the city 48
Map p i n g : 1 0, 84 Rooseve lt, E l ea n o r: 35 Wa its, Tom : 94
Marx, Kar l : 9, 1 7 , 44, 47, 98, 99 Rosen, George: 80 Wa l l erst e i n , I m man u e l : 46
Mater i a l ity: 24-29, 3 1 , 35, 48, 53, 93 Sassen, Saskia: 8, 1 9, 20, 72, 99 War Mach i n e : 42-44, 45, 50, 52, 98
Matter: 1 3 , 1 4-25, 27, 28, 30, 31 , 33, 34, Saucisson sec: 33 Wes t Lake Shield Soup: 33, 34, 36
42, 43, 49, 63, 77-78, 93 S h a n karacharya: 8, 1 7 West, t h e : 9, 1 8-20, 22, 23, 24, 28, 30,
M c D o n a l d 's : 1 8, 33, 51 , 52, 77, 92 Shivrati: 40, 42, 1 1 6 33, 34, 36, 46, 47, 52, 61 , 63, 64, 66, 67,
-an d t h e mac h i nes of capital i s m 26 S i l k Road: 28 69, 71 , 74, 79
-and beco m i ng-ch i l d 61 S i v i n , Nath a n : 82-83, 85 -a n d a l l o pat h i c m e d i c i n e 79-94
-and t h e Major 68-69, 92-94, 1 00 S p r i n g Fest i val ( C h i n a): 41 Zhang Z h o n g j i n g : 85
M c L u h a n , M a rs h a l l : 8, 1 9 , 50-51 , 99 S p i n oza: 8, 1 3 , 1 7 , 20, 23, 31 , 77, 94
Mead, George H e r bert: 55 -on the affect 1 5- 1 6 , 55
M e d i c i n e : 80-90 -on joy a n d sorrow 1 6
M i cro p o l it i c s : 22, 22, 26, 1 00 -on t h e body 2 1 , 30, 57-58
M i n o r d i etetics: 9, 78, 84-87, 88, 89, 92, -o n goodness 99
98 State a p parat u s : 37-40, 42-45, 48-51
M itche l l, W i l l i a m : 27 -and major d i etetics 80-81 , 83-84, 88,
Mitra a n d Varuna: 35 92 See also State-form
M od e r n Western d i etet ics: See allo­ State-food : 9, 34-42, 45, 48-49, 98
pathic dietetics State-f o r m : 9
Moral ity: 62 83, 84, 92-94, 99 -and State-food 34-38, 40, 42-46, 48-53
Nature Pure U.S. A . : 88 -and major d i etetics 79-84, 88, 90, 92
N i etzsche, Friedrich W i l h e l m : 8, 1 3, See also State apparatus
75, 94, 99, 1 7 S u bsta nce: 1 3, 1 5, 63, 85
-on ato m i s m 31 S u n T z u : 42
-on t h e Master-Slave morality 62 S u permarket: 26, 38, 41 , 47, 51 -52, 55,
N omad : 1 0 , 27, 45, 48-53, 98 58, 61
-and Bangal ore 49 -a nd reg i m e of haste 29-31
-and State food 37-39 -a nd beco m i n g -c h i l d 64
-and t h e war mach i n e 42-44 -a nd d i etetics 91
-and d i etetics 85, 90, 93, 95 T ' a n g poetry: 8, 23, 31
Nouvelle cuisine: 65-68 Tayl or, Fra n c i s : 25-27
Okaku ra, Kakuzo: 23-24 Tay l o r i s m : 25
Ontology: 1 6, 31 , 99 Tea: 1 3, 1 5, 1 6, 1 7 , 23-24, 30, 31 , 38, 99,
Ooste r l i n g , H e n k : 50, 53 1 00
Parker H o u s e R o l l s : 35 -Longging ( d ragon we l l ) tea 35-36, 79
Parn et, C l a i re : 1 7 , 31 Te l e v i s i o n : 7, 1 8- 1 9 , 28, 41 , 47, 60, 78,
Patt o n , Pau l : 8, 1 6, 43, 45, 62, 65, 67 87, 88
Pfe iffer, l lja Leonard: 4 -a nd b i o power 49-53
P h a l l ogocent r i s m : 65 Te rritorial ity: 1 8, 33
P i ke, Kenneth Lee: 20-22 -and the State-form 34-35,38, 39, 40,
P i zza H ut: 68, 69, 71 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52
1 1 2 P i zza: 28, 33, 40, 43, 58, 59, 77 -an d a l i mentary revo l ut i o n s 55-75
A C IC N Cl W L E ll G E lvl E N T S :
Many people, some more so than others, contri b uted to the c reat i o n of t h i s book.
M ost notably perhaps are those who were w i l l i n g to share t h e i r t h o u g hts on food
(from H a n g z h o u , Boston , Bangal o re, and Lyo n ) . I c a n n ot t h a n k them a l l in person
( I d o n 't k n ow all t h e i r names, a n d even if I d i d , t h e re i s s i m p l y too l itt l e s pace to p r i nt
several h u nd red n a m es here. ) ; but it i s without any d o u bt t hat t h e i r cont r i bu t i o n to
t h i s book i s i n d i s pe n sa b l e .
N evert h e less, I w o u l d l i ke to perso n a l l y t h a n k those w h o accom p a n i e d m e on my
various travel s ( m y assistant and i nterpreters) and those who turned out to be of g reat
i m portance d u r i n g my stay. I st i l l m a i nt a i n contact with many of t h e m and c o n s i d e r
t h e m good f ri e nds. I n H a n g z h o u : Z h a o J u n ( G eorge) a n d h i s fam i l y, Barbara
K r u g , M r. X ue , Wa n g We n M i n ( R aq u e l ) , and Z h ej iang U n i versity for t h e i r h o s p i ­
tal ity ( i n part i c u l a r, P res i d e nt Yu n h e Pa n ) . I n Bost o n : Nathan F i e l d s a n d the
e n t i re staff of t h e C h a n d l e r I n n , Ky r i akos a n d h i s fam i l y, a n d Jack A m a r i g l i o . I n
B a n g a l o re : P r a d e e p B . S . a n d h i s f a m i ly, the H e g d e f a m i ly, A n i s h a S h a h a n d h e r
h us b a n d , and Kath i n ka S i n h a. I n Lyo n : N o e m i e J o u rd a i n a n d Pascal
Bata i l l ar d .
Seco n d l y, I wou l d l i ke to t h a n k t h e p e o p l e o f the i ntel lectual e n v i r o n m ents that s o
k i n d ly adopted m e ' between' my trave l s : t h e people w h o f re q u e nted Arjo K l amer's
s e m i nar, t h e st u d e nts w h o i n s p i red m e with t h e i r q u es t i o n s and c o m m e nts
( i n part i c u l ar, N a t h a n j a van d e n H e u ve l and N i n j a Fre e l i n g ) , the p e o p l e
from t h e D e l euzese m i nars (Wouter Kusters, H e r w i n Sap). T h a n ks to
Wi m v a n B i n s b erg e n , E u g e n e H o l l a n d , and Pat r i c i a P i sters for showing t h e i r
i nterest i n my project. O f course, I wou l d a l s o l i ke t o t h a n k my c o l l e a g u e s w h o gave
m e i m p l i cit or exp l i c i t c r i t i q u e a n d advice: A ntoon van den B r a e m b u s s c h e,
A n n a M i g nosa, E l l e n B a l , Stef Scag l i o l a, W i e ke V i n k, J u l i a N o ordeg raaf,
A l l e s s a n d ra A rc u r i , K a r i n W i l l e mse, L e u n g P i n g Kwan ( m y t h a n ks go to h i m
for t h e t i t l e ) , Pat r i c i a v a n U l z e n , L i esbeth N oordeg raaf, Wi l l e m S c h i n ke l ,
Wes s i e L i n g , J e ro e n B l aa k, H e n k Oost e r l i n g , O l a v Ve l t h u i s , t h e people from
t h e K C W s e m i n a r, a n d i n part i c u l a r, B reg j e van E e ke l e n a n d P W Z u i d h of.
T h i rd l y, I wou ld l i ke to t h a n k the p e o p l e that assi sted m e t h ro u g hout t h i s p roject i n
v a r i o u s ways: Th erese Lorenz f o r h e l p i n g m e s o m u c h with my E n g l i s h (and f o r re­
e d i t i n g nearly the e n t i re book) , Pa u l Stoute for tak i n g care of the l ayout, my s i ster,
S a n n e D o l p h i j n , for d es i g n i n g my website (www. r i c kd o l p h i j n .c o m ) , a n d of course,
the p e o p l e from U RV: H a n s van Tr i j p , Jan M aat, Jan de Roo i j , M i n ke Kl e r k ,
W i l m a d e n H oed , a n d J o h a n H averka m p f o r t h e i r i nterest a n d t h e i r s u p port
( i ntel lectual and f i na n c i a l ) . I wish to thank my fam i l y (in part i c u l ar, my parents,
Ge rard and Marga D o l p h i j n ) a n d my f r i e n d s who contri buted a g reat deal in one
way or another to t h i s work s i nce they p l ay such a n i m portant role in my l ife. I cou l d
not have c o m p l eted t h i s project without a l l o f you.
Last ly, I 'd l i ke to thank t h ree p e o p l e who i ns p i red m e g reat l y t h ro u g h out my
p h i losoph ical j o u r n eys. Fi rst, t h e re was Arjo K l a m e r w h o roused my i nterest in
,aca d e m i a. Seco n d , t h ere was M a rce l C o b u s s e n who s howed m e t h e conseq u e n ces
of post-structural p h i l osophy. T h i rd , t h ere was Pa u l Patton whose c o m m e nts
t a u g ht m e to be a t r u e -D e l e u z i a n . Together, these t h ree h ave s hown m e the " ropes
of p h i losophy " .

A bove a l l , I 'd l i ke to t h a n k my w i f e , J e a n n y Tyas kentj a n a, for h e r l ove, h e r wit,

a n d her u n c o n d i t i o n a l s u p port in my personal d i scover i e s a n d for g i v i n g u s M i ko ,
o u r n ewborn daughter. I d e d i cate t h i s book to t h e both o f you.

Rick D o l p h i j n
Rotterdam, 2004

1 13
 0
..c:

Q)
..c:

::J
0
.n
"'

114
 .
'
"

'tj\l!iii
-�-- " - _,,_._ �-

A B O U T T H E A LJ T H O I� :
Thou g h t h i s book i s wr itten between many voices, one of t h e m i s respo n s i b l e for
asse m b l i ng t h e m . To him we refer as 'the a u t h o r ' . P u re l y o u t of h a b it we wi l l ca l l
h i m Rick Dolphijn.
R i c k D o l p h i j n h a s a lways b e e n i nterested a n d i nvolve d i n processes o f creat i o n .
P rocesses o f beco m i n g , o f f l i g ht, o f searc h i n g the u n known. I n h i s early c h i l d hood
this was art i c u l ated through d rawi n g , later h e i n c reas i n g l y focused o n m us i c, today
h e is a l s o g reat l y affected by p h i l osophy. T h u s he was ed u cated at t h e Erasmus
U n i versity Rotterdam, t h e Netherlands (and t h e U n i versity of I nd o n e s i a in J akarta,
I ndonesia), where h e g ot his d e g rees in c u lt u r a l stu d i es, p h i losophy and c u lt u r a l p h i ­
l osop hy.
D rawing, m us i c , p h i losophy; t h e tools h ave changed but t h e i ntent i o n stays t h e
s a m e . H e s i m pl y enjoys b e i n g caught u p i n t h e experi m e nt; t h e a c t o f creat i o n . N ot
so m u c h t h e outcome, but the process itse lf. That's why h e is a l so fond of t rave l i n g .
By t r a i n , by b i ke or by foot (t h o u g h h i s l ove for A s i a ofte n forces h i m to take t h e
p l a n e ) . A n d that's w h y h e l oves eat i n g , o r better, tast i n g . I n f a n c y restaura nts a n d i n
sha bby b a c k streets. H e has n o i n h i b i t i o n s regard i n g f o o d , except t h a t h e p refers n ot
to eat h u m a n s a n d is skeptic about eat i n g a n i ma l s w h i c h a re st i l l a l i ve. Apart from
that h e i s n ot i nterested i n t h e i n g red i ents, j u st as l o n g as t h e taste i s good.

115
Cl
c:

"'
>
c
Q)

E
"'
(/)

Q)
(/)
-0
c:
"'

Q)
-0
Q)
z

1 16
N E ll E I� L A N ll S E S A lvl E N V A T T I N G

a. de stud i e
D e z e studie is een uitkomst van een proj ect van vier j aar, waarin vele ervaringen s amenkomen. Ge durende e e n
p eriode van anderhalf j aar, r e i s d e i k d o o r vier steden over de wereld; Hangzhou in China; B o ston i n
de Verenigde Staten; B an galore in India en Lyon in Frankrijk. Hoewel i k niet stopte m e t onderweg-zijn, ver­
hleef ik steeds anderhalve maand in iedere stad. Met de hedoeling daar te leven.
Waarom ik precies d e z e steden uitkoos is moeilijk te zeggen. Ze repres enteren geen land. Ze repre s enteren geen cultuur.
Het zijn vier middelgrote steden waarin het eten op de een o f andere manier een helangrijke rol speelt. Het zijn steden
waar veel geheurt, waar ik iets kon ervaren van de manieren waarop de mensen en wat zij eten zich tot elkaar verhou­
den. Ik proheerde hier inzicht in te krijgen door me tus s en de mensen te h e geven. En tussen de gehouwen, tus s en het
eten. . . Tussen die veelheid die wij 'de stad' noemen. Tussen alles wat de stad maakt.
Naast mij n eigen ervaringen voerde ik lange gesprekken met de mensen aldaar. Altij d minstens 2 5. gesprekken per stad,
i o 7 gesprekken in totaal. Ik heh z e opgenomen en uitges chreven. Gesprekken met koks en met huisvrouwen, met super­
marktmedewerkers en met geestelijk ! eiders. Gesprekken zonder van tevoren he dachte opzet, zonder zelfs maar 'vragen'
te stellen. Conversaties over eten, in welke zin dan ook.
En uiteraard raakte ik geYnspfreerd door de literatuur; filo s ofie, culturele studies, linguistiek ... Niet z o z eer hoeken die
'over eten' gaan, maar vooral ook h o eken die vertellen over hoe eten functioneert in onze !evens. Het meest waardevol,
z o al s mijn titel al aangeeft, was het oeuvre van Gill e s Deleuze, en dan met name het h o ek 'Mille Plateaux', ges chreven
met Felix Guattari.
Mijn eigen ervaringen in de steden die ik heb b e z o cht, de gesprekken die ik daar heb gevoerd en de
b o eken die ik heb gelezen, creeren de ruimten volgens welke de verschillende argumenten z ich d o o r
d i t b o ek h e e n ontwikkelen. Niet middels e e n vaste hierarchie; nooit wordt er gewerkt volgens een strikt onder­
scheid tussen 'th eori e ' en 'praktijk ' noch volgens de 'individualiteit' van d e vers chill ende steden die ik h eh h e zocht
(ruimte), o f d e chronologie van het verrichte onderzoek (tij d). D e argumenten hewegen zich vrij elijk door de verschillen­
de ruimten, maken dan weer gehruik van literatuur, dan weer van een uitspraak van aen huisvrouw uit Hangzhou en dan
weer.van eigen ervaringen in B o ston. De verschillende ruimten actualiseren zich steeds in hun immanente relatie tot
elkaar. Ze articuleren elkaar. De teksten componeren zichzelf aan de hand van d e z e drie ruimten.

b. de v i er delen
D e vier delen die dit werk hevat, sluiten niet lineair op elkaar aan; het zijn vier expre s sionistische exercit i e s
waarin s t e e d s een re eks v a n verkenningen plaats vindt naar de relat i e s die w i j hebben met o n s e t e n _
Ie dere paragraaf formuleert een veelheid a a n argumenten d i e weliswaar een vervolg krijgt i n de volgende paragraaf,
maar die ook op zichzelf kan staan. Vanuit de macht van traditie of vanuit de macht van het postkoloniale, vanuit de
noodz aak tot het henoemen van het z elf o f vanuit de verschillende emancipatieprocessen ; steeds wordt vanuit de gevoer­
de gesprekken, de eigen ervaring en de literatuur, een ruimte opengehroken die onze relatie tot ons eten op een spe cifie­
ke manier h e licht. D e tekst spreekt ook over de rol van McDonald's en C o c a- C ol a in onze tij d, over nouvelle cuisine, over
anorexia nervo s a en over wat 'gezond' eten is, maar heperkt zich niet tot dit s o ort onderwerpen die vaker in relatie met
het eten worden gehracht. De tekst heperkt zich op geen enkele manier. Uiteindelijk zijn de paragrafen waaruit de vier
delen hestaan kluwen van experimenten die zich telkens op een andere wij z e proheren te verwikkelen volgens onze rela­
ties met het eten. Geen van de delen noch de p aragrafen h e e ft een dominante gedachte te vertellen die ik hier kort zou
kunnen s amenvatten. Er wordt ontdekt, geexploreerd; �iet zozeer om tot een verrassend eindresultaat te komen maar
om h et ontdekken zelf. O rn h et ontdekken van d e manieren waarop eten zich in onze ervaringen hewe e gt, hoe het zich

tot ons verhoudt en hlijft vormgeven; hoe wij s t e e d s het eten creeren terwijl het eten ons creert.
D e z e plurale ontwikkeling van argumenten vindt plaats middels de ontwikkeling van concepten z o al s ook D eleuze en
Guattari dit voorstaan. Conc epten die niet een statisch of definierend karakter aannemen, maar concepten-in-heweging
die j uist de ontwikkeling, de singulariteit henadrukken. Conc epten die nimmer een ess entie proheren te vatten, maar
die veeleer een proces will en l aten zien. Een concept als de 'Sta te- form ', pleegt geen interne h e s chrijving van een
staat te zijn. Integendeel, het laat zien op welke manier een proces h e gint te functioneren gelijk de vorm van een Staat,
wanneer, welk fenomeen dan ook (een culinair instituut o f een multinationaal h e drij f als Coca-Cola) zich organiseert als
een ' S tate- form ' en wanneer het dus 'Sta te-fo o d ' gaat produceren. O f om een antler voorh eeld te geven; een concept als
'becoming-woman ' proheert geenszins e en definitie te geven van wat vrouwelijkheid is, o f ons te vertellen op welke
manier we dit zouden kunnen hereiken. Het laat een heweging zien van emancipatie, een hewe ging weg van de dominan­
te masculiene positie, die we hijvoorheeld herkennen in de manier waarop nouvelle cuisine zich heeft geemancipeerd
vanuit de meer 'traditionele' manieren van koken waartegen zij zich afzet.
Maar een ops omming van de verschillende concepten die met dit h o ek op u worden afgevuurd, zou wederom geen s amen-
1 17
Cl
c vatting opleveren van wat er hie r gebeurt. Het gaat uiteindelijk namelijk niet om de conce-pten die gevormd worden,
z o als Deleuze en Guattari al stelden, maar veeleer om de vorming zelf. Ofwel; wanneer we z o j uist stellen dat de
ro plurale ontwikkeling van argumenten p l a ats vindt door de ontwikkeling van c on c epten, zou de nadruk
>
c niet z o z eer op ' c o ncepten' m o e t e n liggen, m aar j u i s t op die ontwikkeling. De ontwikkeling van concep­
Q)
E
ten, de cre atie ervan, staat c entraal in dit b o ek.
ro
(/)
Q) c. ethiek
(/) En aldus ontwikkelt zich een ethiek. Geen ethiek die leefregels stelt of die goed en s l echt wenst te definieren. Het is een
u
c ethiek die zich juist afzet tegen de moraliteit. Een Deleuziaanse ethiek. O f miss chien zelfs .een Spinozistische. Een etho­
ro
l o gie. Een zo ektocht naar het goe de. Geen zoektocht die ons tot doel stelt het goede uiteindelijk te vinden o f te benoe­
Q) men. Met Deleuze zo eken we een ethiek van het eten in de immanentie. Een ethiek die zich steeds weer laat herbenoe­
u
Q) men vanuit het gebeuren (the event). Een ethiek die niet stelt wat goed et�n is en wat s l e cht eten is. Een
z
ethiek die niet eens stelt wat eten is, o f wat het z o u moeten zijn. Het is een ethiek die zich van de eerste tot de
laatste r e gel blij ft ontwikkelen. Die zich door de verschillende ' f o o d s c ap e s' h e e n s t e e d s opnieuw arti­
culeert.
Het is een ethiek die zich overigens niet beperkt tot enkele visies op onszelf en het eten. Integendeel. O n z e relatie tot
eten kan a lles vertellen, en de teksten die voor u liggen zijn daar onophoudelijk naar op z o ek. Net als Lucebert
meen ik dat z elfs de simp elste bewoordingen de ruimte van het leven in zijn totaliteit kunnen uitdrukken. Wanneer
iemand mij de macht van globalisering uitl e gt door slechts de invloe den van McD onalds en C o c a-Cola t e benoemen, door
dit af te zetten tegen d e veel marginalere maar extensievere spreiding van de Italiaanse en de Chinese keuken, geloof ik
dat d e z e ene ervaring ons de ruimte biedt voor een totaal perspectief op het politieke en het ethische.
D e micropolitiek van het eten is altij d al in staat ons alles te leren.

118