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Introduction
In the last few decades, Cairo witnessed a rapid increase in the rate of investments in the
residential sector with response to population growth. The majority of these investments
have been dedicated towards constructing residential buildings. Accordingly, residential
buildings reached more than 70% of the total building stock in Egypt where 56% of total
energy consumed in buildings is due to cooling (El-Darwish, 2017; Aldali, 2016). As well, a
recent study showed that a sharp rise was noticed in the use of mechanical cooling, and in
the increasing total number of sold A/C units (Ediesy and Cecere, 2017). According to Attia
et al. (2012), the use of air-conditioning has raised the annual electricity bill by a range of 44%
to 57% in residential buildings in Cairo.
Nowadays retrofitting existing buildings became a worldwide approach to overcome
the huge amount of energy needed for cooling and heating loads. The existing housing stock
in Egypt is suffering from poorly insulated buildings’ envelope which is considered
responsible for increasing cooling loads (Albadry et al., 2017). Therefore, existing residential
buildings are considered a good opportunity for reducing cooling loads through retrofitting.
In Egypt, there were some trials from the governments to apply a code for energy
performance in buildings, but no guidelines were provided regarding retrofitting existing
buildings (Attia and Herde, 2009).
According to He (2015), the main three categories of retrofit measures available in the
market are; 1) improving the building envelope. 2) Improving heating, cooling, lighting and
hot water systems. 3) Installing renewable energy systems. While the most of recent studies
explored limited retrofitting solutions without comparing multiple configurations, or only
focused on one parameter of building envelope such as window glazing (Ediesy and Cecere,
2017; El-Darwish and Gomaa, 2017; Albadry et al., 2017). The aim of this study is to identify
best building façade retrofit configurations that provide highest energy savings with least
initial cost using multi-objective optimization approach for typical residential building in
Cairo.
Literature Review
In order to figure out the best retrofitting solutions for any existing building stock, a better
understanding of the buildings characteristics and its current energy performance is
required (Singh, 2015). The energy consumption patterns in residential building stock in
Egypt were explored by several studies which will be illustrated in the following section. The
energy consumption patterns were discussed, in addition to previous experience in
retrofitting solutions in Egypt. Moreover, multi-objective optimization of retrofitting
buildings was investigated as an approach with generating enormous scenarios of solutions.
Energy consumption patterns in Egypt
Based on a survey of different residential apartments in Egypt, the building characteristics
and electricity patterns were analysed (Attia et al., 2012). The building envelopes of most of
the buildings investigated are not airtight, with single glazed openings, non-insulated walls
and with no shading treatment.
Retrofit Building Stock in Egypt
Albadry et al. (2017) considered the energy performance of existing residential buildings in
Cairo is poor due to the non-insulated walls, the use of single glazing with no shading
devices and window leakage. Consequently envelope retrofit actions was explored including
the use of double glazing windows instead of single glazing ones, low-emissivity films, wall
thermal insulation boards, and replace the traditional foam sheets used for roof insulation
with Tilefoam 2.5 cm thick. The simulation results of the retrofitted case using EnergyPlus
showed that the annual electricity consumption has decreased from 66 MWh to 44 MWh
(Albadry et al., 2017).
Glazing improvement was investigated by Ediesy and Cecere (2017) as an envelope
retrofit approach to decrease cooling loads of the residential sector in Cairo using
EnergyPlus. The investigated glazing strategies included thickness, color, number of layers
and coating of glazing. The results showed that only glazing replacement can lead up to 16.5%
savings in total energy consumption.
The close relationship between different retrofit variables and energy efficiency in 3
higher education buildings in Egypt was examined by El-Drawish and Gomaa (2017). A
comparison between the base case and the retrofitted model showed that using metal
louvers of 0.5 cm as solar shading can reduce energy consumption up to 23% on average,
followed by 8% on average energy consumption reduction due to using double glazing with
low-e 4/6/4 mm Argon filling, and the air tightness strategy reduced only 2%, while adding
0.05 m of EPS Expanded Polystyrene to external walls had almost no effect on average
energy consumption (El-Darwish and Gomaa, 2017).
Building Envelope Optimization
Due to the enormous variables of building envelope design parameters, a consideration has
to be paid to the largest number of design possibilities and multiple configurations (Ascieno,
2016). Ascieno proposed an investigation using a multi-objective optimization to identify the
most suitable sets of technical solutions for building envelope in order to provide the best
compromise between transparent envelope solutions, thermal mass of the building and
radiative characteristics of roof in simple residential building located in four different cities
of the Mediterranean climate. The optimal solutions for each city were proposed. The
minimum value for each objective was discussed according to the specific building envelope
characteristics.
Methodology
This paper investigates a set of various retrofitting configurations for typical residential
façades in Cairo based on computer simulation. The goal is to explore best configurations
that would minimize energy consumption due to cooling and retrofitting cost. A total
number of 480 cases were simulated to test main façade parameters; exterior wall
insulation and glazing types for different building-orientation directions. A Multi-objective
optimisation using Design Builder (Version 5.0.3.007) has been adopted to automatically
simulate and test all possible combinations until optimal set of retrofitting configurations
(Pareto front) have been identified (DesignBuilder Software Ltd, 2014).
The proposed methodology is based on a benchmark model for typical residential
buildings in Cairo developed by Attia et al. (2012). The benchmark has been developed
based on a survey on residential building stock in Egypt. Since the focus of the study is to
investigate the retrofitting solutions for the typical residential buildings, no attention was
paid to the roof retrofit, therefore the middle floor was chosen as a representative for the
typical energy consumption patterns for residential buildings in Cairo. While the study aims
to minimize cooling electricity consumption, therefore the selected zones for optimization
multiple retrofitting options would be applied only for the three conditioned zones in each
apartment as shown in the Figure 1 according to the benchmark model.
Figure 1. Base case floor plan, North-oriented case. The conditioned zones are highlighted.
Base Case Description
The base case has been simulated as an intermediate floor with two apartments per floor
using Cairo typical weather data. The benchmark simulation results were generated by
averaging the four main orientations results in order to address the different orientations of
the surveyed apartments. Each apartment is occupied by one family with total occupancy of
4-5 people and includes three bedrooms, a living room, a kitchen and a bathroom. The
building uses reinforced concrete skeleton and brick walls. External and internal walls are
25cm and 12cm thickness respectively. Windows have wooden and metal frames with 3mm
clear glazing of low thermal insulation properties, and infiltration was set to 0.7 ACH.
Table 1 shows the building envelope solid elements and its characteristics. Airtightness is
very low and infiltration can be observed through window frames. Suspended fluorescent
lamps were assigned in almost all spaces except living rooms with incandescent suspended
lamps. Lighting operation schedule is mainly dependent on space occupancy schedule which
were investigated through the field surveys (Attia et al., 2012). Water heating is a minor
energy consumer in Egyptian residential units since stand-alone water heaters with natural
gas are commonly used to provide hot water in kitchens and bathrooms.
Figure 3. Optimization results for North-oriented case, with optimal configurations highlighted in red
(Pareto Front).
Table 4. Feasible retrofitting solutions according to LCCA per apartment for different building-orientation cases.
Count of Feasible retrofitting solutions
Optimum
feasible
Orientation Savings range in total Savings range in saving in
retrofitting
energy consumption (%) cooling energy (%) EGP (LCC)
solutions
North 16 2 to 8.9 6 to 26 2,418
East 35 3 to 12.5 8 to 32 5,846
South 33 2.1 to 10.6 6 to 30 3,742
West 40 3.4 to 14.4 8 to 35 7,532
Further research
It's recommended for further research to include other design variables in consideration
such as shading louvers, and window-to-wall ratio. Moreover, it could expand the scope of
the study to other benchmarks that represent upper-middle-class and upper-class
neighbourhoods that would find a faster and better pay-off for retrofitting. Finally, a
national level could be introduced to offer greater perspective on possible environmental
impact improvements (lower CO2 emissions). In addition, it is important to consider saving
equipment and lighting energy, for they consume around two thirds of total energy
consumption in the benchmark used in this paper.
References
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Table 5. Pareto Front configurations sorted by LCC per apartment for North-oriented case. Benchmark base case is highlighted. (Combinations sorted by LCC).
Annual Electricity Capital Cost LCC (present
# Window Construction External wall Construction Consumption of Retrofitting value method)
[kWh] [EGP] [EGP]
1 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 20 mm EPS 3,850 6,043 79,819
2 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 40 mm EPS 3,818 7,156 79,823
3 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Solid brick wall, 250 mm 3,951 2,808 79,937
4 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 12 mm Air Gap 3,891 5,119 80,092
5 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 60 mm EPS 3,801 8,269 80,123
6 Sgl Ref-A-M Tint 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 20 mm EPS 3,861 6,394 80,238
7 Sgl Ref-A-M Tint 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 40 mm EPS 3,829 7,507 80,246
8 Sgl Ref-A-M Tint 6mm Solid brick wall, 250 mm 3,961 3,159 80,344
9 Sgl Ref-A-M Tint 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 12 mm Air Gap 3,902 5,470 80,505
10 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 80 mm EPS 3,789 9,382 80,520
11 Sgl Ref-A-M Tint 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 60 mm EPS 3,812 8,620 80,539
12 Sgl Ref-A-M Tint 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 80 mm EPS 3,800 9,733 80,956
13 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 100 mm EPS 3,780 10,495 80,995
14 Sgl Ref-A-M Tint 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 100 mm EPS 3,792 10,846 81,429
15 Sgl Grey 6mm Solid brick wall, 250 mm 4,066 2,457 82,023
16 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 40 mm EPS 3,808 11,636 82,212
17 Sgl Clr 3mm Solid brick wall, 250 mm 4,148 0 82,237
18 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 20 mm EPS 3,843 10,523 82,263
19 Sgl Grey 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 20 mm EPS 3,984 5,692 82,268
20 Sgl Blue 6mm Solid brick wall, 250 mm 4,072 2,808 82,339
21 Sgl Grey 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 12 mm Air Gap 4,017 4,768 82,382
22 Sgl Grey 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 40 mm EPS 3,959 6,805 82,416
23 Sgl Ref-A-M Clr 6mm Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 60 mm EPS 3,789 12,749 82,471
24 Sgl Blue 6mm Dbl Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 20 mm EPS 3,991 6,043 82,599
25 Sgl Ref-A-M Tint 6mm Solid brick wall, 250 mm, 40 mm EPS 3,819 11,987 82,622